Magnetic Dipole Moments

Since nuclei with an odd number of protons and/or neutrons

have intrinsic spin they also in general possess a magnetic dipole
moment.The unit of magnetic dipole moment for a nucleus is the
“nuclear magneton” defined as
eℏ
µN =
2m p

which is analogous to the Bohr magneton but with the electron mass
replaced by the proton mass. It is defined such that the magnetic
moment due to a proton with orbital angular momentum is µ N l

Experimentally it is found that the magnetic moment of the proton

(due to its spin) is

μp = 2.79 μ N = 5.58 μ N s (s=1/2)

and that of the neutron is

μp = −1.91 μ N = −3.82 μ N s, ( s=1/2)

If we apply a magnetic field in the z-direction to a nucleus then the

unpaired proton with orbital angular momentum l , spin s and total
angular momentum j will give a contribution to the z− component of
the magnetic moment
μ =¿ +l ¿ μ N µ =(5.58 s +l ) µN
2 2 2 2 2

the vector model may be used to express this as μ2=¿ ¿

using ⟨ j2 ⟩ = j( j+1)ℏ2

1
⟨ s . j ⟩= ( ⟨ j 2 ⟩ + ⟨ s 2 ⟩ −⟨ l 2 ⟩ )
2
 2
ℏ (
¿ [ j j +1 ) + s ( s +1 )−l ( l+ 1 ) ]
2

⟨ l . j ⟩ = 1 ( ⟨ j 2 ⟩ + ⟨ l2 ⟩− ⟨ s2 ⟩ )
2

2
ℏ (
¿ [ j j +1 ) +l ( l+ 1 )−s ( s+ 1 ) ]
2

We end up with expression for the contribution to the magnetic

moment

5.58 { j ( j+1 ) + s ( s +1 )−l ( l+ 1 ) } +{ j ( j+1 ) +l ( l+ 1 )−s ( s+1)

μ= j μN
2 j( j+1)

and for a neutron with orbital angular momentum l' and total angular
momentum j
'

3.32 { j' ( j ' +1 ) + s ( s +1 )−l ' ( l ' +1 ) } '

we get μ= j μN
2 j ' ( j ' +1)

(not contribution from the orbital angular momentum because the

neutron is uncharged)

Thus, for example if we consider the nuclide 73 Li 4 for which there is an

unpaired proton in the 2 p 3/ 2 state (l=1 , j=3/2¿ , then the estimate of the
magnetic moment is

µ=
5.58 ( 32 x 52 + 12 x 32 −1 x 2)+( 32 x 52 +1 x 2− 12 x 32 ) 3 μ = 3.79 μ N
N
3 5 2
2x x
2 2

The measured value is 3.26 μ N so the estimate is not too good.

For heavier nuclei the estimate from the shell model gets much
worse.The precise origin of the magnetic dipole moment is not
understood, but in general they cannot be predicted from the shell
model.
For example for the nuclide 17
9 F8 , the measured value of the
magnetic moment is 4.72 μ N whereas the value predicted form the
above model is −0.26 μN. There are contributions to the magnetic
moments from the nuclear potential that is not well-understood.
Electric quadrupole moments
The calculation of electric quadrupole moments in the shell
model is done by evaluating the electric quadrupole operator, 2
3 Z −r ,
2

in a state in which the total angular momentum of the odd particle has
its maximum projection along the z axis (that is, m j =+ j ).
Let's assume for now that the odd particle is a proton. If its angular
momentum is aligned (as closely as quantum mechanics allows) with
the z axis, then it must be orbiting mostly in the XY plane.

The single-particle quadrupole moment of an odd proton in a shell-

model state j:
−2 j−1
⟨ Qs p ⟩ = 2( j+1) ⟨ r 2 ⟩
3 2 3 2 2 /3
For a uniformly charged sphere, ⟨ r ⟩ = 5 R =¿. 5 R0 A
2

Using these results, we can compute the quadrupole moments

for the nuclei. The calculated values have the correct sign but are
about a factor of 2-3 too small. A more disturbing difficulty concerns
nuclei with an odd neutron. An un-charged neutron outside a filled
subshell should have no quadrupole moment. We see that the odd-
neutron values are generally smaller than the odd-proton values, but
they are most definitely not zero.

When a subshell contains more than a single particle, all of the

particles in the subshell can contribute to the quadrupole moment.
Since the capacity of any subshell is 2 j+1, the number of
nucleons in an unfilled subshell will range from 1 to 2j. The
corresponding quadrupole moment is

[
⟨ Q ⟩= ⟨ Q sp ⟩ 1−2 n−1
2 j−1 ]
where n is the number of nucleons in the subshell (1 ≤ n≤ 2 j) and ⟨ Qsp ⟩ is
the single-particle quadrupole moment given in the above equation.

When n = 1, Q = Qsp , but when n = 2j (corresponding to a subshell that

lacks only one nucleon from being filled), Q = −Qsp .

The shell model, despite its simplicity, is successful in accounting for

the spins and parities of nearly all odd-A ground states, and is
somewhat less successful (but still satisfactory) in accounting for
magnetic dipole and electric quadrupole moments.

Applications
Ground state spins and parities of 158O and 178O.
O: The 8 protons fill a major shell and do not contribute to the
15
8

structure.
The configuration of the neutrons is:
¿
 1 1
Occupancy of each shell is 2 j+1, for 1 s 1/ 2 , j= ∧hence occu pancy=2 x +1=2
2 2
3 3
and for 1 p 3/ 2 , j= ∧hence occupancy =2 x +1=4 .
2 2

The extreme limit of the shell model asserts that only the single
unpaired nucleon determines the properties of the nucleus. In the case
of 15
8 O, the unpaired neutron is in the 1 p 1/ 2 shell; we would therefore
predict that the ground state of 15
8 O has spin1/2. The parity is
determined by ((−1)l and here l=1 and hence odd parity. Hence the
shell-model prediction of the ground state spin-parity of 158O is 1/ 2−¿ ¿.
17
8 O: The 8 protons fill a major shell and do not contribute to the
structure.
The configuration of the neutrons is:
¿

The extreme limit of the shell model asserts that only the single
unpaired nucleon determines the properties of the nucleus.
In the case of 17
8 O, the unpaired neutron is in the 1 d 5/ 2 shell; we would
therefore predict that the ground state of 178O has spin 5/ 2 .
The parity is determined by ((−1)l and here l=2 and hence even parity.
Hence the shell model prediction of the ground state spin-parity of 17
8 O

is 5/ 2+¿¿
These two predictions are in exact agreement with the observed spin-
parity assignments, and in fact similar agreements are found
throughout the range of odd-A nuclei where the shell model is valid
(generallyA< 150 and 190 < A < 220). This success in accounting for
the observed ground-state spin-parity assignments was a great
triumph for the shell model.
 The particular application of the shell model that we have
considered is known as the extreme independent particle model. The
basic assumption of the extreme independent particle model is that all
nucleons but one are paired, and the nuclear properties arise from the
motion of the single unpaired nucleon. This is obviously an
oversimplification, and as a next better approximation we can treat all
of the particles in the unfilled subshell. Thus in a nucleus such as 4320Ca23
with three neutrons beyond the closed shell at N = 20, the extreme
version of the shell model considers only the 23rd neutron, but a more
complete shell model calculation should consider all three valence
neutrons.
The structure of nuclei with even numbers of protons and
neutrons (known as even-even nuclei): As an example, consider the
case of 130Sn, shown in Figure. The shell model predicts that all even-
even nuclei will have O+ ground states, because all of the nucleons are
paired. According to the shell model, the 50 protons of 103
Sn fill the
g9 /2, shelland the 80 neutrons lack 2 from filling the h11 /2 shell to
complete the magic number of N = 82. To form an excited state, we
can break one of the pairs and excite a nucleon to a higher level; the
coupling between the two odd nucleons then determines the spin and
parity of the levels. Promoting one of the g9 /2 protons or h11 /2 neutrons
to a higher level requires a great deal of energy,because the gap
between the major shells must be crossed. We therefore expect that
the major components of the wave functions of the lower excited
states will consist of neutron excitation within the last occupied major
shell.

