First Generation Law Students - Barriers To Success

University of Mississippi
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Electronic Theses and Dissertations Graduate School
1-1-2021
FIRST GENERATION LAW STUDENTS: BARRIERS TO SUCCESS

Melissa Jones
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FIRST GENERATION LAW STUDENTS:
BARRIERS TO SUCCESS
A Dissertation Presented in partial fulfillment of requirements for the degree of Doctor of

Education in the Department of Higher Education at the University of Mississippi
by
MELISSA L. JONES
August 2021
Copyright © 2021 by Melissa L. Jones
All rights reserved.

ABSTRACT
A significant population of higher education students are first generation students;
students who come from a home where neither parent has completed a bachelor’s degree
(Vasil &McCall, 2018). These first generation students experience a gap of education,
knowledge, and support which creates a persistent problem of unequal access to higher
education for first generation students (MacLachlan, 2017). This unequal access shows
itself in barriers faced by the students coming from these first generation backgrounds of
interconnected, heightened risk factors (Gardner, 2013).
This dissertation was completed using qualitative analysis to interview six first
generation college graduates in the juris doctor program at the University of Mississippi
School of Law. Using the intersectionality of theories from Tinto, Bourdieu, and Labaree,
we are better equipped to understand these students. Tinto’s persistence and self-efficacy,
Bourdieu’s ideas on socialization as related to cultural and social capital, and Labaree’s
emphasis on the democraticizing benefits of an educated populace meld together in a lens
through which to view these first generation college graduates in a juris doctor program.
First-generation students fulfilling an educational pathway to the level of a juris doctor
are uniquely situated to fulfill the democratizing benefits of an educated populace and
can fill roles as mentors so desperately needed in their underrepresented communities. By
reducing the barriers for these students, we can advance efforts of ethics, equity, and
social justice in higher education for this populace.
ii
This dissertation assessed the barriers to success for first generation college
graduates in the juris doctor program at the University of Mississippi School of Law as
well as the traits possessed by each participant that aided in overcoming these barriers.
This dissertation in practice offers recommendations for practice and research based on
the findings from the study including emerging themes of financial barriers, cultural
barriers, fear and imposter syndrome, isolation, and lack of a legal mentor. A formalized
structure of first generation success could be implemented to guide first generation
college graduates in a juris doctor program in a manner that offers support and the tools
needed to reduce the barriers for successful juris doctor completion.
iii
DEDICATION
To my husband, Dru, I appreciate your encouragement and support in all ways, always.
To Victoria, you are the reason I have always worked so hard to pave the way. To
Aubrey Grace, your hugs, smiles, and inquisitive nature remind me why I am still
working so diligently to pave the way. To my mom, you are the one who showed me the
importance of life-long learning. Thank you for passing along your brains, determination,
work ethic, and love of learning.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Writing and completing this dissertation would not have been possible without a
host of people. First, I want to thank Dr. Holleman, for the guidance and feedback
throughout this journey. Thank you for hanging around after retirement to continue
mentoring me through this process.
Thank you to my committee members, Dr. Hutchens, Dr. Edmondson, and
Dr. Ortwein. Dr. Hutchens, your insight was the determining factor in me pursuing this
program. Dr. Edmondson, your example of continued education post-JD showed me this
goal was achievable. Dr. Ortwein, it was the lightbulb moment in your class that gave me
the idea for the lens of intersectional theory for this dissertation during a time when I was
not sure which direction to follow.
Thank you to my mentor, boss, and friend, Billy Gottshall. It is your
encouragement, support, and understanding that allowed me to accomplish this goal
while managing all of the other facets of work and life.
Thank you to my 2020-2021 office staff. You are treasured friends that
consistently challenge me intellectually and are always willing to give feedback. Thank
you for the sequestered moments to work on this research.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
ABSTRACT ......................................................................................................................... ii
DEDICATION .................................................................................................................... iv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ................................................................................................. v
LIST OF FIGURES ........................................................................................................... viii
LIST OF TABLES .............................................................................................................. ix
CHAPTER I: AN OVERVIEW OF BARRIERS TO SUCCESS ........................................ 1
PROBLEM OF PRACTICE ........................................................................................... 2
CARNEGIE PROJECT ON THE EDUCATIONAL DOCTORATE .......................... 10
CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK ................................................................................. 15
RESEARCH QUESTIONS .......................................................................................... 21
METHODOLOGY ....................................................................................................... 21
SUMMARY OF CHAPTER I: AN OVERVIEW OF BARRIERS TO SUCCESS.... 25
LIST OF REFERENCES .............................................................................................. 26
CHAPTER II: DATA PRESENTATION ......................................................................... 32
INTRODUCTION TO DATA PRESENTATION ....................................................... 33
DATA PRESENTATION ............................................................................................. 34
PERSONAL PROFILES .............................................................................................. 35
RESEARCH QUESTION 1 .......................................................................................... 39
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SUMMARY OF CHAPTER II .................................................................................... 59
LIST OF REFERENCES ............................................................................................. 61
CHAPTER III: FINDINGS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ............................................ 63
INTRODUCTION TO FINDINGS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ........................... 64
FINDINGS .................................................................................................................... 65
LIMITATIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS FOR RESEARCH ........................... 78
RECOMMENDATIONS FOR PRACTICE ................................................................. 80
CONCLUSION ............................................................................................................ 84
LIST OF REFERENCES ................................................................................................... 87
APPENDIX A………………………………………………………………………….....91
APPENDIX B………………………………………………………………………….....93
APPENDIX C………………………………………………………………………….....96
VITA……………………………………………………………………………...............99
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1. FGCG-JD Barriers to Success. .......................................................................... 39
Figure 2: Internal Components for Success ...................................................................... 48
viii
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1. Interview Participants. ............................................................................... 34
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CHAPTER I: AN OVERVIEW OF BARRIERS TO SUCCESS
1
PROBLEM OF PRACTICE
Based on the number of institutions of higher education in America, both non-
profit and for-profit, Americans spend substantial amounts of time, energy, and financial
resources on higher education. Due to these significant investments, success in higher
education is important. In American higher education, success is often defined as
graduation or degree attainment. This success is particularly important in professional,
applied graduate degree programs. “Doctoral and professional degree earners are among
an elite group in the United States; barely 3.2% of the country has earned this distinction”
(Winkle-Wagner & McCoy, 2016). However, being accepted into graduate school is only
the initial step in the battle for first generation students (Gardner, 2013). According to the
literature, there are multiple ways to define first generation students. The population I
studied are students who come from homes where neither parent has completed a
bachelor’s degree. In my Dissertation in Practice, I looked at the narrow focus of
perceptions of first-generation college graduates enrolled in a JD program (FGCG-JD)
regarding factors related to their academic success in graduate-level education at the
University of Mississippi. The students studied were in the JD program at the University
of Mississippi School of Law.
First generation students are a significant population. Based on a 2011 report by
the National Center for Education Statistics, approximately 50% of students in higher
education are first-generation students (Hirudayaraj, 2011). When the National Center for
2
Education Studies reviewed their 2011 report, they focused on a cohort of high school
sophomores. The college enrollment rate of the first-generation sophomores in this cohort
was 72% as compared to their continuing generation cohort members of which 93% was
enrolled (Cataldi, Bennett, & Chen, 2018). Mississippi is a state with significant numbers
of first generation and minority students. Mississippi Public Universities published an
Enrollment Fact Book that reviewed fall 2019 enrollment. Of the 77,894 students
enrolled in the system in fall 2019, African American students comprised 31.1% of the
total enrollment (Institute of Higher Learning, 2019), yet they are 37.8% of the state’s
total population of 2,976,149 (United States Census Bureau, 2019).
Looking at 2019-2020 enrollment trends from the Office of Institutional
Research, Effectiveness, and Planning at the University of Mississippi, of the 10,648
students with Mississippi residency that enrolled, 2,152 or 4.94% identified as African
American (University of Mississippi IREP, 2020). Three hundred eighteen (318) resident
students enrolled in the University of Mississippi School of Law in 2019-2020, but only
52 (6.11%) of those were African American (University of Mississippi IREP, 2020).
African American students in Mississippi are overrepresented in the combined positions
of first generation and minority students and have achieved a smaller portion of four-year
degrees in Mississippi (Lounsbury & Datubo-Brown, 2019). Due to this situation, it is
even more important to look at first generation college graduates pursuing a JD in the
state of Mississippi and the barriers they face.
First generation students face multiple barriers and are at greater risk of not
persisting or not completing a degree due to their lack of academic preparation prior to
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entering higher education, being older, married, and working full-time while enrolled
(Cataldi, Bennett, & Chen, 2018). Many of them are financially independent from their
parents and are single parents themselves (Stebleton & Soria, 2012). Even first-
generation students that are academically prepared for higher education still lack certain
cultural capital from their families that affect their journey (Cataldi, Bennett, & Chen,
2018). Cultural capital is the relevant skills, abilities, or knowledge that someone gleans
from their familial experience which enlightens them to the commonly accepted overall
culture (Rogosic & Baranovic, 2016). This cultural capital can represent the familiarity
that an individual has with the dominant culture of an area, group, or even academic
program (Pascarella, Pierson, Wolniak, & Terenzini, 2004). These students face
significant challenges not experienced by other students including barriers to accessing
higher education, succeeding once they are enrolled, and also in completing the degree
(Cataldi, Bennett, & Chen, 2018). Add Imposter Syndrome, an internal feeling of not
belonging or that a student’s credentials are not truly worthy for access, and first-
generation students have an additional layer of complications (Schwartz, 2018). Imposter
syndrome can keep students from interacting with other students or faculty in the manner
needed for a field such as law (Schwartz, 2018). Schwartz goes on to discuss the
differences of law school as opposed to other programs including the extremely
competitive, intimidating culture that requires connections to those in the legal field
(2018). This Imposter Syndrome factors into Tinto’s theories on retention and the
research that determines the importance of interaction with faculty in and outside of the
classroom (Engle & Tinto, 2008). Being able to interact with law faculty and gain
4
exposure to their work outside of the classroom is of significant importance to the
successful development of a law student (Longwell-Grice, 2008). This interaction
provides a skills-based, informal training to a variety of practice areas that is extremely
valuable. A first-generation law student may not be aware of all of the arenas of law that
are practiced. The interaction with faculty outside of the classroom aids in the
development of a support network as well as a source of academic, social, and cultural
capital. Law faculty are an invaluable source of mentors, particularly for first generation
students.
Engle and Tinto (2008) assert an opinion that based on continuing research
outcomes, first-generation status is itself a risk factor. Add that risk factor to being a
graduate student wherein there is a constant battle to prioritize and make decisions, all of
which are crucial for school, family, work, or a combination thereof, and the first-
generation graduate student is exponentially at risk (Brus, 2006). Supporting Brus’ idea,
Gardner (2013) indicates that first generation students have unique characteristics that put
them in a different standing and cause them to face significant challenges than their
continuing generation peers do not face. Due to the fact that this population is significant
and also has many interconnected, heightened risk factors, higher education institutions
must address the barriers faced by such students (Gardner, 2013). Because there is such a
variety of definitions for the classification of first-generation students, those labeled as
such in this study were students who come from a home where neither parent has
completed a bachelor’s degree (Vasil &McCall, 2018). This is particularly significant
because even parents whom have completed post-high school coursework through
5
completing associates degrees or technical training will still not be fully versed in the
demands, rigors, and necessities of successful completion of a four-year university
program or an applied, professional program such as a JD. Based on a study published by
the U.S. Department Education in 2018, only four percent of first-generation graduates in
their study sample had enrolled in a doctoral or professional program within four years
after earning their bachelor’s degree. Programs and correlative funding need to be
developed to support the needs, inclusion, and opportunity for success for first generation
and other at-risk populations (Gittens, 2014).
