3NAB0 Equations

Useful mathematical relations Integrals

Z
Algebra - Logarithms sin ax dx = − a1 cos ax
ln a + ln b = ln (ab) Z
1
cos ax dx = a sin ax
ln a − ln b = ln (a/b)
Z
ln an = n ln a tan ax dx = − a1 ln (| cos ax|)
Z
Trigonometry x dx 1
√ = −√
2
x +a 2 x + a2
2
sin2 α + cos2 α = 1 Z
sin α dx  p 
tan α = √ = ln x + x2 + a2
cos α x2 + a2
Z
tan2 α x dx
= 21 ln x2 + a2


sin2 α = 2
x +a 2
1 + tan2 α
Z
1 dx 1 x
cos2 α = = arctan
1 + tan2 α x2 + a2 a a
Z
sin (α ± π/2) = ± cos α x dx 1
3/2
= −√
cos (α ± π/2) = ∓ sin α (x2 + a2 ) x2 + a2
Z
dx 1 x
sin (α ± β) = sin α cos β ± cos α sin β = 2√
3/2 a x + a2
2
(x2 + a2 )
cos (α ± β) = cos α cos β ∓ sin α sin β
sin 2α = 2 sin α cos α Approximations
√
1 + x ≈ 1 + 12 x − 18 x2 + ...


cos 2α = cos2 α − sin2 α = 2 cos2 α − 1 = 1 − 2 sin2 α (|x|  1)
r
1 1 − cos α
sin 2 α = (1 + x)α ≈ 1 + αx + 12 α (α − 1) x2 + ...


2
r (|x|  1; α ∈ <)
1 + cos α
cos 21 α =
2 sin x ≈ x − 16 x3 + ...


(|x|  1)
   
sin α + sin β = 2 sin α+β α−β
cos x ≈ 1 − 12 x2 + 24
1 4


2 cos 2 x + ... (|x|  1)
tan x ≈ x + 16 x3 + ...


(|x|  1)
   
cos α + cos β = 2 cos α+β 2 cos α−β
2
ex ≈ 1 + x + 12 x2 + ...


(|x|  1)
ln (1 + x) ≈ x − 12 x2 + ...


(|x|  1)

1
2

Motion Along a Straight Line

∆~v d~v m
~a = lim = [ ] (16)
Straight-line motion, average and instanta- ∆t→0 ∆t dt s2
neous x-velocity
∆x x2 − x1 m dvx dvy dvz m
vav−x = = [ ] (1) ax = ; ay = ; az = [ ] (17)
∆t t2 − t1 s dt dt dt s2
∆x dx m Projectile motion
vx = lim = [ ] (2)
∆t→0 ∆t dt s
x = x0 + (v0 cos α0 )t [m] (18)
Average and instantaneous x-acceleration
v2x − v1x m y = y0 + (v0 sin α0 )t − 21 g t2 [m] (19)
aav−x = [ ] (3)
t2 − t1 s2
m
∆vx dvx m vx = v0 cos α0 [ ] (20)
ax = lim = [ ] (4) s
∆t→0 ∆t dt s2
m
vy = v0 sin α0 − gt [ ] (21)
Straight-line motion with constant accelera- s
tion
m Uniform and nonuniform circular motion
vx = v0x + ax t [ ] (5)
s v2 m
arad = [ ] (22)
R s2
x = x0 + v0x t + 12 ax t2 [m] (6)
4π 2 R m
arad = [ ] (23)
m T 2 s2
vx2 = 2
v0x + 2ax (x − x0 ) [ ] (7)
s

x − x0 = 21 (v0x + vx )t [m] (8) Newton’s Laws of Motion

Straight-line motion with varying accelera- Forces as a vector
tion ~ =F
~1+F
~2+F
~ 3 + ... =
X
~ [N]
Z t R F (24)
m
vx = v0x + ax dt [ ] (9)
0 s The net force on a body and Newton’s first
Z t law
x = x0 + vx dt [m] (10) X
0
~ = 0 ⇒ ~a = 0
F (25)

Mass, acceleration, and Newton’s second law

Motion in Two or Three Dimen- X
~ = m ~a [N]
F (26)
sions
Position, velocity and acceleration vectors: X
Fx = m ax [N]
~r = x ı̂ + y ̂ + z k̂ [m] (11) X
Fy = m ay [N]
X
~r 2 − ~r 1 ∆~r m Fz = m az [N] (27)
~v av = = [ ] (12)
t2 − t1 ∆t s
Weight
∆~r d~r m
~v = lim = [ ] (13)
∆t→0 ∆t dt s ~ = m ~g [N]
w (28)

dx dy dz m
vx = ; vy = ; vz = [ ] (14) Newton’s third law and action-reaction pairs
dt dt dt s
~ A→B = −F
F ~ B→A [N] (29)
~v 2 − ~v 1 ∆~v m
~aav = = [ ] (15)
t2 − t1 ∆t s2
 3