Figure: The low-lying energy levels of 130Sn.

For example, if we assume that the ground-state configuration of

130
Sn consists of filled s1 /2 and d 3 /2 subshells and 10 neutrons (out of a
possible 12) occupying the h11 /2 subshell, then we could form an
excited state by breaking the s1 /2 pair and promoting one of the s1 /2

neutrons to the h11 /2 subshell. Thus we would have one neutron in the
s1 /2 subshell and 11 neutrons in the h11 /2 subshell. The properties of such
a system would be determined mainly by thecoupling of the s1 /2

neutron with the unpaired h11 /2 neutron. Coupling angular momenta j1 ,

and j2 , in quantum mechanics gives values from the sum j , j1+ j2 , to
the difference j1- j2 in integer steps. In this case the possible resultants
11 1 11 1
are: 2 + 2 =6 and 2 2 .
− =5
 Another possibility would be to break one of the d3/2 pairs and
again place an odd neutron in the h11/2 subshell.This would give
11 3 11 3
resulting angular momenta ranging from +
2 2 = 7 to −
2 2 = 4.

Because the s1/2 and d3/2 neutrons have even parity and the h11/2 neutron
has odd parity,All of these couplings will give states with odd parity.
If we examine the 130
Sn level scheme, we do indeed see several odd
parity states with spins in the range of 4 -7 with energies about 2
MeV. This energy is characteristic of what is needed to break a pair
and excite a particle within a shell, and so we have a strong indication
that we understand those states.
Another possibility to form excited states would be to break one
of the h11 /2 pairs and, keeping both members of the pair in the h11 /2

subshell, merely recouple them to a spin different from 0;according to

the angular momentum coupling rules, the possibilities would be
11 11 11 11
anything from +
2 2 = 11 to −
2 2 = 0. The two h11 /2 neutrons must be

treated as identical particles and must therefore be described by a

properly symmetrized wavefuncton. This requirement restricts the
resultant coupled spin to even values, and thus the possibilities are
+¿ ¿ ¿
+¿ ,8 +¿ ,10 ¿
+¿ ,6 ¿
+ ¿, 4 ¿
+¿ ,2 ¿
0

There are several candidates for these states in the 2-MeV

region, and here again the shell model seems to give us a reasonable
description of the level structure.A major exception to this successful
interpretation is the 2+¿¿ state at about 1.2 MeV. Restricting our
discussion to the neutron states, what are the possible ways to couple
two neutrons to get 2
+¿¿
? As discussed above, the two h11/2 neutrons
can couple to 2+¿¿ . We can also excite a pair of d 3 /2 neutrons to the h11 /2

subshell(thus filling that shell and making an especially stable

configuration), then break the coupling of the two remaining d3/2
neutrons and recouple them to 2+¿¿ .
Yet another possibility would be to place the pair of s1 /2 neutrons
into the h11 /2 subshell, and excite one of the d 3 /2 neutrons to the s1 /2

subshell. We would then have an odd neutron in each of the d 3 /2 and s1 /2

subshells, which could coupleto 2+¿¿ . However, in all these cases we

must first break a pair, and thus theresulting states would be expected
at about 2 MeV.Of course, the shell-model description is only an
approximation, and it is unlikely that “pure” shell-model states will
appear in a complex level scheme. A better approach is to recognize
that if we wish to use the shell model as a means to interpret the
structure, then the physical states must be described as combinations
of shell-model states, thus:
ψ¿

where ν stands for neutron and the ⊕ indicates that we are doing the
proper angular momentum coupling to get the 2+¿¿ resultant.
The puzzle of the low-lying 2+¿¿ state can now be rephrased as
follows: Each of the constituent states has an energy of about 2 MeV.
Hundreds of known even-even nuclei in the shell-model region, each
one has an “anomalous” 2+¿¿ state at an energy at or below one-half of
the energy needed to break a pair.In all but a very few cases, this 2+¿¿

state is the lowest excited state. The occurrence of this state is thus
not an accident resulting from the shell-model structure of 130Sn.
Collective Model
It is a general property of even-Z, even-N nuclei, valid
throughout the entire mass range, independent of which particular
shell-model states happen to be occupied. We will see that there are
other general properties that are common to all nuclei, and it is
reasonable to identify those properties not with the motion of a few
valence nucleons, but instead with the entire nucleus. Such properties
are known as collective properties and their origin lies in the nuclear
collective motion, in which many nucleons contribute cooperatively
to the nuclear properties. The collective properties vary smoothly and
gradually with mass number and are mostly independent of the
number and kind of valence nucleons outside of filled subshells
(although the valence nucleons may contribute shell structure that
couples with the collective structure). Four different properties of
even-even nuclei that reveal behavior.
1. The energy of the first 2
+¿¿
excited state seems to decrease rather
smoothly as a function of A (excepting the regions near closed shells).
2. The region from about A = 150 to A = 190 shows values of E(2 +)
that are both exceptionally small and remarkably constant.
3. Again excepting nuclei near closed shells, the ratio E¿ is roughly 2.0
for nuclei below A = 150 and very constant at 3.3 for 150 < A < 190
and A > 230.
4. The magnetic moments of the 2+¿¿ states are fairly constant in the
range 0.7−1.0, and the electric quadrupole moments are small for A <
150 and much larger for A > 150.
5. These illustrations suggest that we must consider two types of
collective structure, for the nuclei with A < 150 seem to show one set
of properties and the nuclei with 150 < A < 190 show quite a different
set.
6. The nuclei with A < 150 are generally treated in terms of a model
based on vibrations about a spherical equilibrium shape, while nuclei
with A between 150 and 190 show structures most characteristic of
rotations of a nonspherical system.
Vibrations and rotations are the two major types of collective
nuclear motion, and we will consider each in turn. The collective
nuclear model is often called the “liquid drop” model, for the
vibrations and rotations of a nucleus resemble those of a suspended
drop of liquid and can be treated with a similar mathematical
analysis.The liquid drop model is said to describe the collective
behavior of the nucleus and the excitation of the nucleus is treated as
surface oscillations, elastic vibrations and other such collective modes
of motion. In this model the particles within the nucleus exert a
centrifugal pressure on the surface of the nucleus as a result of which
the nucleus may be deformed into a permanently non-spherical shape.
The nucleus is regarded as a shell structure capable of performing
oscillations in shape and size. The simplest type of collective motion
which has been identified experimentally is connected with rotations
of deformed nuclei. In the case of a spheroid nucleus, the deformation
is symmetric with respect to reflection in the nuclear center. as a
result, j is restricted to even values 0, 2, 4, 6,….. and the parity should
be even. The deformation should be greatest and the rotational levels
most easily observed for nuclei with numbers of nucleons far from
closed shell. The theory has been applied successfully to problems of
magnetic moments, quadruple moments and isomeric transitions.
Vibrational model: Even-even spherical nuclei
Imagining a liquid drop vibrating at high frequency, we can get
a good idea of the physics of nuclear vibrations (Figure 8.6).
Although the average shape is spherical, the instantaneous shape is
not. It is convenient to give the instantaneous coordinate R( t ) of a
point on the nuclear surface at (θ , φ), as shown in Figure, in terms of
the spherical harmonics Y λµ( θ , φ). A vibrating nucleus with a spherical
equilibrium shape. The time dependent coordinate R(t) locates a point
on the surface in the direction (θ , φ). Each spherical ical harmonic
component will have an amplitude α λµ (t ):
+λ
R ( t )=Rav + ∑ ∑ α λµ(t )Y λµ (θ , φ), the α λµ are not completely arbitrary;
λ≥1 µ=− λ