First generation students are entering college without the cultural capital from
their families and are often unaware of what questions to ask or even how to understand
the process of higher education. This causes a significant disconnect that requires
persistence and self-directed pathways (Gardner, 2013). Without examples at home or
from their recently completed undergraduate programs, first generation doctoral students
do not know the path or rules of graduate education (Gardner, 2013). Oftentimes, they do
not have the adequate academic preparation, solid financial resources, or familial support
(Engle, 2007). They lack knowledge of financial assistance opportunities including how
to obtain financial aid or renew student loans (Gibbons, Rhinehart & Hardin, 2019).
Some first-generation students may not understand the difference between an
undergraduate and graduate degree. They did not grow up in homes hearing parents speak
of continuing legal education credits or writing a thesis or dissertation. They are left to
figure out this mysterious lingo and world on their own, or by seeking resources outside
of their families. They must operationalize networks of mentors, educators, friend’s
6
parents, and community leaders to build social capital. This social capital is something
that they may not even be aware that they lack or need. Social capital exists in the
relationships between individuals that help to facilitate the transmission of necessary
resources (Pascarella, Pierson, Wolniak, & Terenzini, 2001). There are certain qualities
such individuals must inherently possess or develop. Tinto (2016) talks about persistence
and self-efficacy. Students want to persist, overcome obstacles, and achieve their goals.
They have to possess some foundational self-belief that they have the ability to achieve
this goal of a graduate education even if they do not necessarily know how to accomplish
it. Bourdieu speaks of the necessity of developed cultural capital through socialization.
However, socialization and cultural capital are not often analyzed through the lens of
graduate school students. Winkle-Wagner & McCoy (2016) suggest this lack of
application to graduate school students leaves a significant gap in knowledge about
graduate students that needs to be filled because graduate students are “exemplars of
upward social mobility and may offer important insights about how to disrupt social
reproduction.” Labaree (1997) speaks of the idea of democracy and the importance of the
democratizing benefits of an educated populace. Certainly, first-generation students that
complete their education to the level of a JD are uniquely situated to understand and
fulfill the democratizing benefits of an educated populace. Furthermore, they can fulfill
the roles of much-needed mentors. Students need to see educators and other professionals
that look like them, that came from the same areas, and endured some of the same
experiences to visualize themselves in these career and educational roles.
7
Currently there is a gap of knowledge, education, and support for first generation
students. MacLachlan specifically asserts that there is a persistent problem of unequal
access to higher education in the United States (2017). In assessing equity, ethics, and
social justice we often look at the four As of access, affordability, accountability, and
attrition. How can we, as higher education professionals, claim we are addressing issues
of access, affordability, and attrition if we are leaving this large percentage of students to
fend for themselves? We are not holding ourselves accountable if we are aware these
first-generation students exist and do nothing to help them find the support they need to
be successful in their educational endeavors. As research has shown, first-generation
students interpret this lack of knowledge and support to be an actuality of faculty being
less supportive and caring less about them than other students (Engle & Tinto, 2008).
Adequate support and preparation are critical components in access to and success in
higher education (MacLachlan, 2017). These components serving as barriers can be
alleviated through a strong support network and relevant programming on campus.
POSITIONALITY
Who I am as a person, student, educator, and lifelong learner has shaped my DiP.
I am a first-generation student. I am the first person in my family to achieve a bachelor’s
degree, a master’s degree, a juris doctor, and now a doctoral degree in higher education.
My entire academic career has been one of uncharted territory with little to no guidance. I
have been fortunate in that my family offered significant verbal encouragement and
moral support for me to accomplish my goals. However, the ability to provide guidance
and understanding based on personal experience was not possible. In addition to being
8
first generation, I was also a non-traditional student simultaneously working a full-time
career as a self-supporting single parent. This enhanced my determination to succeed.
The goals I set for myself were mine to achieve based on my own research,
determination, resilience, and financial capabilities.
The younger of my two brothers began law school shortly after I did, also as a
non-traditional student, so I provided a fair amount of guidance for him. I have been
working on my education from undergraduate to my current program continuously since
late 1999. During that entire time, I have worked at least one full-time job or a
combination of multiple part-time jobs while also raising a daughter and now a
granddaughter. Through my professional experience in the insurance, medical, legal, and
now higher education arenas, the consistent thread I have seen is the importance of
education. Every position I have held required some amount of educating others,
oftentimes because of their lack of formal education or area-expertise. I have created
resources where they did not exist and used creative problem-solving skills to fight for
the ability to take classes and continue my education. I did not have the understanding or
support, many times, even from my professors because my schedule was so complicated.
I ended up taking graduate level classes and substituting them for many of my
undergraduate classes just to make the schedule conducive to working a full-time career
and caring for a child. I am currently working in higher education as an associate director
for the Trent Lott Leadership Institute at the University of Mississippi and as an adjunct
instructor for legal studies. The Lott Leadership Institute is an extremely viable location
for a program that focuses on and serves first generation professional students. I want to
9
create resources and a support system for students navigating the uncharted territory of
being a first-generation student with respect to graduate study. First generation students
have additional barriers than other undergraduate and graduate students. There is a
significant number of first-generation students that do not complete their graduate degree.
I would assume that because a smaller percentage of first-generation students complete
their undergraduate degree, then an even smaller portion begin and complete masters or
doctoral degrees. My spouse, who I married after completing law school and being
admitted to the Mississippi Bar, also works in higher education. He works with a
different population of students, but serving in a parallel environment also enhances my
personal life because of this added commonality and understanding. Even though he is
not first-generation, he teaches a significant number of first-generation students so he
fields many of the same questions I experienced as a first-generation student. His
different experiences and perspective make him a reliable source of innovative ideas for
problem solving and assisting students.
CARNEGIE PROJECT ON THE EDUCATIONAL DOCTORATE
This Dissertation in Practice is written to fulfill part of the educational
requirements in affiliation with the Carnegie Project on the Education Doctorate (CPED).
The goals of the Carnegie Project on the Education Doctorate are to prepare leaders who
can develop and apply practical knowledge to make a positive difference in their
communities and institutions (Carnegie Project on the Educational Doctorate, 2014). The
Carnegie Project on the Education Doctorate has three organizing principles which are
equity, ethics, and social justice (Carnegie Project on the Educational Doctorate, 2014).
10
As scholar practitioners, in the spirit of CPED, we must work to solve issues in the effort
to continually advance equity, ethics, and social justice.
I have studied the narrow focus of perceptions of first-generation JD students
regarding factors related to barriers and their academic success in professional, applied
degree graduate education. These graduate students studied were in the JD program at the
University of Mississippi School of Law. I discussed connections between my
participants and the CPED principles of equity, ethics, and social justice.
I. EQUITY
Equity as a goal in higher education is ensuring all students have the support needed for
them to be academically successful. It is not about equality. Equality would signify
making higher education the same for all students. That is not beneficial because each
student is different. Equity is providing the support to meet students where they are, at
each student’s specific level of need, so each student has the ability to be academically
successful. The 2019 report on the Indicators of Higher Education Equity in the United
States provided an insightful quote about equity (Cahalan, Perna, Yamashita, Wright-
Kim, & Jiang, 2019). Stakeholders in higher education are looking for ways to develop
the “evolution of a dynamic higher educational system that provides equity of
opportunity while respecting the diversity of talents and gifts among us” (Cahalan et. al.,
2019). All stakeholders in higher education have diverse talents and gifts. We have to use
equity as a means to foster and support that diversity within higher education. High risk
students, those that come from low socio-economic backgrounds and are first-generation
students, are prime candidates for students that need equity in higher education. They are
11
less likely to complete their degrees, face more financial barriers, and have inadequate
support systems. The report provides that “Growing stratification by family income sorts
students in ways that profoundly affect their ability to develop their talents and earn a
living wage in a global economy” (Cahalan et. al., 2019). Being a first-generation student
is considered an at-risk status, a status that impacts the ability to start and complete
higher education in a multitude of ways. Gardner (2013) notes that if all students were
given the same access to the same resources and information, then there would be a better
basis. No one would be using secret or insider information (Gardner, 2013). Higher
education would be working to ensure equity for all students.
II. ETHICS
In a world where values and even language have shifting meanings, incorporating
ethics in higher education is even more important. Higher education administrators and
practitioners should feel the necessity of incorporating the lessons of ethics in the
classroom so our students realize the ability to think globally, inclusively, and become
actively engaged citizen leaders (Siegel & Watson, 2003). In addition to teaching skills or
theories, we need to be concerned with the holistic development of the student. Students
must realize that ethics are behaviors that promote and honor truth and integrity. Many
students are being exposed to ideas and philosophies they have not seen before. Their
comprehensive learning must be based on ethics as an integral part of higher education.
They need to develop their critical thinking skills and conduct themselves in a way that is
selfless, inclusive, accepting of diversity, and invested in their communities at large
(2003).
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First generation students are being exposed to new thoughts, ideals, and a
previously unknown profession. The place they will learn ethics is in the classroom, from
instructors and classmates alike. Instructors and students must be guaranteed academic
freedom – the freedom to teach and the freedom to learn. Intellectual integrity as well as
the respectful treatment of each other are all imperative. Higher education is a place of
significant diversity where instructors and students from a plethora of backgrounds meet,
intersect, and work together. For the environment to lend itself to the support of integrity
and fair treatment so students have the opportunity to learn and grow despite their
backgrounds, ethics are integral.
III. SOCIAL JUSTICE
Social justice is the justice that focuses on the distribution of wealth and
opportunities in society as they are afforded to or unattainable depending on
socioeconomic background, race, or other statuses. Gordon, Elmore-Sanders, & Gordon
(2017) more specifically described social justice work as work that will address
inequality and oppression in its plethora of variations. Higher education, in its efforts to
develop an educated, informed populace must address the issue of social justice. Students
along with faculty must broaden their understanding of the power of inequality as well as
ways to resolve it. They must think critically and assess the issues related to the diversity
of different sociopolitical stakeholders (Gordon, Elmore-Sanders, & Gordon, 2017).
Students on a college campus can be considered a representative microcosm of society
with its diversity. Students are being exposed to diverse thoughts, ideas, and people
during their higher education experience. They are meeting people from very different
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backgrounds, opportunities, and ways of life. They must be taught about the inequality
that another student may face because they are low SES, a first-generation student, or of a
different race. Higher education should be a time of growth, acceptance of diversity, and
the development of a desire to address social justice issues as they transition to
adulthood. In seeking a more educated populace as indicated by Labaree, higher
education must seek to address social justice issues.
In the effort to address social justice, the question must be asked as to how a more
equitable, just, and respectful society can be created (Gordon, Elmore-Sanders, &
Gordon, 2017). The time to develop and enhance interest and efforts in addressing social
justice is through higher education. Students are experiencing a particularly meaningful
time of development while they are in college (Gordon, Elmore-Sanders, & Gordon,
2017). They learn the lessons and habits that will shape their futures. The populations that
primarily suffer the first-hand effects of a lack of social justice are lower SES, first-
generation, and minority students. Doctoral programs, and law school in particular, are
demanding and exceedingly complex (Esposito et. al. 2017). A first-generation student in
a JD program may particularly feel that the opportunities necessary for successful law
training and preparation are unattainable due to inequities. Without support and effective
social justice programs, first generation JD students coming from low SES families will
have an even harder time attaining the network and opportunities they need to progress
successfully. This could be a significant, career-altering impact if not resolved. First
generation, low SES students that are able to achieve a JD and pursue a successful career
are stakeholders that have the ability to perform social justice work and offer support
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based on their unique perspective. Therefore, we must ensure that our higher education
institutions are critically considering social justice issues now and for the future. In the
end, society as a whole loses in an instance of doctoral attrition. Certainly, the individual
loses due to financial strains, feelings of defeat, and lack of a way to progress. The
academy loses in that enrollment declines, but its reputation could also be tarnished if the
attrition would have been avoidable with proper support systems. Society as a whole
loses because individuals with higher levels of education are the individuals who are able
to solve complex societal issues. Furthermore, when those individuals with higher levels
of education come from an underrepresented minority or at-risk demographic, traditional
structures of power can be beneficially shifted (Esposito et. al., 2017).
CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
There are several individual theories that, when melded together, are particularly
insightful when looking at first-generation students. Tinto (2016) speaks of persistence
and self-efficacy. Bourdieu (1986), speaks of the importance of cultural and social capital
as related to socialization. Labaree’s (1997) idea of democracy addresses the importance
of the democraticizing benefits of an educated populace. Even though these concepts
were originally three separate ideals, when evaluating first-generation students, it seems
imperative to meld them to have a comprehensive understanding of first-generation
students if we are to advance the equity, ethics, and social justice in higher education as it
relates to this specific student populace.
Tinto (2016), Bourdieu (1986), and Labaree (1997) all speak to theories that have
not significantly shifted since they were introduced. Thomas Kuhn (1970) introduced
15
scientific paradigms and the paradigm cycle in his text. Based on the direction Kuhn
(1970) gives in his text, we appear to be in a state of normal science where the paradigms
stated by Tinto, Bourdieu, and Labaree, as described herein, have not yet shifted. They
have remained stable as being applicable to our assessment of first-generation students.
Tinto’s (2016) persistence and self-efficacy underscores the idea that students
want to persist and achieve their goals. They want to overcome obstacles and possess the
foundational self-belief they have the ability to achieve this goal of a graduate education
even if they do not necessarily know how to accomplish it. They have to be, and are,
resilient in their pursuit of higher education (Gardner & Holley, 2011). First-generation
students, on some level even if only subconsciously, have personality traits or ingrained
beliefs that they can achieve their goals. The motivating factor may be to provide
additional support for their parents and siblings or to not have to work as many hours at a
minimal level of pay and struggle as their parents have done (Holley & Gardner, 2012).
In persisting, first-generation students are able to increase and enhance their
cultural and social capital, but according to Bourdieu, access to and the possession of
capital is not evenly distributed in society (Rogosic & Baranovic, 2016). Some students
bring cultural and social capital to college. Many first-generation students do not have
this advantage. Therefore, college as an experience in itself becomes a significant
opportunity for students to either enhance the cultural and social capital they already have
or to begin developing cultural and social capital (Pascarella, Pierson, Wolniak, &
Terenzini, 2004). Thus, this is another barrier that first-generation professional students
must overcome through dedicated efforts. The ramifications of unequal access to higher
16
education exist across the United States. Individuals must have at least a four-year degree
to earn a living wage, and higher education has become a mandatory requirement before
being able to obtain professional employment. Without reducing the barriers for first
generation students, this population will not grow proportionately in these higher-level
academic programs (MacLachlan, 2017). Bourdieu talks of cultural capital which is
“culturally relevant knowledge, skills, or abilities” that serve as forms of currency in
social settings and are acquired either through someone’s family/community or through
education (Winkle-Wagner & McCoy, 2016). Bourdieu also discussed social capital
which is the capital that consists of knowledge, skill, and education. Parental education is
a component of Bourdieu’s cultural capital (Rogosic & Baranovic, 2016) that emanates
from one’s family and their background (Winkle-Wagner & McCoy, 2016). Cultural
capital flows from their “encounters with certain social and cultural agents in society that
contributes to” one’s educational achievement (Vasil &McCall, 2018). The cultural
capital an individual possesses depends heavily on their network or group membership
that supports a specific collective capital (Bourdieu, 1986). For instance, a first-
generation student/child of two laborers will not have the same cultural capital as the
child of two physicians because the first-generation student does not have parents whom
attended college and can direct and guide his higher education endeavors. However, this
does not mean a first-generation student cannot acquire the necessary capital to integrate
and succeed. It means that acquiring the capital that non-first-generation students already
possess and employ as second nature is an additional step or barrier that must be
overcome by first-generation students. “Different forms of capital in the educational
17
system work to ensure success for some students while constructing obstacles for others”
(Gardner & Holley, 2011).
According Bourdieu (1986), social capital is not widely available to people
uniformly. Social capital is only available to those who make the effort to acquire it
though achieving positions of power and status. Social capital is directly related to an
individual’s investment. Students earning a professional applied degree have the ability to
gain social capital and move forward in a classed society if they expend the effort. If they
do not expend the effort, they will not progress in class or power. Much of the effort and
class attainment can depend on the student’s individual perceptions and persistence. For
first-generation students pursuing professional applied degrees such as a JD, the
acquisition of this social capital is even more important if they are going to be able to
navigate this professional world. Taking a step back, in order to gain the social capital
needed, a first-generation student must discover not only that they need social capital, but
that it even exists in the first place. Gaining appropriate social capital is a process of
gaining a conglomeration of individual as well as collective knowledge (McElroy, Jorna,
& van Engelen, 2006).
In support of Bourdieu’s assertions about social and cultural capital, Gardner and
Holley (2011) examined the barriers first-generation students must navigate and negotiate
when pursuing a doctoral program. Students had difficulty developing access to networks
because they came from a background that did not prepare them with the knowledge
needed to pursue a college education. They did not understand the process to intentional
network development. The pathway to obtaining a degree was full of financial barriers
18
making the journey for first-generation students even more difficult (Hirudayaraj, 2011).
These financial barriers require many students to find additional sources of funding
including jobs. These jobs increased time to degree and lowered persistence. Students felt
a sense of dissatisfaction due to feeling isolated or that they did not belong. Many
marginalized students in doctoral programs do not see themselves as intellectuals
(Naidoo, 2015). Furthermore, Naidoo (2015) explains they are unprepared for the rigor
and expectation of creating new knowledge. They are uncertain as to what the new
knowledge would be as well as how to create it. They experienced imposter syndrome
because they did not possess the social and cultural capital they felt was needed to
compete, so they felt like a fraud that would soon be discovered. They are often
disconnected to valuable campus opportunities including studying in groups, engaging in
academic enhancement activities, and utilizing support services so they end up feeling
isolated or disassociated (Stebleton & Soria, 2012). They felt they were trying to live in
two different worlds while experiencing significant otherness (Gardner, 2013). As these
students progressed through their programs, they also felt a broadening chasm between
them and their families. Many first-generation students feel there is a lack of similarity or
congruency between their families and communities and the college campus.
Specifically, they feel “worlds apart” (Engle & Tinto, 2008). This is a further indicator of
the isolation because of a lower cultural and social capital in the student’s familial
background. First-generation graduate students have to utilize resilience to overcome the
obstacles of communicating across this knowledge and experience gap, or even going so
19
far as to distance themselves from their families which enhances the isolation (Martinez,
2018).
The typical student support services offered on campus are not geared to many
first-generation students. Many first-generation students spend more time working to
afford their academic opportunities than they do going to class, talking with professors,
studying, or interacting with other students (Engle & Tinto, 2008). Some first-generation
students are unaware that these crucial support services even exist, or factors such as
imposter syndrome or a lack of belonging force them to not utilize the services.
Building on persistence and the development or enhancement of social and
cultural capital, first generation students can develop into leaders that provide
democratizing benefits to others through their advanced education. One of the three
arguments for higher education discussed by Labaree (1997) is democracy. The success
of students in professional, applied degree programs is important because of the
democratizing benefits of a more educated populace. A more educated populace,
specifically those that have attained a JD, have the ability and knowledge to reinvest in
society. They are oftentimes the leaders and the problem solvers. They represent and
assist others. In order for first-generation students to overcome the barriers they face and
transform into those that provide others democratizing benefits only provided by a more
educated populace, equity and social justice would be enhanced.
By using the conceptual theories of Tinto, Bourdieu, and Labaree as continuums
in a process of educational attainment instead of standalone theories, processes to
20
evaluate, understand, and support the needs of first-generation students can be developed
in order to enhance equity, ethics, and social justice.
RESEARCH QUESTIONS
The following research questions guided my efforts to understand the journey of
first-generation JD students and the barriers to success that they experience at the
University of Mississippi.
1. What are the perceptions of first-generation college graduates enrolled in a
JD program (FGCG-JD) regarding barriers and successes related to their academic
success in professional, applied degree graduate education?
2. How did these barriers and successes affect FGCG-JD students in their
academic endeavors in the JD program at the University of Mississippi School of Law?
3. What recommendations do FGCG-JD students propose to assist success to
other first-generation college graduates enrolled in a JD program?
METHODOLOGY
The method of data collection conducted was qualitative research in order
to identify participants based on interviews of 6 individuals. Individual interviews were
beneficial for this participant because I was able to interact with the needed demographic
of first-generation graduate students in the JD program - first generation college
graduates enrolled in a JD program (FGCG-JD). I was able to develop a detailed
understanding of the perceptions of a variety of such FGCG-JD students from both
genders and multiple racial and ethnic backgrounds. In discussing qualitative research,
Merriam terms interviews as a “conversation with a purpose” (1997). Merriam’s
21
instruction on being adaptable as a researcher in order to discern how participants
interpret and make sense of the world around them is extremely important and the
purpose behind my selected research method of semi-structured interviews (1997).
The participants of the study were first generation students in the JD
program at the University of Mississippi. FGCG-JD students are an understudied
demographic. As a first-generation MBA and JD student, I take a personal interest and
want to look for improvements that could possibly be implemented on campus at the
I worked with rising third year law students (3Ls) because of the current
impacts from the COVID-19 pandemic. By working with 3Ls, they have completed at
least a year and a half of law school before the pandemic made any impacts on their
studies, class attendance, or internship experiences. They have taken multiple exams and
experienced the grading process unique to law school. Because the pandemic was an
unusual interruption, I want to make sure the data gleaned from participants was not
skewed in a way that makes the data inapplicable to future FGCG-JD students or
unusable because the impacts of the pandemic were such an anomaly. I worked with
these rising 3Ls in fall 2020, as they returned for their final year of law school and started
preparing for graduation, the bar exam, and post-law school employment. Interviews
were conducted throughout the fall semester.
Face-to-face interviews were conducted. Through developing open-ended
questions and interviewing students that fit the first-generation JD student demographic,
appropriate data was gleaned. By asking each individual open-ended question, it helped
22
students feel comfortable in answering candidly since it is not an anonymous survey. By
having a loosely structured format for the interviews, students were able to assist in the
direction of the subject matter, allowing topics and trends to organically develop. This
loose structure also allowed for flexibility in the interviews as they progressed. Weiss
instructs researchers to meet participants where they are when beginning an interview
(1994). Interviewers must be flexible and build a bond that facilitates honesty and trust
from the participant toward the researcher so a relationship between the two can endure
the course of the research. This advice is particularly relevant when interviewing future
JD candidates because in the practice of law, an attorney takes a client as they find them,
Attorneys have to work with what they are given, and their current circumstances cannot
be altered. The attorney has to gather information and try to resolve the issues going
forward. This process is much like what the researcher intends. Knowing the current
status seems to make more sense as a relatable starting point and also allows the
researcher to keep that status in perspective as he is listening to and analyzing what the
interviewee is stating. Working with first generation students and their perceptions of
barriers to success for law school made more sense starting at their current status of their
3L year and then going backwards because certainly their perceptions now are somewhat
different from their original perceptions as an entering 1L.
The selected structure allowed for the researcher to ensure personal perceptions
were not imposed. Certainly, we must be cognizant that all JD students have different
variances and nuances to their graduate experience. It is not a one-size fits all situation
(Gardner, 2010). Any patterns in emergent themes need to be evaluated. When Glesne
23
discussed qualitative analysis, he discussed the need for interpretivism (2016). A
researcher must interact with participants in a manner that allows background and
contextual knowledge to emerge as a foundation of the data’s interpretation. Glesne’s
interpretivism lends to the researcher being able to discern common patterns amongst
participants (2016). In collecting the interviews, the overall procedure for this qualitative
analysis included preparing and organizing the data, exploring and coding the data,
building descriptions and themes in the data based on the coding method, reporting the
findings, interpreting the findings, and validating the accuracy of the findings. The
interviews lasted from 45 to 90 minutes. They were audiotaped and then transcribed for
analysis.