Friction
fk = µk n [N] (30) Wel = 1 2 − 12 k x22
2 k x1 (43)
= Uel,1 − Uel,2 (44)
fs ≤ µs n [N] (31) = −∆Uel [J] (45)

When total energy mechanical energy is con-

served
Work and Kinetic Energy
K1 + U1 = K2 + U2 [J] (46)
Work done by a force
constant force, straight-line displacement: When total energy mechanical energy is not
conserved
~ · ~s = F s cos φ [J]
W =F (32)
K1 + U1 + Wother = K2 + U2 [J] (47)
Kinetic energy
K = 12 m v 2 [J] (33) Conservative forces, nonconservative forces,
and the law of conservation of energy
The work-energy theorem ∆K + ∆U + ∆Uint = 0 [J] (48)
Wtot = K2 − K1 = ∆K [J] (34)
Determining force from potential energy
Work done by a varying force or on a curved ∂U ∂U ∂U
path Fx = − ; Fy = − ; Fz = − [N] (49)
∂x ∂y ∂z
straight-line displacement:
Z x2 ~ = −( ∂U ı̂ + ∂U ̂ + ∂U k̂) [N]
F (50)
W = Fx dx [J] (35) ∂x ∂y ∂z
x1

curved path:
Z ~
p2
Momentum, Impulse, Collisions
W = ~ · d~l [J]
F (36)
~
p1 Momentum of a particle

Power ~p = m ~v [Ns] (51)

∆W
Pav = [W] (37)
∆t ~ = d~p [N]
X
F (52)
dt
∆W dW
P = lim = [W] (38)
∆t→0 ∆t dt Impulse and momentum
~ · ~v [W]
P =F (39) ~ = ~p2 − ~p1 [Ns]
J (53)

Conservation of momentum

Potential Energy and Energy Con- ~ = ~pA + ~pB + . . . [Ns]

P (54)
versation
Center of mass
Gravitational potential energy and elastic
potential energy m1 ~r 1 + m2 ~r 2 + m3 ~r 3 + . . .
~r cm =
m1 + m2 + m3 + . . .
P
Wgrav = m g y1 − m g y2 (40) i i~
m ri
= P [m] (55)
= Ugrav,1 − Ugrav,2 (41) i mi
= −∆Ugrav [J] (42)
4

Rotation of Rigid Bodies Moments of Inertia of Various Bodies

Rotational kinematics Slender rod, axis through center

∆θ dθ 1
ωz = lim = [ ] (56)
∆t→0 ∆t dt s

∆ωz
αz = lim
∆t→0 ∆t
dωz d2 θ 1
= = 2 [ 2] (57)
dt dt s
1
Constant αz only: I= M L2 (68)
12
θ = θ0 + ω0 t + 12 αz t2 [−] (58) Slender rod, axis through one end

Constant αz only:

θ − θ0 = 21 (ω0z + ωz )t [−] (59)

Constant αz only:
1
ωz = ω0z + αz t [ ] (60)
s 1
I = M L2 (69)
Constant αz only: 3
1 Rectangular plate, axis through center
ωz2 = ω0z
2
+ 2αz (θ − θ0 ) [ ] (61)
s2

Relating linear and angular kinematics

m
v = rω [ ] (62)
s
dv dω m
atan = =r = rα [ 2] (63)
dt dt s
1
M a2 + b2


I= (70)
v2 m 2 12
arad = = ω r [ 2] (64)
r s Thin rectangular plate, axis along edge
Moment of inertia and rotational kinetic en-
ergy

I = m1 r12 + m2 r22 + ...

X
= mi ri2 [kg · m2 ] (65)
i

K = 21 I ω 2 [J] (66) 1
I = M a2 (71)
3
Calculating the moment of inertia Hollow cylinder
IP = Icm + M d2 [kg m2 ] (67)

1
I = M R12 + R22


(72)
2
 5

Solid cylinder Rotational dynamics

X
τz = I αz [Nm] (79)

Combined translation and rotation

K = 21 M vcm
2 + 1I 2
2 cm ω [J] (80)

X
~ ext = M ~acm [N]
F (81)
1
I = M R2 (73)
2 X
τz = Icm αz [Nm] (82)
Thin-walled hollow cylinder
m
vcm = R ω [ ] (83)
s

Work done by a torque

Z θ2
W = τz dθ [J] (84)
θ1

Constant torque only:

2
I=MR (74)
W = τz (θ2 − θ1 ) = τz ∆θz [J] (85)
Solid sphere

Wtot = 12 I ω22 − 12 I ω12 [J] (86)

P = τz ωz [W] (87)

Angular momentum
For one particle:
2
I = M R2 (75) 2
5 ~ = ~r × ~p = ~r × m ~v [ kg · m ]
L (88)
s
Thin-walled hollow sphere
Rigid body rotating about axis of symmetry:

~ =Iω kg · m2
L ~ [ ] (89)
s

Rotational dynamics and angular momen-

tum
X d~l
~ =
τ [Nm] (90)
2 dt
I = M R2 (76)
3

Equilibrium and Elasticity

Dynamics of Rotational Motion Conditions for equilibrium
X
Torque ~ = ~0 [N]
F (91)
τ = F l [Nm] (77) X
~ = ~0 [Nm]
τ (92)

τ ~ [Nm]
~ = ~r × F (78) about any point.
6

Stress, strain and Hooke’s law Periodic Motion

Stress
= Elastic modulus (93) Periodic motion
Strain
1 1
f= [Hz]; T = [s] (107)
Tensile or compressive stress and strain T f

σ N 2π 1
Y = [ ] (94) ω = 2π f = [ ] (108)
 m2 T s
F⊥ N
σ = [ ] (95) Simple harmonic motion
A m2
∆l
 = [−] (96) Fx = −k x [N] (109)
l0
Y = Young’s modulus. Fx k m
ax = = − x [ 2] (110)
m m s
Bulk stress
r
F⊥ N k 1
p= [ ] (97) ω= [ ] (111)
A m2 m s

Bulk modulus r
ω 1 k
∆p N f= = [Hz] (112)
B=− [ 2] (98) 2π 2π m
∆V /V0 m
r
1 m
Shear stress T = = 2π [s] (113)
f k
Fk /A N
S= [ ] (99)
x/h m2 x = A cos(ωt + φ) [m] (114)

Energy in simple harmonic motion

Fluid Mechanics
1 2 1 2
E = 2 m vx + 2 k x
Density and pressure
1 2
= 2 k A = constant [J] (115)
m kg
ρ= [ ] (100)
V m3
Angular simple harmonic motion
dF⊥
p= [Pa] (101)
r
dA κ 1
ω= [ ] (116)
I s
Pressures in a fluid at rest
Simple pendulum
p2 − p1 = −ρ g(y2 − y1 ) [Pa] (102)
r
g 1
ω= [ ] (117)
p = p0 + ρ g h [Pa] (103) L s

Fluid flow Physical pendulum

r
m3 mgd 1
A1 v1 = A2 v2 [ ] (104) ω= [ ] (118)
s I s

dV m3
= Av [ ] (105)
dt s
Mechanical Waves
Bernouilli’s equation
Waves and their properties
p + ρ g y + 12 ρ v 2 = constant [Pa] (106)
m
v = λf [ ] (119)
s
 7

Wave functions and wave dynamics Longitudinal wave in a fluid;

s
h x
B m
i
y(x, t) = A cos ω −t (120) v= [ ] (132)
v ρ s
h x i
= A cos 2πf −t [m]
v Sound wave in an ideal gas:
r
γRT m
x

t
 v= [ ] (133)
y(x, t) = A cos 2π − M s
λ T
= A cos(kx − ωt) [m] (121) Longitudinal wave in a solid rod:
s
Y m
v= [ ] (134)
ρ s
2π 1
k= [ ]; ω = 2π f = v k [Hz] (122)
λ m
Y = Young’s modulus.

∂ 2 y(x, t) 1 ∂ 2 y(x, t) 1
= [ ] (123) Intensity and sound intensity level
∂x2 v 2 ∂t2 m

1√
s
I = 2 2
F m m kg 2 ρBω A
v= [ ]; µ = [ ] (124)
µ s l m p2max
=
2ρ v
Wave power p2max W
= √ [ ] (135)
2 ρ B m2
Average power, sinusoidal wave:
1√ I
Pav = 2 µF ω 2 A2 [W] (125) β = (10dB) log (136)
I0
Inverse-square law for intensity:
I0 = 10−12 W/m2 .
I1 r2
= 22 [−] (126)
I2 r1 Standing sound waves
Open pipe:
Wave superposition
nv
y(x, t) = y1 (x, t) + y2 (x, t) [m] (127) fn = [Hz]; (n = 1, 2, 3, . . .) (137)
2L