reflection symmetry requires that α λµ=α λ−µ

and if we assume the nuclear fluid to be incompressible, further

restrictionsY lm apply.

The constant (λ = 0) term is incorporated into the average radius Rav

which is just Ro A
1 /3
.
Figure: A vibrating nucleus with a spherical equilibrium shape. The
timedependent coordinate R(t) locates a point on the surface in the
direction 8, +.

Figure: The lowest three vibrational modes of a nucleus. The

drawings represent a slice through the midplane. The dashed lines
show the spherical equilibrium shape and the solid lines show an
instantaneous view of the vibrating surface.
The lowest three vibrational modes of a nucleus are shown in
Figure 8.7. The dashed lines show the spherical equilibrium shape and
the solid lines show an instantaneous view of the vibrating surface.A
typical λ = 1 vibration, known as a dipole vibration, is shown in
Figure. Notice that this gives a net displacement of the center of mass
and therefore cannot result from the action of internal nuclear forces.
We therefore consider the next lowest mode, the λ = 2 (quadrupole)
vibration. A single unit of λ = 2 nuclear vibration is thus a quadrupole
phonon.Let's consider the effect of adding one unit of vibrational
energy (a quadrupole phonon) to the 0+ ground state of an even-even
nucleus. The λ = 2 phonon carries 2 units of angular momentum (it
adds a Y 2 µ dependence to the nuclear wave function, just like a Y lm with
l= 2) and even parity, since the parity of a Y lm, is (−1) .
l
Adding two
units of angular momentum to a 0+ state gives only a2+ state, in exact
agreement with the observed spin-parity of first excited states of
spherical even-Z, even-N nuclei. (The energy of the quadrupole
phonon is not predicted by this theory and must be regarded as an
adjustable parameter.)
Suppose now we add a second quadrupole phonon. There are 5
possible components µ for each phonon and therefore 25 possible
combinations of the λµ for the two phonons, However, when we make
the proper symmetric combination of the phonon wave functions
(phonons, with integer spins, must have symmetric total wave
functions), We can group these in the following way:
l=4 µ=+ 4 ,+3 ,+2 ,+1 , 0 ,−1 ,−2 ,−3 ,−4

l=2 µ=+2 ,+1 ,+2 , 0 ,−1 ,−2 ,

l=0 µ=0

Thus, we expect a triplet of states with spins at twice the

+ ¿,4 +¿ ¿ ¿
+¿ ,2 ¿
0

energy of the first 2+¿¿ state since two identical phonons carry twice as
much energy as one.This triplet is a common feature of
+ ¿,4 +¿ ¿ ¿
+¿ ,2 ¿
0

vibrational nuclei and gives strong support to this model. The three
states are never exactly at the same energy, owing to additional effects
not considered in this simple model.A similar calculation for three
+¿ ,¿

quadrupole phonons gives states 0+¿ ,2

+¿ ,6 ¿
+ ¿,3 +¿ ,4 ¿
¿
¿

The next highest mode of vibration is the λ = 3 octupole mode,

which carries three units of angular momentum and negative parity.
Adding a single octupole phonon to the 0+ ground state gives a 3−¿¿

state. Such states are also commonly found in vibrational nuclei,

usually at energies somewhat above the two-phonon triplet. As we go
higher in energy, the vibrational structure begins to give way to
particle excitation corresponding to the breaking of a pair in the
ground state.These excitations are very complicated to handle and are
not a part of the collective structure of nuclei.
The vibrational model makes several predictions that can be
tested in the laboratory. If the equilibrium shape is spherical, the
quadrupole moments of thefirst 2+¿¿ state vanishing in the region A <
150. The magnetic moments of the first 2+¿¿ states are predicted to be
2(Z/A), which is in the range 0.8-1.0 for the nuclei considered;this is
also in reasonable agreement with experiment. The predicted ratio E¿

is 2.0, if the 4 +¿¿ state is a member of the two-phonon triplet and the 2+¿¿
state is the first excited state with reasonable agreement with this
prediction in the range A < 150.
8.5.2 Even-even deformed nuclei: Rotational Model
Rotational motion can be observed only in nuclei with
nonspherical equilibrium shapes. These nuclei can have substantial
distortions from spherical shape and are often called deformed
nuclei.They are found in the mass ranges 150 < A < 190 and A >
220 (rare earths and actinides). The odd-mass nuclei in these regions
also have quadrupole moments that are unexpectedly large.
A common representation of the shape of these nuclei is that of an
ellipsoid of revolution (Figure 8.8), the surface of which is described
by
R ( θ , φ )=R av ¿

which is independent ofφ and therefore gives the nucleus cylindrical

symmetry. The deformation parameter β is related to the eccentricity
of the ellipse as

β=
4
5 √ π ∆R
5 R av

where ∆R is the difference between the semimajor and semiminor

axes of the ellipse. It is customary (although not quite exact) to take
Rav =R 0 A
1 /3
. When β >0the nucleus has the elongated form of a prolate
ellipsoid; when β <0, the nucleus has the flattened form of an oblate
ellipsoid. One indicator of the stable deformation of a nucleus is a
large electric quadrupole moment.
Figure 8.8:Equilibrium shapes of nuclei with permanent deformations
showing the static shape of the nucleus.