The following interview questions guided my efforts to understand the journey of
first-generation JD students and the barriers to success that they experience at the
1. Tell me about yourself.
2. Is anyone in your immediate family a lawyer?
3. What has been your educational journey to law school?
4. Is there anyone that impacted you during your educational journey?
5. When did you decide you wanted to go to law school?
6. Did you complete any bridge programs for pre-law students prior to
attending law school at the University of Mississippi?
7. How has your law school experience been thus far?
8. How has it made you feel?
24
9. Is there something that you would change about your law school
experience?
10. Is there anyone that has impacted you in your law journey?
11. Summers are important for law students. Tell me about your experiences
for your 1L and 2L summers.
12. What advice would you give other first-generation law students?
13. Why did you select the University of Mississippi School of Law for your
law school endeavors?
SUMMARY OF CHAPTER I
In this first manuscript, I have studied the narrow focus of perceptions of first-
generation college graduates enrolled in a JD program (FGCG-JD) regarding factors
related to their academic success in graduate-level education at the University of
Mississippi. The students studied were in the JD program at the University of Mississippi
School of Law. I have discussed my Problem of Practice, my positionality, the CPED
connection, my methodology, and my literature review.
In the second manuscript, I discussed the data gathered from the qualitative study.
In the third manuscript, I discussed the meaning of the data, it limitations and
potential future recommendations for research as well as future recommendations for
practice.
25
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26
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31
CHAPTER II: DATA PRESENTATION
32
INTRODUCTION TO DATA PRESENTATION
First generation students are a significant population of students in higher
education. They face multiple barriers and are at greater risk of not persisting or not
completing a degree due to their lack of academic preparation prior to entering higher
education, being older, married, and working full-time while enrolled (Cataldi, Bennett,
& Chen, 2018). Many of them are completely financially independent from their parents
(Stebleton & Soria, 2012). Some even offer a level of financial support to contribute to
their parents’ financial well-being. Even first-generation students that are academically
prepared for higher education still lack certain cultural capital from their families that
affect their journey (Cataldi, Bennett, & Chen, 2018). This cultural capital can represent
the familiarity that an individual has with the dominant culture (Pascarella, Pierson,
Wolniak, & Terenzini, 2004). These students face significant challenges not experienced
by other students including barriers to accessing higher education, succeeding once they
are enrolled, and also in completing the degree (Cataldi, Bennett, & Chen, 2018). Add
Imposter Syndrome, an internal feeling of not belonging or that a student’s credentials are
not truly worthy for access, and first-generation students have an additional layer of
complications (Schwartz, 2018). Imposter syndrome can keep students from interacting
with other students or faculty in the manner needed for a field such as law (Schwartz,
2018). Law school, as opposed to other programs, involves an extremely competitive,
intimidating culture that requires connections to those in the legal field (Schwartz, 2018).
33
Interaction with faculty in and outside of the classroom is crucial (Engle & Tinto, 2008).
Being able to interact with law faculty and gain exposure to their work outside of the
classroom is of significant importance to the successful development of a law student
(Longwell-Grice, 2008). This interaction aids in the development of a support network as
well as a source of academic, social, and cultural capital. Law faculty are an invaluable
source of mentors, particularly for first generation students. This dissertation seeks to
identify ways to enhance efforts to support first-generation college graduates enrolled in a
JD program (FGCG-JD) through a critical analysis of successful 3Ls’ perceptions of the
barriers to their success that they had to overcome.
DATA PRESENTATION
The data presented in this manuscript reflect the individual experiences and
nuances of six first-generation 3Ls at the University of Mississippi School of Law with
regard to their perceptions of barriers to success for first-generation law students. The
interviews with these students are the source of all direct quotes or paraphrased examples
presented in this manuscript. These students are from various locales across the United
States.
Table 1: Interview Participants
Participant Gender Traditional Home State Age Notes

Identification Student Range
1 Female No Florida 29-32 ESL, first
generation
American
2 Female Yes Mississippi 23-26 Married
3 Male Yes Virginia 23-26 Homeschooled
4 Male Yes Alabama 23-26 First in his
family to leave
hometown
34
5 Female Yes Louisiana 23-26 Single parent
home; High
school pre-law
bridge program
6 Male Yes North 23-26 Military
Carolina affiliation;
Minority
Personal Profiles
The interviews included questions that revealed demographic data about the
participants including their home towns, familial backgrounds, high school and law
school involvement, and other specific identifying factors. The participant group was
relatively small due to the limited number of 3Ls that fit the criteria for the study and
were willing to participate. Therefore, any descriptors which could potentially harm
anonymity are not included in the reported data. Additionally, a pseudonym is assigned to
each participant to protect anonymity. This subsection introduces the quoted participants
with brief narratives about their positionality. These brief participant profiles are not
presented as an exhaustive data presentation; as later sections will expound the data,
findings, and recommendations.
Participant 1 is a non-traditional 3L from Florida who speaks English as a
second language. She is first generation American. She attended public schools and then
a local public university for undergraduate studies where she majored in political science.
She worked through her undergraduate and Master’s degree programs while also
financially supporting and caring for aging parents. Participant 1 knew from a young age,
after some direct court exposure through a sibling, that she wanted to be an attorney, so
she looked for opportunities that would allow her to attend law school while
35
simultaneously working in order to maintain her financial needs. She was also aware of
the physical, emotional, and financial responsibilities her family placed on her and
decided to relocate for law school so she could have the time and ability to successfully
accomplish her goals. After a year at another Northern University, in a part-time
program, she came to the University of Mississippi School of Law as a transfer student.
Post-graduation, Participant 1 has multiple employment opportunities.
Participant 2 is a married, traditional 3L from Mississippi. She attended
community college for a year at no expense and then received a two-year scholarship for
her undergraduate program, so she attended the University of Mississippi for two years to
complete her undergraduate career in a total of 36 months. Participant 2 worked two jobs
during her undergraduate program to reduce financial barriers. She decided to attend law
school because it seemed interesting even though she did not know much about it. She
had no prior exposure to the legal field. Participant 2 selected the University of
Mississippi School of Law because of the lower cost as compared to other schools. Post-
graduation, Participant 2 has a six-month employment contract in Mississippi.
Participant 3 is a traditional 3L from Virginia. He was homeschooled and then,
once high school age, he enrolled in a local community college for dual enrollment
classes as he felt he was academically delayed. He started his undergraduate career at a
large urban university, but then transferred to a small, rural, private university to
complete his undergraduate degree. Participant 3 had a solid grade point average and
decided to take the LSAT in February of his senior year of undergrad. He enjoyed writing
and thought contract law was appealing. However, he did not have any more than a
36
surface understanding of law school and the practice of law. A point of evidence as to his
lack of awareness was his late cycle application to law school. Due to his late application,
his acceptances to law school were limited. He selected the University of Mississippi
School of Law because it was in the Southeastern Conference, was affordable, and was
one of his few acceptances. Post-graduation, Participant 3 has applied to a Master’s in
Public Policy program on the East Coast to enhance his knowledge base before pursuing
a legal career in the field of civil rights.
Participant 4 is a traditional 3L from south Alabama. He attended public schools
and earned his undergraduate degree in finance from a state school in his hometown
where all of his family lives. Participant 4 was an executive officer in his university’s
undergraduate student body government and extremely involved on campus. When
deciding what to do post-undergrad, he thought about attending law school because it
seemed interesting. He did not have an exact awareness of what attorneys do, but thought
he would try it. Participant 4 had some limited mentorship through a faculty advisor in
undergrad that was an attorney. He received offers from multiple law schools, but
selected the University of Mississippi because of the scholarship offer he received. Post-
graduation, Participant 4 has secured a position at a regional law firm in Alabama. He
looks forward to working with multiple practice areas so he can find his passion.
Participant 5 is a traditional 3L from a one parent household in Louisiana. She
attended public schools and based on an interest in the legal field, attended a summer
program for high school students held by the Louisiana Bar Association. Participant 5
attended a local state university for undergraduate studies where she joined a sorority and
37
majored in finance. She chose this school because it was geographically close to home
and her parent’s health was declining. She also received a significant scholarship.
Participant 5 worked two on-campus jobs while completing her undergraduate degree in
3.5 years. Due to her on-campus employment, she established significant relationships
with her undergraduate professors. When Participant 5 began applying to law schools,
she applied to 23 schools because her financial status provided her with application fee
waivers. She chose the University of Mississippi School of Law primarily because of the
scholarship she received and secondarily because of the potential opportunity to work on
the Innocence Project. Participant 5 was only one of two individuals that mentioned
considering clinics or other experiential learning opportunities as part of the law school
decision process. Post-graduation, Participant 5 has secured a position as in-house
counsel with a large corporation in the mid-west.
Participant 6 is a traditional 3L from a two-parent household in North Carolina.
He comes from a minority background. He attended public schools and then a local state
university for undergraduate studies where he majored in political science and
participated in ROTC. He chose this school because it was geographically close to home
and he carried significant responsibilities as the leader of his family. Participant 6 worked
multiple jobs while completing his undergraduate degree. When Participant 6 began
apply to law schools, he knew he wanted to practice law in the South so he looked for
law schools in the South. He chose the University of Mississippi School of Law primarily
of the potential opportunity to work in various skills-based clinics in the law school.
Participant 6 was only one of two individuals that mentioned considering clinics or other
38
experiential learning opportunities as part of the law school decision process. Post-
graduation, Participant 6 has secured a position as a faculty fellow with a law school in
the western United States.
RESEARCH QUESTIONS
The following research questions guided my efforts to understand the journey of first-
generation JD students and the barriers to success that they experience at the University
of Mississippi.
Figure 1 FGCG-JD Barriers to Success
Financial
Lack of
Legal
Mentor FGCG-JD Cultural
Barriers to
Success
Fear and
Isolation Imposter
Syndrome
Research Question One: What are the perceptions of first-generation college
graduates enrolled in a JD program (FGCG-JD) regarding barriers and successes
related to their academic success in professional, applied degree graduate
education?
39
Financial barriers.
Each participant discussed financial barriers related to their academic success.
Whether they received scholarships or not, all participants reported working multiple jobs
throughout law school including jobs in non-legal fields in order to cover their basic
expenses. First generation students often come from lower socioeconomic backgrounds,
so working is not just a matter of gaining legal exposure as it is for other law students, it
is a matter of survival. These first generation college graduates balanced competing
priorities including academics, work, law school related internships, and family.
An additional financial barrier mentioned by multiple participants was the fact
that they were living away from their hometowns for the first time. This was significant
in that multiple participants reported that they contributed to their parents’ financial well-
being. This financial support was reduced or otherwise changed due to the law school
enrollment. One participant noted that he was pulled in multiple directions between
working part-time, attending law school, and having to travel between Oxford and his
hometown to be physically present to assist with family issues. “I had to make enough
money not only to eat and pay rent, but I also had to make enough to travel home many
times because of family issues. That was not an expense I really took into account”
(Participant 6, personal communication).
One participant left a full-time career to enroll in law school. “It was a big change
going from a really good salary and a full-time career to part-time work and law school. I
could not provide for my parents the way I had done previously. Now, I send them care
packages when I can” (Participant 1, personal communication). The financial barriers
40
mentioned by each participant entailed a fear or the unknown and pressure from being
totally self-supporting without even a family member nearby that could provide a meal, if
needed. “My entire family lives in my hometown. If I was running short and needed a
meal, I could always stop by. Here, I don’t have that option. It is all on me” (Participant
4, personal communication). Two of the participants reported that having a significant
other did lessen the financial barrier, but in turn brought about other barriers. “I have a
partner that I can rely on and he helps with splitting the bills, but he didn’t go to law
school so he really doesn’t understand what I am going through. He doesn’t understand
the pressure” (Participant 2, personal communication).