Standing waves on a string Stopped pipe:

nv
y(x, t) = (ASW sin kx) sin ωt [m] (128) fn = [Hz]; (n = 1, 3, 5, . . .) (138)
4L

v Interference
fn = n = nf1 [Hz]; (n = 1, 2, 3, . . .) (129)
2L Beats
s
1 F fbeat = fa − fb [Hz] (139)
f1 = [Hz] (130)
2L µ
Doppler effect
v + vL
fL = fs [Hz] (140)
Sound and Hearing v + vs

Sound waves Shock waves

Sinusoidal sound wave: v
sin α = [−] (141)
vs
pmax = B k A [Pa] (131)
8

Temperature and Heat Capacitors in series and parallel

Temperature and temperature scales 1 1 1 1

= + + + ... (159)
9 Ceq C1 C2 C3
TF = TC + 32◦ (142)
5 (capacitors in series)
5
TC = (TF − 32◦ ) (143)
9 Ceq = C1 + C2 + C3 + ... (160)

TK = TC + 273.15 [K] (144) (capacitors in parallel)

Gasthermometer:
T2 p2
= (145) Current, Resistance and Electro-
T1 p1
T in Kelvin.
motive Force
Current and current density
Thermal expansion and thermal stress
dQ
∆L = α L0 ∆T [m] (146) I= = n |q| vd A [A] (161)
dt

∆V = β V0 ∆T [m3 ] (147)
~ = n q ~v d [ A ]
J (162)
Tensile stress: m2
F N
= −Y α ∆T [ 2 ] (148)
A m Resistivity
Heat, phase changes, and calorimetry E
ρ= [Ω m] (163)
Q = m c ∆T [J] (149) J
Q = n C ∆T [J] (150) ρ(T ) = ρ0 [1 + α(T − T0 )] [Ω m] (164)
Q = ±m L [J] (151)
Resistors
Conduction, convection, and radiation
V = I R [V] (165)
Conduction:
dQ TH − TC ρL
H= = kA [W] (152) R= [Ω] (166)
dt L A
Radiation:
H = A e σ T 4 [W] (153) Capacitance
4
Hnet = A e σ(T − Ts4 ) [W] (154)
Q
Stefan-Boltzmann constant: C= [F] (167)
V
σ = 5.67037442 × 10−8 W/m2 · K4 (155)
Circuits and emf

Source with internal resistance:

Capacitance and Dielectrics
Vab = ε − I r [V] (168)
Capacitance
Q Energy and power in circuits
C= (156)
Vab
A P = Vab I [W] (169)
C = 0 (157)
d Power into resistor:
(parallel-plate capacitor)
2
Vab
A A P = Vab I = I 2 R = [W] (170)
C =  = K0 (158) R
d d
(parallel-plate capacitor filled with dielectric)
 9

Direct-Current Circuits Total internal reflection

nb
Resistors in series and parallel sin θcrit = [−] (183)
na
Resistors in series:
Polarization of light
Req = R1 + R2 + R3 + ... [Ω] (171)
Malus’s law.
Resistors in parallel: W
I = Imax cos2 φ [ ] (184)
1 1 1 1 1 m2
= + + + ... [ ] (172)
Req R1 R2 R3 Ω
Polarization by reflection
Kirchhoff ’s rules Brewster’s law:
Junction rule: nb
X tan θp = [−] (185)
I = 0 [A] (173) na

Loop rule: X
V = 0 [V] (174)
Geometric Optics
R-C circuits
Lateral magnification
Capacitor charging: y0
m= [−] (186)
y
q = C ε(1 − e−t/RC )
Relating object and image distances
= Qf (1 − e−t/RC ) [C] (175)
Plane Mirror - Object and image distances:

dq ε 1 1
i = = e−t/RC + 0 =0 (187)
dt R s s
−t/RC Plane Mirror - Lateral magnification:
= I0 e [A] (176)
Capacitor discharging: s0
m=− =1 (188)
s
−t/RC
q = Q0 e [C] (177)
Spherical Mirror - Object and image distances:
1 1 2 1
dq Q0 −t/RC + 0 = = (189)
i = =− e s s R f
dt RC
Spherical Mirror - Lateral magnification:
= I0 e−t/RC [A] (178)
s0
m=− (190)
s
Plane Refracting Surface - Object and image dis-
The Nature and Propagation of Light tances:
na nb
+ 0 =0 (191)
Light and its properties s s
c Plane Refracting Surface - Lateral magnification:
n = [−] (179)
v na s0
λ0 m=− =1 (192)
λ= [m] (180) nb s
n
Spherical Refracting Surface - Object and image
Reflection and refraction distances:
na nb nb − na
Law of reflection: + 0
= (193)
s s R
Spherical Refracting Surface - Lateral magnifica-
θr = θa [−] (181)
tion:
Law of refraction: na s0
m=− (194)
nb s
na sin θa = nb sin θb [−] (182)