The relationship between the deformation parameter and the

quadrupole moment is
3
Q 0= R2av Zβ(1+ 0.16 β)
√5 π
The quadrupole moment Q0, is known as the intrinsic quadrupole
moment and would only be Tobserved in a frame of reference in
which the nucleus were at rest. In the laboratory frame of reference,
the nucleus is rotating and quite a different quadrupole moment Q is
measured. Thus for Q, > 0, we would observe Q < 0. The relation-
ship between Q and Q, depends on the nuclear angular momentum.
1
The kinetic energy of a rotating object is J ω2 where𝔍 is the
2

moment of inertia.
In terms of the angular momentum l=J ω,
the energy is l2 /2 J .
Taking the quantum mechanical value of l
2
, and letting I

represent the angular momentum quantum number, gives

ħ2
E= I (I +1)
2J
for the energies of a rotating object in quantum mechanics.
Increasing the quantum number I corresponds to adding
rotational energy to the nucleus, and the nuclear excited states form a
sequence known as a rotational band. The ground state of an even-Z,
- even-N nucleus is always a 0+¿ ¿state, and the mirror symmetry of the
nucleus restricts the sequence of rotational states in this special case
to even values of I. We therefore expect to see the following sequence
of states:
E¿

E¿

E¿

E¿

E¿

and so on.
For the excited states resulting from rotation of the ground state
in Era typical rotational nucleus shown in Figure 8.9. The first
164

excited state is at E ¿
ħ2 91.4
Therefore, 2J
=
6
=15.2

Now energies of the next few states are:

E ¿(measured 300 keV)
E ¿(measured 614 keV)
E¿

The calculated energy levels are not quite exact (perhaps

because the nucleus behaves somewhat like a fluid of nucleons and
not quite like a rigid object with a fixed moment of inertia), but are
good enough to give us confidence that we have at least a rough idea
of the origin of the excited levels. In particular, the predictedratio E ¿ ¿,
in remarkable agreement with the systematics of nuclear levels for
150 < A < 190 and A > 230. The correct picture of a rotating
deformed nucleus is a stable equilibrium shape determined by
nucleons in rapid internal motion in the nuclear potential, with the
entire resulting distribution rotating sufficiently slowly that the
rotation has little effect on the nuclear structure or on the nucleon
orbits. (The rotational model is sometimes described as “adiabatic”
for this reason.)

Figure 8.9: The excited states resulting from rotation of the ground
state in 164Era typical rotational nucleus

It is also possible to form other kinds of excited states upon

which new rotational bands can be built. Examples of such states,
known as intrinsic states because they change the intrinsic structure of
the nucleus, are vibrational states (in which the nucleus vibrates about
a deformed equilibrium shape) and pairbreaking particle excitations.
If the intrinsic state has spin different from zero, the rotational band
built on that state will have the sequence of spins I , I +1 , I +2 ,… . The
vibrational states in deformed nuclei are of two types: β vibrations, in
which the deformation parameter β oscillates and the nucleus
preserves its cylindrical symmetry, and γ vibrations, in which the
cylindrical symmetry is violated. ( a nucleus shaped like a football. β

vibrations correspond to pushing and pulling on the ends of the

football, while y vibrations correspond to pushing and pulling on its
sides.) Both the vibrational states and the particle excitations occur at
energies of about 1 MeV, while the rotational spacing is much smaller
ℏ2
(typically 2J
=10−20 keV ¿

Figure 8.10 shows the complete low-energy structure of Er.

164

Although the entire set of excited states shows no obvious patterns,

knowing the spin-parity assignments helps us to group the states into
rotational bands, which show the characteristic I (I +1) spacing. Other
properties of the excited states (for example, γ -ray emission
probabilities) also help us to identify the structure.
 Figure 8.10: The states of 164Er below 2 MeV. Most of the states are
identified with three rotational bands: one built on the deformed
ground state, a second built on a γ -type vibration (in which the
surface vibrates transverse to the symmetry axis), and a third built on
a , β -type vibration (in which the surface vibrates along the symmetry
axis). Many of the other excited states originate from pair-breaking
particle excitations and their associated rotational bands.
8.5.3 Magnetic moments in Collective model
Both the vibrational and rotational collective motions give the
nucleus a magnetic moment. We can regard the movement of the
protons as an electric current, and a single proton moving with
angular momentum quantum number l would give a magnetic moment
µ=l µ N . However, the entire angular momentum of a nuclear state does
not arise from the protons alone; the neutrons also contribute, and if
we assume that the protons and neutrons move with identical
collective motions (a reasonable but not quite exact assumption), we
would predict that the protons contribute to the total nuclear angular
momentum a fraction of nearly Z/A. (We assume that the collective
motion of the neutrons does not contribute to the magnetic moment,
and we also assume that the protons and neutrons are all coupled
pairwise so that the spin magnetic moments do not contribute.) The
collective model thus predicts for the magnetic moment of a
vibrational or rotational state of angular momentum I

Z
µ ( I )=I µ
A N

For light nuclei, Z/A = 0.5 and µ ( 2 ) =+1 µ N , while for heavier nuclei,
Z/A = 0.4 and µ ( 2 ) =+0.8 µ N with the exception of closedshell nuclei (for
which the collective model is not valid), the magnetic moments of the
2+ states are in very good agreement with this prediction.
8.5.4 Single-Particle States in Deformed Nuclei: Nilsson model
The calculated levels of the nuclear shell model are based on the
assumption that the nuclear potential is spherical. We know,
however, that this is not true for nuclei in the range 150 < A <19 0
and A > 230. For these nuclei we should use a shell-model potential
that approximates the actual nuclear shape, specifically a rotational
ellipsoid. In calculations using the Schrodinger equation with a
nonspherical potential, the angular momentum l is no longer a “good”
quantum number; that is, we cannot identify states by their
spectroscopic notation ( s , p ,d , f , etc .) as we did for the spherical shell
model. In the spherical case, the energy levels of each single particle
state have a degeneracy of (2 j +1). That is, relative to any arbitrary axis
of our choice, all 2 j+1 possible orientations of j are equivalent. If the
potential has a deformed shape, this will no longer be true-the energy
levels in the deformed potential depend on the spatial orientation of
the orbit. More precisely, the energy depends on the component of j

along the symmetry axis of the core.

For example, an f 7/ 2 nucleon can have eight possible components
−7 7
of Ω, ranging from 2
¿+
2 . This component of j along the symmetry

axis is generally denoted by Ω. Because the nuclei have reflection

symmetry for either of the two possible directions of the symmetry
axis, the components + Ω and - Ω will have the same energy, giving
the levels a degeneracy of 2. That is, what we previously called the
f 7/ 2 state splits up into four states if we deform the central potential;
1 3 5 7
these states are labeled Ω = 2 ,2 , 2 , 2 , and all have negative parity.

For prolate deformations, the orbit with the smallest possible Ω (equal
1
to 2 ) interacts most strongly with the core and is thus more tightly

bound and lowest in energy (Figure 8.11). The situation is different

for oblate deformations, in which the orbit with maximum Ω (equal to
) has the strongest interaction with the core and the lowest energy.
Figure 8.11 shows how the f 7/ 2 states would split as the deformation is
increased.

Figure 8.11:This shows directly the effect of the various orientations

of the f 7/ 2 orbit. the orbit with component Ω = ½ along the
symmetry axis has the strongest interaction with the prolate core and
therefore lies lowest in energy. For an oblate core, it is the Ω = 7/2
component that lies lowest. Because the spherical single-particle
quantum numbers l and j are not valid when the potential is
deformed.
The negative parity state with Ω=5/2, for example, cannot be
identified with the f 7/ 2 state, even though it approaches that state as
β → 0. The wave function of the Ω=5/2 state can be expressed as a
mixture (or linear combination) of many different l and j (but only
with j ≥ 5/2, in order to get a component of 5/2. It is customary to make
the approximation that states from different major oscillator shells do
not mix. Thus, for example, the Ω=5/2 state that approaches the 2 f 7 / 2,

level as β→0 will include contributions from only those states of the
5th oscillator shell (2 f 5 /2,2 f 7 / 2 , 1 h9/ 2 ,1 h11/ 2). The 4th and 6th oscillator
shells have the opposite parity and so will not mix, and the next odd-
parity shells are far away and do not mix strongly. Writing the
spherical wave functions as Ѱ Nlj, we must have
ψ ( Ω )=∑ a( Nlj )ψ Nlj
'

lj

where ψ ' ( Ω ) represents the wave function of the deformed state Ω and
where a (Nlj) are the expansion coefficients.