Cultural Barriers
As a transfer student, Participant 1 faced cultural barriers. As a non-native English
speaker in the South, she spent a lot of time both during and outside of class explaining
her name, her ethnic background, and the fact that she had a professional career before
attending law school. “Because I speak to my family in my first language, people stare at
me when I am on the phone between classes. When they hear my name, they make
assumptions about my nationality” (Participant 1, personal communication). As a transfer
student, she was culturally different from the traditional students who graduated
undergrad and then immediately began their 1L year as a sectioned cohort with other
members of the 1L class. They had the opportunity to bond from the first day and
establish groups and cultures which were not easy to break into as a 2L transfer student
who suddenly arrived on campus not knowing anyone in the state of Mississippi. “It took
a while for me to find my people. I transferred in as a 2L and everyone already had their
41
friend groups and their study groups from the beginning of 1L year” (Participant 1,
personal communication).
Two participants discussed the adjustment of their change in majority/minority
status from their hometown. Two participants moved from locales where they were in the
majority. Arriving in Oxford, they became members of the minority. They both
experienced some of the noted treatment of minorities in the Southern United States.
“Suddenly not only am I a black man, but I am a black man in Mississippi” (Participant
6, personal communication). Another participant mentioned that it was an adjustment
moving to a locale where she was suddenly in the majority whereas she had grown up as
a minority in a community that was culturally diverse. She embraced the diversity of
culture in her hometown and schools, but missed that diversity on campus at the law
school. “I grew up in a culturally diverse city where my friends were Pakistani, Lebanese,
Jordanian, African…I miss all of the cultural traditions. Now I am here in Oxford and
everyone is white” (Participant 5, personal communication).
Fear and Imposter Syndrome as a Barrier
Fear of the unknown as well as Imposter Syndrome-related self-doubt were
mentioned by most participants. Many of the participants said they entered law school
because it was a profession that appeared interesting. They did not have many
preconceived ideas or really understand what law school and practicing law entailed. The
difference in grading from undergrad and other graduate programs combined with the
heightened competitiveness also created unexpected stress. Since these participants
entered with all As for prior academic performance, they were dismayed by the grading
42
curve and the grades they initially received. One participant remarked “I was hoping that
someone was not feeling especially well on exam day, so I could feel like I was doing
better than at least one other person. Maybe they will be the F or the D” (Participant 5,
personal conversation). Each participant was quick to say that their law school grades
were above average. However, they were not the straight As they previously earned. The
perceived less successful grades caused stress and anxiety which manifested in Imposter
Syndrome and considerations of quitting law school. Parents did not understand why they
were not receiving all As. “My parents wanted to know why I wasn’t making straight As
like I always had. I tried to explain the law school curve, but they didn’t understand”
(Participant 6, personal communication). Multiple participants discussed that, in the end,
they had to lower their own self standards. They were all used to being high achievers
and held extremely high standards for themselves. When their usual methods of studying
and performance resulted in lesser grades, even marginally, they began to doubt
themselves and their abilities. “I had to reset my standards because I came to the
realization after exams first semester of 1L year that I was no longer a straight A student.
I am a solid B student in law school. I really doubted why I was here and that maybe law
school was not the place for me” (Participant 3, personal communication).
One participant decided that in an effort to build his network and experience base,
he would apply for teams and other opportunities within the law school and the legal
community. During competitions, he would receive positive, successful feedback, but
each time was not selected for the final team. He made multiple attempts and received
multiple rejections for boards/teams which exacerbated imposter syndrome. “I got a lot of
43
good feedback and encouragement from judges during the competitions, but in the end, I
never made it. I never got chosen and I really got down on myself because it was
rejection after rejection” (Participant 3, personal communication). This exacerbation also
impacted his job search and eventually resulted in him considering other graduate
programs after law school instead of entering the workforce because he has not been able
to find a job. “I am hoping that the grad school program I have applied to pans out
because otherwise I don’t have a job. I wasn’t top of my class so nobody really wanted to
interview me at OCIs or anything” (Participant 3, personal communication).
Isolation as a Barrier
Whether it was isolation from family, a feeling of otherness, or inability to
connect with faculty and classmates, isolation was a barrier expressed by each
participant. For Participant 1, combining the factors of being non-traditional, first-
generation, a non-native English speaker, and being a transfer student, the environment
was initially isolating, including with professors. She experienced professors who did not
seem approachable and did not seem to adjust their interaction from younger, traditional
law students to older students with prior professional experience which caused additional
isolation and a perceived lack of value toward experienced students. “I felt that some of
the professors did not appreciate the fact that I am an adult with bills to pay, aging
parents to care for, and left a career to pursue law school. When I draw on my
experiences to make a comment, don’t treat me the same as a kid who has never had a job
and has no real responsibilities and is speaking because they’re the gunner in the room”
44
Two of the participants found the adjustment difficult and felt isolated because, as
a reasonably intelligent individual, family and friends expect you to do well and do not
give a lot of credence to worries about grades and success because they do not understand
the differences in law school and other programs. The support that was offered from
friends in other post-undergraduate programs was not from other law students so “It
almost felt superficial. You’re smart. You’ll do fine. You always do” (Participant 2,
personal communication.)
Participant 4 moved away from his entire family for the first time. He did not start
with a local group of friends, and it was isolating trying to share his experiences with his
family when it took so much time to explain context and they did not understand. There
was a growing chasm between him and his family as he began to experience a feeling of
otherness from his family. “I love my family, but I got so tired of trying to explain the
background of everything to them that I pretty much quit calling home” (Participant 4,
personal communication).
Participant 6 relocated to Oxford from the Eastern United States. He knew no one
and had never visited Mississippi prior to the first day of Orientation. His family did not
understand why, as an African American male, he chose a law school in Mississippi.
“They thought I was crazy and kept asking me why I would decide to move to
Mississippi” (Participant 6, personal communication). He said his family were ultimately
encouraging even though they did not understand much of his law school experience.
Being one of only a few African American males in the law school, it took him almost a
full academic year to find an organization to join to establish connections and develop a
45
friend group, which made that first year isolating. “It was hard. I spent almost my whole
1L year trying to find friends and an organization to join. Finally, I found BLSA and that
is where most of my friends and connections start” (Participant 6, personal
communication).
Participant 3 did not know anyone when he moved to Oxford so he was lacking
an academic as well as social network. “I didn’t know anyone and didn’t really know
much about law school so I didn’t really connect with anyone. I didn’t really feel like I
could just go talk to my professors” (Participant 3 personal communication). He felt
isolated and did not easily connect with faculty. His parents were valuable for verbal
support from a distance. However, they did not understand the rigors and demands of law
school. Furthermore, they were of the belief that a JD means someone is financially set
for life. “They seriously said that I was going to be set for life because I was going to law
school and that’s just not how it works. They don’t understand” (Participant 3, personal
communication). Participant 3’s family was not the only family to perceive a JD as a
financial success guarantee. Another participant had a parent ask her to co-sign on a
home. “My mom said you’re a lawyer now so you can co-sign for us. We can finally get
a home” (Participant 1, personal communication). “They don’t understand that I am not a
lawyer yet and there are no guarantees. I am not physically there providing for them as I
have always been. I could not have stayed and kept doing all that I did and been able to
go to law school. I had to make a choice to move away, to a place where I did not know
anyone and be far enough away from my family to pursue my own dream” (Participant 1,
personal communication). As each of these participants increased their academic
46
experience, they discussed a feeling of otherness from long distance family members as
well as local significant others.
Lack of Legal Mentor as a Barrier.
Each participant mentioned a lack of legal mentor as a barrier. While some had a
former academic advisor that had previously practiced law, none felt they really had a
consistent legal mentor they could approach for guidance. None of the participants
understood the rigors of law school or knew what to expect prior to beginning law school.
“Law seemed interesting and I thought I could do it. I didn’t really know much about
what lawyers do” (Participant 4, personal communication). “I like to read and write, so I
thought I could go to law school and then get a job sitting in a cubicle and writing
contracts. It sounded like good, stable employment and didn’t include going to court”
(Participant 3, personal communication). They did not know much about selecting a law
school other than by cost, so they ended up at the University of Mississippi School of
Law simply because of the post-graduation debt comparison with other law schools. “Ole
Miss gave me a good scholarship so that’s why I am here. I didn’t really think about
needing connections to get a job back at home after graduation” (Participant 4, personal
communication). Only two participants mentioned clinics or other experiential
opportunities as a consideration when selecting a law school. These participants did not
know about networks with upperclassmen for outlines as important course study
materials, about on campus interviews (OCIs), about how to apply for and assess
internship opportunities, or about the connections one should consider between a law
school and a future career and its locale. “I didn’t even know what they were talking
47
about when they said outlines. I can write an outline so I just assumed I was good. I was
wrong” (Participant 4, personal communication).
The participants mentioned not knowing who to ask for advice and one even said,
“I didn’t even know what questions to ask because I didn’t know how much I didn’t
know” (Participant 4, personal conversation). Each participant mentioned that they felt a
connection with some of the staff at the law school, but only one felt a strong connection
with their law faculty. Only one of the participants reported ever having sat down with a
law professor for a conversation or for guidance during their three years. There was a
general consensus amongst five of these participants that their law professors were
inaccessible and not anyone they felt comfortable approaching for advice. “They were all
nice, but I did not click with any of them to feel comfortable going in their office and
sitting down to talk” (Participant 3, personal communication).
Figure 2 Internal Components for Success
Tenacity,
Developing a
Perseverance,
Place for Success
and Self-
Yourself
Efficacy
Tenacity, Perseverance, and Self-Efficacy for Success.
Some traits that emerged in each of the participants was that they were
determined to make it through and successfully complete law school. Participant 1 is a
tenacious young woman who is determined to succeed. She is also cognizant of the
environment around her and seeks to educate others to the differences of identity. She is
48
very open and frank in her comments and assessments. “When I see an opportunity to
educate others about instances of microaggressions, I do it. I can’t just let it pass by when
it happens repeatedly” (Participant 1, personal communication). “If I can educate
someone and save someone else from that experience, it is what I should do” (Participant
1, personal communication).
Each of the participants mentioned trying, applying, and pursuing opportunities,
even if they did not specifically know what opportunity was best. A couple of
participants said they believe in applying to every opportunity and figuring out what is of
interest and what fits. “I applied for whatever I could. I didn’t have anything to lose”
(Participant 4, personal communication). Each participant sought practical, applied
experience whether it was through an internship, a law school clinic, or pro bono
opportunities. They were unwilling to give up. Therefore, even though there were bouts
of Imposter Syndrome, each of these participants had the tenacity, perseverance, and self-
efficacy to keep pushing forward. Two participants mentioned repeatedly requesting
more opportunities including permanent jobs from an internship supervisor. In multiple
instances it resulted in post-graduation employment opportunities. “I told my supervisor
that I was going to bug him every single day until he hired me because I wanted to work
there when I graduated. He said if a position opened it would be mine. I got a job offer
from them so it worked” (Participant 5, personal communication).
Developing a Place for Yourself.
Each of these participants sought to make their own way. One even went so far as
to say, “Don’t give up. Don’t wait for a seat at the table. Make a seat at the table for
49
yourself” (Participant 1, personal communication). Even though they were making a
place for themselves with little to no official guidance or direction, each of these
participants embodied tenacity, perseverance, and self-efficacy. Each participant
discussed having been very involved during their undergraduate career. “I am an
overachiever. I don’t tell people no” (Participant 5, personal communication). Each
participant continued a level of extra-curricular activity during law school whether it was
on law journal, competing in advocacy competitions, joining Dean’s Leadership Council,
serving in a student organization, volunteering for pro bono opportunities, or working a
clinic. Some of their attempts for involvement on boards was not successful, but each
participant demonstrated resiliency. “I tried out and I tried out, and when it didn’t work
out, I started doing pro bono work and applied for clinics. I wanted to be involved and I
wanted the experience” (Participant 3, personal communication). Each participant talked
about developing their own friend groups including other similarly situated first-
generation law students of limited means. By developing these groups and opportunities,
whether they realized it or not, they were building crucial support networks that could
lead to socialization and the development of cultural capital. They were each developing
a place for themselves.
Research Question Two: How did these barriers and successes affect FGCG-JD
students in their academic endeavors in the JD program at the University of
Mississippi School of Law?
50
Financial barriers.
Each of the participants had to figure out how to balance competing priorities of
maintaining successful academics while also maintaining their financial needs. This often
resulted in working multiple jobs, both on and off campus. Some of these jobs impacted
their ability to engage in internships, and they had to choose how to navigate the need for
legal experience and the need to support themselves. “I worked on campus and in an ice
cream shop, but when I got the opportunity for an internship, I had to quit working one of
my jobs. I couldn’t do all three even though I really needed to” (Participant 2, personal
communication). Multiple participants mentioned also providing various types of support
for family, including multiple long distance trips home, which also increased the financial
barriers. Even though each participant was mindful of the cost of tuition and scholarship
availability, they all needed to work in order to meet basic financial needs. Each
participant expressed a heightened stress about finances due to being so far from their
hometowns and extended family. They each mentioned that when they were at home,
they could grab a meal with family if needed. However, that was no longer an option due
to geographic distance. Each of them was the sole source of any financial support outside
of any scholarships received. “It is all on me. I have a partner thankfully, that helps split
some bills, but ultimately it is all on me” (Participant 1, personal communication).
Constant stress and worry about finances detract from the drive, attention, and time
required for law school.
51
Cultural Barriers
In adjusting to cultural barriers, participants noted having to find and develop
their own affinity groups. They began to share less with family and non-law school
friends while their relationships with friends they just met at law school deepened. “My
family doesn’t understand what I am going through in law school. My friends here have
become closer than family” (Participant 2, personal communication). Multiple
participants said they believe members of their law school friend group will be lifelong
friends. “Some of these people were in my wedding. I will be in theirs. In a few years, we
will be gathering for each other’s baby showers” (Participant 2, personal
communication). These participants had to balance their lived experiences of culture from
home and learn the new culture they were facing in law school and higher education.
Their home life and experiences were extremely disconnected from the norms, values,
and expectations they were facing in the law school community” (Engle, Bermeo, &
O’Brien, 2006). In addition to cultural barriers based on race or ethnicity, these
participants had to adjust to the culture that is predominantly upper-middle to upper class
socioeconomically, and multi-generation students. They had to figure out what resources
they could use to determine what they did not know and gain the needed cultural capital
to understand and work with the dominant culture. “Thankfully, I found BLSA, but it was
not until my 2L year so I spent that first year not really knowing what to do” (Participant
6, personal communication). Facing these cultural barriers not only isolates first
generation students, but it also lends to their bouts with Imposter Syndrome.
52
Each participant had to face fear and self-doubt. They had to recognize and try to
overcome Imposter Syndrome. Multiple participants mentioned support from law school
staff as well as physical exercise as ways of attempting to dispel or manage fear and self-
doubt. “I ran. When I was worrying and feeling like I don’t belong in law school, I ran
until I was too tired to worry” (Participant 2, personal communication). Unfortunately,
the participants mostly indicated that they did not connect with faculty, a valuable source
of cultural capital in the legal arena. This lack of connection, which could very well have
been influenced by Imposter Syndrome, lessened the rate at which many of the
participants found internship and employment opportunities. Participants were fearful of
appearing unintelligent and did not want to admit that they knew less than their
classmates, so they did not go to their professors for assistance. It certainly impacted the
lack of understanding and ability to build far-reaching networks, especially those needed
by participants who planned to work outside of the Southeastern United States after
graduation. “I didn’t really know that I needed to think about my law school with regards
to the area I want to work after graduation. I just thought I want to practice in the south,
so I will go to some school in the south” (Participant 6, personal communication).
Each participant discussed their law school friend group, which is completely
comprised of individuals previously unknown prior to law school. Each participant noted
that their friend group is small, but their support is powerful. With the widening chasm
from their families due to their increasing knowledge base and exposure, these affinity
53
groups became a lifeline for multiple participants. Isolation from non-law family and
friends was palpable. Geographic distance served to enhance the isolation from emotional
support that family could offer as many participants were several hundred miles from
their families for the first time in their lives. Each participant depended heavily on their
newly established friend group. Prior to establishing these friend groups, multiple
participants were isolated and spent much of their time trying to figure out law school
and how to be successful on their own without even a sounding board.
Each participant mentioned a lack of legal mentor as a barrier. While some had
former advisors or faculty that are attorneys, they did not have a close enough connection
to feel comfortable being frank with them or even really knowing what questions to ask.
“My undergrad advisor was an attorney and I bugged her with some questions during the
application process, but there was a lot I didn’t ask because I didn’t want to look dumb”
(Participant 4, personal communication). Therefore, many of these participants relied on
themselves and their own tenacity to replace the absence of a legal mentor. The lack of a
legal mentor made their progress, application strategies, job search, and possibly even
their in-school experience and career trajectory different than it may have been otherwise.
Without a mentor making an individual aware of opportunities or where they exist, those
missed experiences can be significant. In a field like law, that is so heavily reliant on
networking and prior experience, first generation students can be severely disadvantaged
as compared to their multi-generational classmates who come from affluent families that
54
contain lawyers or have connections to them. Without a legal mentor, the needed applied
skills and experiential learning opportunities can be elusive.
Each participant demonstrated tenacity, perseverance, and self-efficacy. Each of
them chose to move away from their families and uproot their previous life to attend law
school. Each participant undertook and successfully completed their legal studies. Even
unequipped with mentors or a basic understanding of law school and legal practice, they
assumed the rigors of a law school education. “I didn’t know what I didn’t know, but I
figured as long as I worked harder than other people, it would all turn out okay”
(Participant 4, personal communication). These participants persevered. They faced
obstacles and overcame them. They adjusted to new cultural norms, learned how to
navigate law school, and all graduated within their three year period. Completing a
program such as law school without support or assistance is particularly impactful for
first generation college graduates.
One participant noted that during her tenure at the law school, she identified a
lack of resources available to incoming non-traditional and first-generation students.
Therefore, she developed and shared resources. “I didn’t really understand why there
weren’t resources for the basics like what dentist to use or better places to live without a
bunch of undergrads. When I asked, I was told to look online. Now, when first-gens
come in, I share my lists with them” (Participant 1, personal communication). In order to
give back to the greater community, she is active in legal clinics for under-represented
55
minorities. “When all of the ICE raids happened, I knew I could help because I speak
Spanish, so I went and volunteered. I figured I would be helping and if I gained some
legal exposure along the way, that would be good, too” (Participant 1, personal
communication). She is also extremely involved in advocacy work within the law school.
She worked to develop a place for herself within the community.
Participant 5 prioritized applying to multiple opportunities and trying to be
involved to gain as much hands-on experience as possible through internships. Through
learning skills, Participant 5 sought to develop a place that would provide long term
impacts. One of these internships has developed into an opportunity for a legal career
post-graduation.
Participant 3 was unable to find an internship, so he began volunteering for as
many pro bono opportunities as possible as well as working with one of the law school
clinics. “I constantly felt the struggle to make a place for myself because I don’t really fit
in with many of the other students” (Participant 3, personal communication). Therefore,
he perceived pro bono work and the gaining of skills as a way to establish his place
within the community.
Participant 2 not only established a friend group within the law school of similarly
situated students that became her support system, but she also applied for multiple
internships, so she has worked on campus as well as in multiple legal internships to gain
experience. She worked to create opportunities and a place for herself. This work was
successful in that Participant 2 has a six-month contract for research work after
56
graduation. However, she is not sure what she will do when that contract ends, so she is
still trying to make a place for herself.
Participant 6 prioritized gaining as much hands-on experience as possible through
clinics and internships. He values the experiential learning opportunities he was able to
complete and through learning applied legal skills, Participant 6 sought to develop a place
that would provide long term opportunities post-graduation in his home state and other
locations. One of these internships developed into an opportunity for a legal career post-
graduation in yet another new locale.
Research Question Three: What recommendations do FGCG-JD students propose
to assist success to other first-generation college graduates enrolled in a JD
program?
Participant 5 encouraged FGCG-JDs to keep trying. “Students need to keep
applying to opportunities and not take hiring personally” (Participant 5, personal
communication). Many employers that offer on campus interviews (OCIs) are perceived
to be opportunities only for students at the very top of the class or only available to those
that are politically or socially well connected. Participant 5 encouraged students to give
themselves grace in their studies. She explained that it is okay to change studying
methods or to use different methods than other students. She experimented with various
study methods due to never having had to study prior to law school. Participant 5 also
wanted other FGCG-JDs to not doubt themselves. “You are in law school through hard
work and perseverance, and even if you feel like you don’t belong, you do” (Participant
5, personal communication).
57
Participant 4 encouraged FGCG-JDs to think outside of the box for resources. “I
found resources in unexpected places including during this research interview”
(Participant 4, personal communication). Participant 4 said a lesson he learned was to not
worry about or be fearful of sounding dumb. “Go ahead and ask the questions. Work hard
because what you put in significantly impacts what you get out of an experience
particularly law school” (Participant 4, personal communication).
Participant 2 indicated a need for attorney mentors to be assigned to first
generation law students, so they have a built-in network to help acquaint FGCG-JDs with
resources that they are not even aware that they need. She perceived a structured mentor
program as being a way to make significant impacts to improve access to opportunities
for the first generation community within the law school.
Participant 1 said she was reminded quite often that because of her minority status
there would be barriers. Yet, there were not resources available to reduce those barriers.
Therefore, she performed research, developed resources, and shared them with other first-
generation students. She also expressed disappointment in the resources that did exist
because they did not serve to reduce barriers. “When pairing incoming students with
upperclassman mentors, if it is based solely on ethnic background instead of areas of
interest or position in life, they may not have any commonalities and not have the most
productive mentor-mentee relationship” (Participant 1, personal communication).
Furthermore, they may not expand their understanding or cultural capital if they are only
exposed to other students that are ethnically similarly situated. Therefore, Participant 1
encouraged FGCG-JDs to become resources for other FGCG-JDs. “Share the knowledge
58
gained from your individual path, so others may find the resources they need. Advocate
for others so the barriers may be reduced” (Participant 1, personal communication).
Participant 6 said that the law school needs to have better access to boards. He
found board participation to be very important to prospective employers, but noted that if
students had not had previous exposure during high school or their undergraduate
program, their chances of gaining a spot on a board would be slim to none. He described
his board participation as lucky due to his lack of prior exposure. Participant 6 also
encouraged other first generation students to “Find people and ask as many questions as
you have” (Participant 6, personal communication). He said whether a student needed to
find a professor, a staff member, or a student organization with upperclassmen, go there
and find those people. Do not be afraid to ask questions. Making a self-directed path,
“First generation students must imbed themselves in conversations and organizations”
SUMMARY OF CHAPTER II
First generation students are a significant population of students in higher
education and face multiple barriers that put them at greater risk of not persisting or not
successfully completing a degree. This manuscript discusses the data gathered from six
interviews with first generation college graduates in their third year of law school. The
themes that emerged and served to guide the discussion were barriers related to finances,
culture, fear and Imposter Syndrome, isolation, and lack of a legal mentor. The themes
contributing to the success of the respondents were personal attributes including tenacity,
59
perseverance, and self-efficacy which led to each participant working to create a place for
themself.
The third and final manuscript will use the themes that emerged from the research
that I have discussed in manuscript two. Based on these themes, manuscript three will
contain proposed solutions to the barriers to success for first-generation college graduates
enrolled in a juris doctor program (FGCG-JD) at the University of Mississippi School of
Law. Manuscript three will also present recommendations for future research related to
supporting first-generation college graduates enrolled in a juris doctor program (FGCG-
JD) at the University of Mississippi School of Law in their efforts to overcome barriers to
success.