For the Ω = 5/2 state

'
( 52 ) ψ
ψ ( Ω )=a 53
53
5
2
( 72 )ψ
+ a 53
53
7
2
( 92 )ψ
+a 55
55
9
2
+a(55
11
)ψ
2 55 112

The coefficients a (Nlj) can be obtained by solving the Schrodinger

equation for the deformed potential, which was first done by S. G.
Nilsson in 1955.
The coefficients will vary with β , and of course for β→0 we expect

( 72 )
a 53 to approach 1 while the others all approach 0. For β = 0.3 (a

typical prolate deformation), Nilsson calculated the values

( 52 )= 0.267
a 53
 ( ) = 0.415
a 55
9
2

( 72 )= 0.832
a 53

(
a 55
11
2 ) = -0.255
for the Ω = 5/2 level we have been considering.

Given such wave functions for single-particle states in deformed

nuclei, we can then allow the nuclei to rotate, and we expect to find a
sequence of rotational states, following the I (I +1) energy spacing,
built on each single-particle state. The lowest state of the rotational
band has I = Ω, and as rotational energy is added the angular
momentum increases in the sequence I =Ω, Ω+1, Ω+2, . . . . Figure
8.12 shows the energy levels of the nucleus Hf in which two well-
177

developed rotational bands have been found and several other single-
particle states have been identified. To interpret the observed single-
particle levels, recalling that the degeneracy of each deformed single-
particle level is 2, we proceed exactly as we did in the spherical shell
model, placing two neutrons in each state up to N = 105 and two
protons in each state up to Z = 72.
We can invoke the pairing argument to neglect the single-
particle states of the protons and examine the possible levels of the
105th neutron for the typical deformation of β = 0.3. You can see that
the expected single-particle levels correspond exactly with the
observed levels of 177Hf. The general structure of the odd-A deformed
nuclei is thus characterized by rotational bands built on single-particle
states calculated from the deformed shell-model potential. The proton
and neutron states are filled (two nucleons per state), and the nuclear
properties are determined in the extreme single-particle limit by the
properties of the odd particle. This model, with the wave functions
calculated by Nilsson, has had extraordinary success in accounting for
the nuclear properties in this region. In general, the calculations
based on the properties of the odd particle have been far more
successful in the deformed region than have the analogous
calculations in the spherical region.

Figure 8.12:The energy levels of 177Hf. As in the case ,knowledge of

the spin-parity assignments helps us to group the states into
rotational bands. The lowest state in each band has I = Ω, and the
higher states follow the I (I +1) energy spacing.
8.6. Solved Problems
Problem 8.1
Write the shell-model configurations and predict the ground state spin
and parity of the following nuclei: a) 12C b) 17O c) 27Al d) 45Sc e)
63
Cu f) 73Ge
Solution
12
a ¿ 6C : 6 protons and 6 neutrons : even-even : 0+¿ ¿

b ¿ 178O: 9 neutrons: (1 s ½ )2 (1 p3 /2 )4 (1 p½ )2 (1 d 5/ 2)1 ⇒ 5/2+¿¿

c ¿ 13 Al :13 protons: (1 s ½ )2 (1 p3 /2 )4 (1 p½ )2 (1 d 5/ 2)5 ⇒5/2−¿ ¿
21

d ¿ 21Sc :21 protons: (1 s ½ )2 (1 p3 /2 )4 (1 p½ )2 (1 d 5/ 2)6 (2 s ½ )2 (1 d 3/ 2)4 (1 f 7 /2 )1 ⇒ 7 /2−¿¿

45

e ¿ 29 Cu :29 protons: (1 s ½ )2 (1 p3 /2 )4 (1 p½ )2 (1 d 5/ 2)6 (2 s ½ )2 (1 d 3/ 2)4 (1 f 7 /2 )8( 2 p3 /2 )1 ⇒

63

−¿ ¿
3/ 2

13 Al :13
f ¿ 21 protons: (1 s ½ )2 (1 p3 /2 )4 (1 p½ )2 (1 d 5/ 2)5 ⇒5/2−¿ ¿

Problem 8.2
For 17O the following states are experimentally observed: ground
state 5/2+, 0.871 MeV ½+ state, 3.055 Mev1/2−¿ ¿state, 3.846 MeV 7 /2−¿¿
state, 4.553 MeV 3/2−¿ ¿state. Interpret these as single particle
excitations.
Solution
17
O: 8 protons contribute 0 angular momentum.
The 9th neutron occupies 1d5/2 state and hence its ground state is 5/2+¿¿
¿

When energy is given the 9th neutron is excited to the next shell model
state
 ( ) ( )
2 4 2 0 1
( 1 s ½ ) 1 p 3 ( 1 p ½ ) 1 d 5 ( 2 s½ )
2 2

with its spin and parity 1/2+¿¿

With still higher energy the 9th neutron would occupy the next
shell model state
(1 s ½ )2 (1 p3 /2 )4 (1 p½ )2 (1 d 5/ 2)0 (2 s ½ )0 (1 d 3/ 2)1

with its spin and parity 3/2+¿ ¿

With still higher excitation energy the 9 th neutron would be
excited to the next shell model state
2 4 2 0 0 0 1
(1 s ½ ) (1 p3 /2 ) (1 p½ ) (1 d 5/ 2) (2 s ½ ) (1 d 3/ 2) (1 f 7/ 2)

resulting in the excited state with its spin and parity 7 /2−¿¿
The excited state available for the 9th neutron is
(1 s ½ )2 (1 p3 /2 )4 (1 p½ )2 (1 d 5/ 2)0 (2 s ½ )0 (1 d 3/ 2)0 (1 f 7/ 2)0 (2 p3 /2 )1

With its spin and parity 3/ 2

−¿ ¿

Thus all the experimentally observed excited states of 17O can be

explained as single particle excitations.
Problem 8.3
(a) Using the harmonic-oscillator shell model, describe the expected
configurations for the ground states of the light stable nuclei with A ≤
4, specifying also their total L, S, J and T quantum numbers and
parity. (b) For 4He, what states do you expect to find at about one
oscillator quantum of excitation energy?
Solution
(a) We have A = 1: The stable nucleus 1H has configuration: p(1s1/2)1,
L = 0, S = 1/2, Jp = 1/2+, T = 1/2 .
A = 2: The stable nucleus 2H has configuration: p(1s1/2)1, n(1s1/2)1,
L = 0, S = 1, Jp = 1+, T = 0.
A = 3: The stable nucleus 3He has configuration: p(1s1/2)2, n(1s1/2)1,
L = 0, S = 1/2, Jp = 1/2+, T = 1/2 .
A = 4: The stable nucleus 4He has configuration: p(1s1/2)2, n(1s1/2)2,
L = 0, S = 0, Jp = 0+, T = 0.
(b) Near the first excited state of the harmonic oscillator, the energy
level is split into two levels 1p3/2 and 1p1/2 because of the LS coupling
of the p state. The isospin of 4He is Tz = 0, T = 0 for the ground state.
So the possible excited states are the following:
(i) When a proton (or neutron) is of 1p3/2 state, the other of 1s1/2 state,
the possible coupled states are 1−, 2− (T = 0 or T = 1).
(ii) When a proton (or neutron) is of 1p1/2 state, the other of 1s1/2 state,
the possible coupled states are 0−, 1− (T = 0 or 1).
(iii) When two protons (or two neutrons) are of 1p 1/2 (or 1p3/2) state,
the possible coupled state is 0+ (T = 0).
Problem 8.4
Explain the following statements on the basis of physical principles:
(a) The motion of individual nucleons inside a nucleus may be
regarded as independent from each other even though they interact
very strongly. (b) All the even-even nuclei have 0+ ground state. (c)
Nuclei with outer shells partially filled by odd number of nucleons
tend to have permanent deformation.
Solution
(a) The usual treatment is based on the assumption that the
interaction among nucleons can be replaced by the action on a
nucleon of the mean field produced by the other nucleons. The
nucleons are considered to move independently of one another.
Despite the high nucleon density inside a nucleus it is assumed that
the individual interactions between nucleons do not manifest
macroscopically. Since nucleons are fermions, all the low energy
levels of the ground state are filled up and the interactions among
nucleons cannot excite a nucleon to a higher level. We can then
employ a model of moderately weak interaction to describe the strong
interactions among nucleons.
(b) According to the nuclear shell model, the protons and
neutrons in an even-even nucleus tend to pair off separately, i.e., each
pair of neutrons or protons are in the same orbit and have opposite
spins, so that the total angular momentum and total spin of each pair
of nucleons are zero. It follows that the total angular momentum of
the nucleus is zero. The parity of each pair of nucleons is (−1) =+1,
2l

and so the total parity of the nucleus is positive. Hence for an even-
even nucleus, Jp = 0+.
(c) Nucleons in the outermost partially-filled shell can be
considered as moving around a nuclear system of zero spin. For
nucleons with l ≠0 , the orbits are ellipses. Because such odd nucleons
have finite spins and magnetic moments, which can polarize the
nuclear system, the nucleus tends to have permanent deformation.
Problem 8.5
The single-particle energies for neutrons and protons in the vicinity of
82 Pb126 are given in the Figure. Using this figure as a guide, estimate
208

or evaluate the following.

(a) The spins and parities of the ground state and the first two excited
states of 207Pb. (b) The ground state quadrupole moment of 207Pb. (c)
The magnetic moment of the ground state of 209Pb. (d) The spins and
parities of the lowest states of 20883Bi 125 (nearly degenerate). What is the
energy of the ground state of 208Bi relative to 208Pb?
Solution:
(a) 207
82 Pb 125 consists of full shells with a vacancy for a neutron in
p1/2 level. The spin-parity of the ground state is determined by that of
the unpaired neutron in p1/2 and so is 1/2−. The first excited state is
formed by a f5/2 neutron transiting to p1/2. Its Jp is determined by the
single neutron vacancy left in f5/2 level and is 5/2−. The second excited
state is formed by a p3/2 neutron refilling the f5/2 vacancy (that is to say
a p3/2 neutron goes to p1/2 directly). Jp of the nucleus in the second
excited state is then determined by the single neutron vacancy in p 3/2
level and is 3/2- Hencethe ground and first two excited states of Pb
207

have Jp = ½-, 5/2-, 3/2-

(b) The nucleon shells of Pb are full except there is one
207

neutron short in p1/2 levels. An electric quadrupole moment can arise

from polarization at the nuclear center caused by motion of neutrons.
But as J = 1/2, the electric quadrupole moment of 207Pb is zero.
(c) 209
Pb has a neutron in g9/2 outside the full shells. As the
orbital motion of a neutron makes no contribution to the nuclear
magnetic moment, the total magnetic moment equals to that of the
neutron itself: μ(209Pb) = −1.91μN, μN being the nuclear magneton.
(d) For Bi, the ground state has an unpaired proton and an
208

unpaired neutron, the proton being in h9/2, the neutron being in p1/2. As
J = 1/2+9/2 = 5 (since both nucleon spins are antiparallel to l ), lpl p=5 ,
l n=1, and so the parity is lp +ln
(−1) = +, the states has Jp = 5+. The first
excited state is formed by a neutron in f5/2 transiting to p1/2 and its
spin-parity is determined by the unpaired f5/2 neutron and h9/2 proton.
Hence J = 5/2 + 9/2 = 7, parity is (−1)1+5= +, and so Jp = 7+. Therefore,
the two lowest states have spin-parity 5+ and 7+.
The energy difference between the ground states of 208Bi and 208Pb
can be obtained roughly from Fig.. As compared with Pb,
208
Bi has
208

one more proton at h9/2 and one less neutron at p1/2 we have
ΔE = E(Bi) − E(Pb) ≈ 7.2 − 3.5 + 2Δ ≈ 3.7 + 1.5 = 5.2 MeV,
where Δ = mn −mp, i.e., the ground state of Bi is 5.2 MeV higher
208

than that of 208Pb.

Problem 8.6
The simplest model for low-lying states of nuclei with N and Z
between 20 and 28 involves only f7/2 nucleons.(a) Using this model
predict the magnetic dipole moments of 4120Ca21 and 4121Sc 20. Estimate
crudely the electric quadrupole moments for these two cases as well.
(b) What states are expected in 42Ca according to an application of
this model? Calculate the magnetic dipole and electric quadrupole
moments for these states. Sketch the complete decay sequence
expected experimentally for the highest spin state.
The experimental values are:μn = −1.91μN, μ(41Ca) = −1.59μN ,μp =
2.79μN, μ(41Sc) = 5.43μN
Solution
(a) 41Ca has a neutron and 41Sc has a proton outside closed shells in
state 1f7/2. As closed shells do not contribute to the nuclear magnetic
moment, the latter is determined by the extra-shell nucleons. The
nuclear magnetic moment is given by
µ=g j µ N

where J is the total angular momentum, μN is the nuclear magneton.

For a single nucleon in a central field, the g-factor is
( 2 j−1 ) g l+ g s
g= 2j
for j=l+ 1/2

( 2 j+ 3 ) gl −gs
g= 2( j+1)
for j=l−1/2

−1.91
For neutron, gl=0 , gs =gn = 1/2
=−3.82.

As l=3 and j = 7/2 = 3 + ½ , we have for 41Ca

−3.82
µ(41Ca) = x j µN = −1.91μN .
2j
2.79
For proton, gl=1 , gs = g p = 1/2
=5.58.