60
LIST OF REFERENCES
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Cataldi, E.F., Bennett, C.T. & Chen, X. (2018). U.S. Department of Education. First-
generation students: College Access, persistence, and postbachelor’s outcomes.
Engle, J., Bermeo, A. & O’Brien, C. (2006). Straight from the source: What works for
first-generation college students. Pell Institute for the Study of Opportunity in
Higher Education.
Engle, J. & Tinto, V. (2008). Moving beyond access: College success for low-income,
first-generation students. Washington, DC: Pell Institute.
Longwell-Grice, R., & Longwell-Grice, H. (2008). Testing Tinto: How do retention
theories work for first-generation, working-class students? Journal of College
Student Retention, 9(4), 407-420.
Pascarella, E.T., Pierson, C.T., Wolniak, G.C., & Terenzini, P.T. (2004). First-generation
college students. The Journal of Higher Education, 75(3), 249-284.
Schwartz, M. (2018). Retaining our best: Imposter Syndrome, cultural safety, complex
lives and indigenous student experiences of law school. Bond University Legal
Education Review, 28(2), 1-23.
Stebleton, M. J., & Soria, K. M. (2012). Breaking down barriers: Academic obstacles of
first-generation students at research universities. The Learning Assistance
Review, 17(2), 7-19.
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CHAPTER III: FINDINGS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
63
INTRODUCTION TO FINDINGS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Students that have earned a doctorate constitute about 3.2% of the population in
the United States (Winkle-Wagner & McCoy, 2016). Even though first generation
students comprise a significant portion of higher education, an extremely small number
are earning advanced degrees such as doctorates. Because many do not continue on to
graduate degrees, they still do not have the opportunities of other graduates. We live in a
world where advanced education beyond a bachelor’s degree is necessary for social and
economic mobility. However, by not comprehensively supporting first generation
students, we are missing a significant portion of the population that could earn these
advanced degrees and reinvest in their communities as members of an educated populace
(Labaree, 1997).
First generation students are entering higher education without the necessary
cultural capital from their families. Therefore, as the data in this qualitative study
showed, they are either having to self-direct or develop and operationalize resources for
capital outside of their families. This lack of capital and resources for developing it can
leave a significant populace isolated and unable to achieve the goals and skills necessary
to become mentors for other first generation or at-risk individuals.
This dissertation is comprised of three manuscripts which use qualitative method
to explore barriers to success for first-generation college graduates enrolled in a JD
program (FGCG-JD) at the University of Mississippi. The first manuscript discusses the
64
barriers experienced by first-generations students as well as the multitude of factors that
increase their standing as an at-risk population. It contains my positionality personally
and professionally on the problem of practice. Manuscript one also contains the CPED
connection, the conceptual framework, the research questions, and the methodology
utilized. Manuscript two contains the presentation of data that emerged from the three
research questions. Manuscript three includes a detailed analysis of the findings of the
study as well as limitations and recommendations for future research and
recommendations for practical implementation.
FINDINGS
This section of manuscript three presents the findings that evolved from the
analysis of three research questions related to the barriers to success for first-generation
college graduates enrolled in a JD program. This manuscript includes findings presented
as the answer to research questions, discusses limitations, and concludes with
recommendations for future practice and research. As Gardner (2013) noted, first-
generation students in doctoral programs tend to be drawn to applied fields. The practice
of law is an applied field that is important for both the future practitioner as well as
society at large. Therefore, we must reduce the barriers these first generation students
experience.
Research Question One Findings: Perceptions of first-generation college graduates
enrolled in a JD program (FGCG-JD) regarding barriers and successes related to
their academic success in professional, applied degree graduate education
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Financial barriers.
This group of participants was atypical from many other first generation students
in that they were able to obtain sizeable scholarships for both their undergraduate
education and for law school to reduce financial barriers with regard to tuition. However,
each participant expressed the need to work, often multiple jobs, during the course of law
school in order to meet minimum financial responsibilities for themselves and others they
help support. More than a third of first generation students that receive their doctorate
rely solely on their own financial resources during enrollment (Holley & Gardner, 2012).
Because of this, the post-graduation debt load of most first generation students is
considerably higher than that of multigeneration students. All participants interviewed
mentioned the lower tuition cost at the University of Mississippi School of Law as a
considerable factor in their final school decision. First generation students as a whole do
not have the knowledge base or guidance to know the nuances of financial aid and how to
manage debt loads when considering their law degree. “A four-year degree is now held to
be essential for access to employment paying a living wage” (MacLachlan, 2017). First
generation students enrolling in law school want to earn more than a living wage.
Oftentimes they have seen their families struggle and want to do everything within their
control to live differently. They want greater opportunities and increased job security
(Holley & Gardner, 2012).
The data revealed that this group of participants, like many other first generation
students worked multiple jobs to cover basic expenses. Each of them worked and were
very involved during their undergraduate career while maintaining all As. However,
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working, maintaining high grades, and being very involved are more difficult once in law
school, particularly when balancing a field-related internship with a non-field-related
paying job. Many of these students were living away from their hometowns and families
for the first time, so they could not access even minimal support from family if their
finances were short. They were their sole source of support. The students that provided
some level of financial assistance for their family members felt increased stress from that
financial responsibility. Leaving a fulltime career to return to school was a significant
impact on one participant. The inability to financially contribute to family while
balancing academics and trying to meet their own basic needs was definitely a barrier.
Families who were used to receiving support did not understand the decrease and many
seemed to perceive being in law school as a state of already having attained status and
financial security.
Cultural Barriers
First generation students are often older, non-traditional students from minority
backgrounds. Some first generation students may be non-native English speakers that live
in a locale ripe with individuals sharing their same cultural heritage. However, when
moving to the deep South as a non-native English speaker, there can be significant
cultural barriers. Others may not understand your accent or vice versa. Professors, in an
attempt to say a name correctly, may draw more discomfort and attention than is
necessary which in turn emphasizes the cultural barrier instead of making a student feel
comfortable or valued. “A professor isn’t going to spend five minutes trying to correctly
pronounce Brittany. By repeatedly saying my name, class is interrupted and I feel more
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isolated and otherized” (Participant 1, personal communication). Transfer students that
have learned the culture of one school and then move to another have a steep learning
curve as they enter late and have to start anew as it seems like others are three steps
ahead. This situation can enhance feelings of marginalization. There is a lack of student
diversity in programs such as law school (Holley & Gardner, 2012). Furthermore, first
generation students face more discrimination on the basis of race, ethnic background, and
gender (Vasil & McCall, 2018). Other participants in this study felt the shift moving from
a hometown where they were in the minority to moving to a locale where they were the
cultural majority. The data gleaned from this qualitative analysis showed that being
unable to break into the new culture and feel comfortable was a barrier as they sought
comforts such as different ethnic foods and worship opportunities. In addition to these
different cultural barriers, the fact of being first generation or from “uneducated families”
has a significant impact on being able to operationalize support systems to gain cultural
and social capital needed to lower the cultural barriers (MacLachlan, 2017).
Esposito (2017) referred to Imposter Syndrome as being the evil twins of
perfectionism and doubt. Each of these participants expressed having previously set high
standards for themselves which was supported by their prior academic successes. They
continued these high standards upon entering law school. However, once they received
their grades at the end of their first semester of law school, doubt set in and those
perfectionist tendencies wavered. Multiple participants mentioned feeling out of place or
lacking in comparison to other classmates. They wondered if they would measure up and
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be able to be as confident and successful as their classmates appeared. Some of them
talked about putting on a brave face and pushing forward despite their self-doubt.
Esposito (2017) likened this scenario to playing a part and wearing a mask. Not only are
these students facing cultural barriers in the new environment of law school and having to
adjust there, but they are also having to adjust to the expectations of their families, so in
many instances they may feel like they are wearing two masks. They are living the
differences between their two worlds which can increase fear and Imposter Syndrome.
Each of the participants discussed feeling isolated at times during their law school
journey due to their first generation status. They were surrounded by a multitude of
students that are multigenerational who did not have the same barriers such as having to
work while in law school to meet basic needs. This situation creates isolation between
classmates. “Sheer isolation” was experienced (Esposito, et. al., 2017). These participants
were fortunate to have family members who encouraged them. However, because these
family members do not truly understand the law school experience and the particular
demands as a first generation law student, the experiences cannot be completely shared
with the people that should be closest. Frustrations abound when trying to explain fear
about grades, competing responsibilities, and the rigors of law school to family because
family members have historically seen that individual as one who is intelligent,
competent, and successful, so they expect the journey for the student to be easy. Each
participant said their family was mostly supportive even when they did not understand.
This is a consistent finding as discussed by Holley & Gardner (2012). Even though that
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support exists, being a first generation college graduate pursuing a juris doctor is an
isolating journey at times.
Much of higher education and professional career fields are comprised of men of
European heritage from middle to upper socioeconomic or privileged backgrounds
(MacLachlan, 2017). This makes it even more difficult for individuals that do not fit
those parameters to find a mentor. Individuals tend to want mentors they can connect
with and have commonalities with, so to have legal academic mentors of such a
standardized status, it becomes even more difficult for students to approach a potential
mentor that seems so different (MacLachlan, 2017). Not having these mentors impacts
the career trajectory for these students. Mentors can share ideas, career options, or
segments of the legal practice previously unknown to a student. They can assist with
networking and referrals as well as interview preparation or exposure in the field. Legal
mentors are also valuable when undertaking the academics of law school. They have
succeeded in the field and can offer the wisdom and lessons learned from experience. An
additional component to the barrier of not having a mentor is not knowing who to ask to
find one. Gardner (2013) noted that not only do first generations not know the questions
to pose, they do not know what resource to approach. This increases the barrier to finding
and utilizing a mentor.
First generation students are more likely to not achieve their original educational
goals, or they take longer time to degree completion (Gibbons, 2019). Therefore, those
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that are successful and complete their original educational goals demonstrate extreme
tenacity, perseverance, and self-efficacy. They overcome almost insurmountable odds.
While some of the literature indicates that first generation students are seen as having a
lack of ambition about further education, I found the participants in this qualitative study
to be extremely ambitious about furthering their education (Vasil & McCall, 2018). The
data showed that they may not know the easiest or best route. However, whatever they
may lack in awareness they make up for in tenacity and perseverance. Each of these
participants pushed forward no matter the obstacles or self-doubt. All six will
successfully graduate at their original intended date.
Multiple participants in this qualitative study mentioned feeling that they had to
fight for a place. Due to the lack of legal connections and lack of prior experiences such
as mock trial, participants tried out for many boards, interviewed for many internships,
and tried to find ways to build legal connections. In addition to the stress related to
academics, they also had to face stress related to not being part of the mainstream,
multigeneration students that had opportunities, internships, and career options waiting
for them. Preparing for board try-outs such as trial advocacy with little to no experience
as compared to multigenerational students from private schools that had been involved in
mock trial for several years was difficult. On campus interviews were reserved for
students at the top of the class, so many of these participants had to figure out avenues to
gain internships and jobs on their own. They had to discover and create their own
opportunities oftentimes with little to no support or background knowledge. One
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participant said that she refused to accept no as an answer and she forced her way to the
table to have her own place.
Research Question Two Findings: How these barriers and successes affect FGCG-
JD students in their academic endeavors in the JD program at the University of
Mississippi School of Law
Financial barriers.