As j = 7/2 = 3 + ½ we have for 41Sc

( 7−1 ) +5.58 7
µ(41Sc) = x µN = 5.79μN .
7 2

Note that these values are only in rough agreement with the given
experimental values.
The electric quadrupole moment of 41Sc, which has a single proton
outside closed shells, is given by
2 2 j−1 2 j−1
Q(41Sc) = −e <r 2 > = −¿ r
2

2( j+1) j
>
2( j+1)
where ¿ r 2 >¿ is the mean-square distance from the center and the proton
charge is taken to be one. For an order-of-magnitude estimate take
1
¿ r ≥(1.2 x A ) fm 2,
2 3 2 then
1

Q(41Sc) = −6
9
x (1.2 x 41 3 ) =1.14 x 10−25 cm2
2

41
Ca has a neutron outside the full shells. Its electric quadrupole
moment is caused by the polarization of the neutron relative to the
nucleus center and is
Z
Q(41Ca) ≈ Z (A − 1)2 ( A−1)2 ¿ = 1.43 x 10−27 cm2

(b) As shown in the figure below the ground state of 42Ca nucleus is
0+. The two last neutrons, which are in f7/2 can ,be coupled to form
levels of j = 7, 6, 5 . . . , 0 and positive parity. Taking into account the
antisymmetry for identical particles, the possible levels are those with
j= 6, 4, 2, 0. (We require l+s = even. as s = 0, j = even.)
6+
E2 4+
E2
2+
E2 0+
The magnetic dipole moment μ of a two-nucleon system is given by
µ=gj µ N =( g1 j 1+ g 2 j 2)µ N with j= j 1 + j 2 .

As 2
g J =g1 j 1 ∙ j + g2 j 2 ∙ j

1 1
j 1 ∙ j= ( j 2+ J 21−J 22 ), j 2 ∙ j= ( j 2+ J 22−J 21 )
2 2

we have
 1 1
g J 2= ( g1 + g2 ) J 2+ ( g 1−g2 ) (J 21−J 22)
2 2
1 2 1
j 1 ( j 1 +1 )− j 2 ( j 2 +1)
or g= ( g 1+ g 2) J + ( g1−g 2)
2 2 J ¿¿

For 42Ca, the two nucleons outside full shells each has j = 7/2.
As g1=g 2=−3.82/ j1, j 1 =7/ 2

we have μ(42Ca) = g1 J μN = −1.09JμN with J = 0, 2, 4, 6.

The ground-state quadrupole moment of 42Ca is Q = 0. One can get
the excited state quadrupole moment using the reduced transition rate
for γ-transition
B¿

where Q0 is the intrinsic electric quadrupole moment.

The first excited state 2+ of 42Ca has excitation energy 1.524 MeV and
B(E2 : 2+ → 0+) = 81.5e2 fm4 ,
Or Q0= √ 16 π x 81.5 = 64 fm2
For other states the quadrupole moments are given by
2
K −J (J + 1) −J ( J +1 ) Q 0 −J
Q 0= = Q
(J +1)(2 J + 3) ( J + 1 )( 2 J +3 ) 2 J +3 0

as K = 0. Thus Q = 18.3 fm2 for J = 2, 23.3 fm2 for J = 4, and 25.6 fm2
for J = 6.
Problem 8.7
The energy of the 2+ state in the ground state rotational band of
spherical nucleus is 0.1 MeV. Estimate the moment of inertia of the
given nucleus. Calculate the energy of the 14+ and 16+ states of the
same band. Compare these values with the experimentally observed
values of 2.53 MeV for the 14+ state and 3.15 MeV for the 16+ state.
Explain the reason behind the difference between your answer and
the experimentally observed values.
Solution
 2
ħ
E I= [ I ( I +1 ) ]
2J
ħ2 0.1
Therefore, =
2J 6
−34 2
(1.05 x 10 ) x 6
J= −13
=¿
2 x 1.6 x 10 x 0.1
E 0.1
14 +¿ = x 14 x 15=3.5 MeV ¿
6

E 0.1
16 +¿= x16 x17=4.53 MeV ¿
6

Problem 8.8
The observed nuclear moments of 20983Bi are: I = 9/2 ; µ = + 4.1 µN ; Q
= - 0.4 x 10-28 m2.Determine the expected values for these moments
according to the simple Shell model and comment on any significant
differences. Why would you expect 209Bi to have an unusually low
cross section ( ~ 0.003 barn) for the capture of 1 MeV neutrons,
compared with the average for a heavy nuclide which is about 0.1
barn?
Solution
The nucleus 209
83 Bi has an odd number of protons and an even
(magic) number of neutrons. Looking at the energy level diagram
given above it would be expected that the odd proton would be in the
1h9/2 level indicating a (9/2)- ground state, as is observed to be the
case.
In this simple model the magnetic moment comes from the
single proton, being a combination of its orbital and intrinsic
moments.
For the ground state l = 5 and j = 9/2 thus we need the
expression for the j = l- 1/2 Schmidt limit. This is:
µ = [gl j(j + 3/2)/(j + 1) - gsj/(2(j + 1))] µN
For the proton gl = 1 and gs = 5.5857.
Inserting these and the value of j gives µ = 2.62 µN which is
quite a bit smaller than the observed value of 4.1 µN. This may well
reflect a mixing of states – the nearest other state is (7/2) - which has
the same parity and so is a likely candidate. This is also a j = l + 1/2
level and so a proton in it would produce a relatively large magnetic
moment (5.79 µN). It should also be noted that the value of g s which
has been used is that for a free proton.
The appropriate value for a proton inside a nucleus is most
likely to be different and an examination of the distribution of the
measured moments relative to the Schmidt limits suggests a value of
something like 0.6 gs.
Both of these factors would enlarge the magnetic moment of 20983Bi
beyond the simple Shell Model prediction.The Electric Quadrupole
moment can be simply thought of, in these units, as (minus) the area
enclosed by the orbit of the proton.
Estimating the radius of the orbit as approximately that of the
nucleus ro A1/3 would give a quadrupole moment -0.5 x 10-28 m2. This
is pretty close to the observed value considering the crudeness of the
model. A quantum mechanical treatment reveals the dependence on j
and gives -0.4 x 10-28 m2 for this case. As indicated above this nucleus
has a magic number (126) of neutrons and so the small neutron
capture cross-section is not surprising.
Problem 8.9
The nuclide 4221Sc has a low lying level with spin and parity 7+ and an
excitation energy of 618 keV. What is the likely Shell model
configuration for this state and its expected magnetic moment?
Solution
The nuclide 42
21 Sc has an odd number of both protons and
neutrons. From the energy level diagram, the 21st nucleon should be
in the 1f7/2 level and the combination of two (7/2)- states will give (7)+
if all the angular momenta are "parallel".
In terms of magnetic moments the expression for the j = + 1/2
Schmidt limit is required.
This is: µ = [gl (j - 1/2) + gs/2] µN
For the proton gl = 1 and gs = 5.5857 and for the neutron gl = 0
and gs = -3.8261.
Thus the two contributions to the magnetic moment are 5.79 µN
from the proton and -1.91 µN from the neutron - a total of 3.88 µN.
Problem 8.10
Find the configuration of the protons and neutrons in the incomplete
shells and hence the ground state spin and parity assignments for the
following nuclei:73 Li, 2311 Na , 3316S ,4121Sc
Solution
The numbers of nucleons associated with each of the listed levels are:
Level 1s1/2 1p3/2 1p1/2 1d5/2 2s1/2 1d3/2 1f7/2

2p3/2

Occupancy 2 4 2 6 2 4

8 4
 Total 2 6 8 14 16 20

28 32

From this it can be seen that the 3rd proton is in the 1p3/2 level;
the 11th proton is in the 1d5/2 level;
the 17th neutron is in the 1d3/2 level;
the 21st protonis in the 1f7/2 level.
Hence the ground and excited state spin and parity assignments are:
Nuclide 7
3
23 33
Li 11 Na 16 S 21Sc
41

(Spin)parity
+¿ 7/2−¿ ¿ ¿
−¿ 5/ 2+¿3 /2 ¿
¿
3/ 2

Excitation(a)
−¿ 3/2 −¿ ¿ ¿
+ ¿7/2 ¿

1/2−¿1 /2 ¿

Excitation(b)
+¿ 3/2 +¿ ¿ ¿
−¿ 1/2 ¿

1/ 2+¿1 /2 ¿

Problem 8.11
Estimate the separation of the 1p1/2 and 1d5/2 energy levels for
nuclei with mass number A ~ 16 given the following information: the
ordering of the lowest nuclear energy levels is 1s 1/2 ; 1p3/2 ; 1p1/2 ;
1d5/2 ; 1d3/2 and the total binding energy for the oxygen isotopes is
15
O : 111.96 MeV, 16O : 127.62 MeV, 17O : 131.76 MeV
Solution
Across these three isotopes the number of protons remains the same
of course but the number of neutrons rises from 7 to 9. This means
that 15O has one neutron missing in the 1p1/2 level; 16O has a complete
1p1/2 neutron level; 17O has a single neutron in the 1d5/2 level. From
this and the given data we can deduce:
The binding energy of a neutron in 1p1/2 level is 127.62 - 111.96 =
15.66 MeV
The binding energy of a neutron in 1d5/2 level is 131.76 - 127.62 =
4.14 MeV
Thus the (1p1/2 - 1d5/2) difference is 15.66 - 4.14 = 11.52 MeV
Problem 8.12
Given that the ordering of the nuclear levels is 1s1/2 , 1p3/2 , 1p1/2 , 1d5/2
, 1d3/2 , 2s1/2, 1f7/2, 2p3/2 , 1f5/2 , justify the following ground state spin
and parity assignments
3
2 He ¿

Solution
3
2 He ¿ has an odd neutron in the j = 1/2 ; 1s(leven) state
20
10 Ne ¿ is an even-even nucleus
27
13 Al ¿ has an odd proton in the j = 5/2 ; 1d(l even) state
47
21 Sc ¿ has an odd proton in the j = 7/2 ; 1f(l odd) state
69
31 Ga ¿ has an odd proton in the j = 3/2 ; 2p(lodd) state

Problem 8.13
Determine the expected values for these moments according to the
simple Shell model and comment on any significant differences. Why
would you expect 209Bi to have an unusually low cross section ( ~
0.003 barn) for the capture of 1 MeV neutrons, compared with the
average for a heavy nuclide which is about 0.1 barn?
Solution
 The nucleus 209
83 Bi has an odd number of protons and an even
(magic) number of neutrons. Looking at the energy level diagram
given above it would be expected that the odd proton would be in the
1h9/2 level indicating a (9/2)- ground state, as is observed to be the
case.
In this simple model the magnetic moment comes from the
single proton, being a combination of its orbital and intrinsic
moments. For the ground state l= 5 and j = 9/2 thus we need the
expression for the j = l - 1/2 Schmidt limit. This is:

µ = [g j(j + 3/2)/(j + 1) - gsj/(2(j +

1))] µN
For the proton gl = 1 and gs = 5.5857. Inserting these and the
value of j gives µ = 2.62 µN which is quite a bit smaller than the
observed value of 4.1 µN. This may well reflect a mixing of states -
the nearest other state is (7/2)- which has the same parity and so is a
likely candidate. This is also a j = + 1/2 level and so a proton in it
would produce a relatively large magnetic moment (5.79 µN). It
should also be noted that the value of gs which has been used is that
for a free proton. The appropriate value for a proton inside a nucleus
is most likely to be different and an examination of the distribution of
the measured moments relative to the Schmidt limits suggests a value
of something like 0.6 gs. Both of these factors would enlarge the
magnetic moment of 20983 Bi beyond the simple Shell Model prediction.
The Electric Quadrupole moment can be simply thought of, in
these units, as (minus) the area enclosed by the orbit of the proton.
Estimating the radius of the orbit as approximately that of the nucleus
ro A1/3 would give a quadrupole moment -0.5 x 10-28 m2. This is pretty
close to the observed value considering the crudeness of the model. A
quantum mechanical treatment reveals the dependence on j and gives
-0.4 x 10-28 m2 for this case.
As indicated above this nucleus has a magic number (126) of
neutrons and so the small neutron capture cross-section is not
surprising.
Problem 8.14
Consider a permanently deformed nucleus whose shape is
represented by an ellipsoid of revolution the surface of which is
described by R ( θ , φ )=R av [1+b ∙ Y 20 ( θ , φ )] where b is the deformation
parameter and the spherical harmonic Y 20 (θ , φ )=¿. The quadrupole
moment of a classical point charge e is of the form e(3z2 - r2).
Assuming that the charge of the nucleus Ze is spread uniformly inside
the ellipsoidal surface, obtain an expression for the electric
quadrupole moment of the deformed nucleus.
Solution
This is a straightforward if somewhat tedious classical slog. For those
who like that sort of thing the quadrupole moment is given by an
integral of the form:
∫ ρr2 ( 3 cos 2 ( θ ) −1 ) dv
Then making use of the axial symmetry:
We can equate dv to the elemental ring volume illustrated.
2 π ∫ ρ r ( 3 cos ( θ )−1 ) r d ( cos ( θ ) ) dr
2 2 2

The elipsoidal shape is represented by

R ( θ , φ )=R av [ 1+b ∙ Y 20 ( θ , φ ) ]

where b is the deformation parameter and the spherical harmonic

[ ]{
1
5
Y 20 (θ , φ )= 2
3 cos 2 (θ)−1 }
16 π

Writing p for cos ⁡(θ)and integrating over r from 0 to R reduces the

integral to
+1 5
R
2 π ∫ ρ ( 3 p2−1 ) dp
−1 5

Inserting the expression for R and substituting 3

Ze 4 π ( R av ) / 3 for the
+1
3
density ρ produces the integral ℑ 10 Ze R 2av ∫ ¿ ¿
−1

Assuming that b is small, the expansion is only taken up tob 2. Also note
+1

∫ ( 3 p2−1 ) dp=0
−1

which just leaves two terms in the integral

( ( ) ( 16 π )(3 p −1) ) dp
+1 1
3 5 ( 3 p2−1 ) +10 b2 ∙ 5
Ze R av ∫ 5 b ∙
2 2 2 3
2
10 −1 16 π

Evaluation of this yields

2
Ze R av
( √53 π b+ 76π b ) 2
Problem 8.15
The first excited state of 182W is 2+ and is 0.1 MeV above the ground
state. Estimate the energies of the lowest 4+and 6+ states.
Solution
2
ℏ
E I= [ I ( I+1) ]
2I
ℏ2 6 ℏ2 0.1
For 2+ : 0.1 MeV = 2 I x 2 x 3 or 2I
=
6
E¿
E¿