Each of the participants have to work to meet their basic needs. Many of the jobs
available are outside of the legal field due to the participants not having any prior legal
experience. Therefore, FGCG-JDs have to either sacrifice opportunities to gain legal
experience in order to meet basic needs or add legal internship opportunities on top of the
growing list of other responsibilities being juggled. First generation students have to
choose opportunities that they even have the ability to apply for because internships,
particularly those in other areas, come with their own expenses of travel and additional
housing. These financial barriers mean a FGCG-JD has to sacrifice time for studying and
academic endeavors in order to work. Their focus is split between academics and trying
to meet basic needs including housing and food. Because many FGCG-JDs are also
supporting children or other family members, the financial barriers can cause the need for
increased debt loads through loans. The stress that comes from an increased debt load and
the pressure to perform to gain future employment also exacerbates this financial barrier
as FGCG-JDs try to plan for the unforeseen during their academic journey.
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Cultural Barriers
First generation students are significantly from minority backgrounds that also
lack social and cultural capital. Institutions of higher education still reflect much of the
culture of educating upper socioeconomic students from non-minority backgrounds
(Brus, 2006). Upon entering law school, a field that has been historically dominated by
white males from prominent, affluent families, first generation college graduates often
experience a form of culture shock. Used to being known as an intelligent person to
whom academics came easily, they are suddenly in an environment where their names or
appearance or lack of social and cultural capital become apparent and set them apart. In
addition to facing these differences as well as the unforeseen rigors of law school, these
participants also had to assess their gaps in knowledge and exposure while
simultaneously trying to fill the gaps. The cultural barriers of speaking English as a
second language or coming from a community compromised significantly of a
homogenous minority to joining law school where your family connections, last name, or
social status grant opportunities can be quite jarring.
The participants in this qualitative study had to figure out what resources they
could use to determine what they did not know and gain the needed cultural capital to
understand and work with the dominant culture. These cultural barriers add another layer
of obstacles and frustration to first generation students.
Fear of failing or feeling guilty are common components of the Imposter
Syndrome experienced by first generation students (Gardner & Holley, 2011). Multiple
73
participants mentioned their fear of failure as law school was different than any other
educational coursework they had previously pursued. When they did not earn all As as
they previously had in other coursework, they began to feel guilty about their lower level
of performance, guilty that they had left their families to pursue the coursework, and that
maybe they did not belong. Multiple participants had to reassess their personal beliefs
about their intellectual ability and compared themselves to multigenerational students
from law families. There were instances where Imposter Syndrome impacted their mental
state and caused self-isolation. Individuals that progress through life and graduate high
school believing that they are intelligent and make the best grades, but then join law
school only to realize they are in a highly competitive environment where they are not
necessarily the most intelligent, can have a significant impact. First generation students
are thrust into an environment they do not anticipate nor understand, one that is
significantly different from anything they have ever experienced. Students begin to feel
as if they do not belong. They do not have the experience, knowledge, or connections that
their classmates have so they begin to feel as if they are lesser or a fraud that will be
discovered. Imposter Syndrome plays a significant role for these students. In this
competitive environment they do not share these struggles and end up experiencing bouts
of self-isolation.
When first generation college graduates in a juris doctor program experience
isolation as a barrier, they further hinder their ability to develop the social and cultural
capital needed. Not clicking with their faculty members enhances isolation as a barrier
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because the students isolate from potential mentors that could assist with their social and
cultural capital development. The academic and developmental rigors of law school are
such that students that isolate end up even further behind in their development.
When students isolate from faculty, they jeopardize being able to find a mentor as
well as their exposure to opportunities to learn more about various facets of the legal
field. This can cause a decrease in networking opportunities and academic struggles can
be greater. Academic struggles can turn into a cycle of academic underperformance and
isolation wherein students that are not performing academically well and do not seek help
can appear disengaged from their coursework or lacking the ability to perform, which
further reduces a faculty member’s willingness to intervene or share opportunities for
exposure. This situation will impact the student and possibly increase their isolation.
First generation students have a tendency to isolate from non-law school friends
and family because they do not understand what the student is enduring. Without walking
the path through law school, it is impossible to truly explain the journey, expectations,
and feelings a first generation college graduate in a juris doctor program experiences.
Furthermore, until they have law friends that are similarly situated, first generation
college graduates in a juris doctor program may even feel isolation from classmates who
do not have the same experiences of having to work, balance outside responsibilities, and
manage a family. First generation students may often times push through and make it
appear as if everything is copacetic. However, they are dealing with a system that can
isolate some students while elevating other students over the first generation college
graduate in a juris doctor program (Weiston-Serdan, 2009).
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First generation college graduates in a juris doctor program often do not initially
understand the importance of networking with faculty as well as other students.
Multigenerational students from law families can provide as much exposure to the needed
professional network as professors. Because these first generation students are not aware
of that, it may be beneficial for faculty to intercede and help these first generation
students connect (Howard, 2017). Faculty that were not first generation students may not
understand the positionality of a student that either is not aware of the importance of
networking and involvement or has to sacrifice networking and involvement to meet
other responsibilities outside of school. Some professors may see the lack of knowledge
or involvement as disinterest or lack of engagement and ambition in the field. This could
result in a “chilly climate” which makes it even more difficult for first generation
students to connect to the faculty they need as legal mentors (Brus, 2006).
As is typical of first generation students, these participants took significant risks
to continue their education and overcame obstacles. Many sacrificed time with their
families, opportunities for additional income, and even personal time to pursue their goal
of a law school education. They experienced setbacks in family struggles and in their
grades as they adjusted to the law school curve. A couple of participants mentioned
missing class or much-needed study time to travel back home multiple times to assist
with family issues. These sacrifices in combination with balancing academics, family
responsibilities, work, and internships all demonstrate high levels of tenacity,
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perseverance, and self-efficacy in these participants. These first generation college
graduates in a juris doctor program used these attributes to continue moving forward on a
path to successful law school completion. Their grades may not have been straight As,
but they all reported completing their coursework with grades that are above average.
Each of these participants worked to develop a place for themselves within this
new law school environment. In working to develop a place for herself, one participant
evaluated the gap in supportive resources for first generation college graduates in a juris
doctor program, so she developed resources that she could share with other FGCG-JDs.
She used her organizational and communication skills to volunteer with clinics working
on emergent issues in the minority community. She advocated for other minority students
and set the example on handling microaggressions. She made a place for herself through
her volunteer and advocacy opportunities which enhanced her academic experience in
applying skills.
Each of the participants spoke of working in clinics, volunteering for pro bono
cases, applying for board and other advocacy opportunities, as well as working
internships. They all had the drive to not only gain opportunities to apply what they were
learning in the classroom in a tangible way, they all saw contributing to other
underrepresented communities as a chance to develop a place for themselves. They each
demonstrated their dedication to giving back as an integral part of establishing their
person in the law school space.
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Research Question Three Findings: Recommendations FGCG-JD students propose
to assist success to other first-generation college graduates enrolled in a JD program
Each participant had obviously thought about and also implemented some self-
developed solutions to help support other first generation college graduates in the juris
doctor program. Even though these participants had faced adversity, they were all willing
to help other similarly situated students. Labaree discussed the importance of
democratizing benefits of an educated populace. These first generation college graduates
were already unknowingly living those ideals and bestowing benefits as they reached out
to assist others.
The participants discussed tenacity and continued attempts to gain the knowledge
and experience they felt they needed. They did not give up, and used their own
experiences to advise other similarly situated students who were considering law school.
They all demonstrated working hard and the determination to overcome adversity. Where
they identified gaps, they performed research, developed resources, and shared them with
other first-generation students. They became mentors while they were still trying to find
their own way.
LIMITATIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS FOR RESEARCH
This section aims to identify and discuss some limitations of the study as well as
produce recommendations for future research. This research began in 2019, prior to the
COVID-19 pandemic. Therefore, the results and perceptions of students that completed
law school in its entirety prior to the pandemic or those that complete law school in its
entirety post-pandemic may have very different experiences and the data may differ from
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this qualitative study. Due to COVID-19 and the move to virtual or web-based classes,
first generation students that regularly report isolation as a facet of the first generation
experience may feel even more isolated or disconnected. Findings from this qualitative
study support other reports that mental health issues have increased in students during the
pandemic and have impacted first generation students enrolled in law school.
First generation students are typically older students that are married. The
participants of this study were primarily traditional age law students. Therefore, that
could have impacted their connection with their professors. Older students may feel more
connected to professors due to the closer ages or professional career experience. I would
think an appropriate study going forward would be to look at the experiences of younger
first generation students as opposed to older first generation students as we seek to better
understand this particular population of first generation students involved in graduate-
level work. Do the differences in life experience that come with age impact their higher
education journey differently?
The participants of this qualitative study were all primarily academically
prepared. They came from sufficiently performing high schools or supplemented their
high school experience with dual enrollment classes. They all earned undergraduate
degrees in rigorous programs such as finance and political science. However, the data
showed that each of them lacked cultural capital and their undergraduate experience did
not provide the much-needed exposure that would have better prepared them for the
environment of law school.
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The participant group that responded to this qualitative study was less than ten
students that are primarily traditional law school ages. Each of these students except one
alluded to battling Imposter Syndrome. The one student that did not reference Imposter
Syndrome was over 30 years of age and previously worked a full-time professional career
prior to coming to law school. Did her age and life experience play a factor in not
mentioning that she experienced any bouts of Imposter Syndrome? Due to the size of the
group and homogeneity of age I would not generalize this study broadly without
additional research participants of a broader age range.
RECOMMENDATIONS FOR PRACTICE
First generation students have more at stake and generally risk more in their
professional and personal lives to pursue advanced education (Vasil & McCall 2018).
Therefore, we must ensure their access to information, networks, and support to increase
their opportunities for success. Gardner (2013) asserted that if all students were given
access to the same information and resources, then there would not be privileged
information for only select groups of students. The data from this qualitative study
indicated that ensuring that all students have the same access to the information prior to
beginning law school could reduce at least some barriers experienced by first generation
students. I will discuss some programmatic opportunities to address the needs of FGCG-
JD that could potentially reduce barriers described by the participants.
Implications for Equity, Ethics, and Social Justice
Based on the data from this qualitative study, FGCG-JDs are a population of
students that require varying options for support to help them be academically successful.
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In fulfilling the needs of FGCG-JDs, we must develop programs that are equitable and
meet students where they are in order to develop their diverse talents in the pursuit of
academic success. Ethics must be an integral part of the fabric of higher education.
FGCG-JDs are learning new ideas and skills they have not been exposed to before. Also,
non-FGCG-JDs are being exposed to students with diverse ideas, backgrounds, and
experiences. To support the diversity of these students while promoting inclusion and fair
treatment, truth and integrity must be incorporated into coursework and promoted with all
students. In considering social justice in the distribution of wealth or opportunities,
FGCG-JDs lacking cultural capital and coming from low SES families will have more
difficulty developing the networks and identifying opportunities they need for skill
development. The lack of networks and skill-building opportunities can significantly alter
an individual’s career without a proper social justice program implemented to assist with
these barriers. The disparity between FGCG-JDs and non FGCG-JDs must be bridged.
Center for First Generation Success
In order to reduce the barriers for first generation college graduates pursuing a JD
identified in this qualitative study, we must identify the barriers they encounter and
implement plans to fill the gap. A center for first generation success could be housed on
campus in the Lott Leadership Institute. This center would be equipped with resources
specifically for first generation students.
The initial program would be multi-faceted to meet the varying needs of first-
generation students. When a first generation student expresses an interest in law school,
faculty and staff could direct them to the Center for First Generation Success. The Center
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for First Generation Success will have partnerships with other programs that support first
generation, low income, and under-represented student populations such as the McNair
Scholars program, The Council on Legal Education Opportunity, Inc. (CLEO), and
AccessLex. Partnerships with each of these programs will enable students to gain access
to these resources through the Center for First Generation Success.
The McNair Scholars Program serves undergraduate first generation, low income
students, and students from under-represented groups in their graduate studies (McNair
Scholars, 2021). McNair provides counseling, research opportunities, stipends, fee
waivers, and fellowship opportunities. In partnering with the McNair Scholars program,
the Center for First Generation Success would expand the same types of programmatic
support to include JD students instead of solely students pursuing a PhD. (McNair
Scholars, 2021)
The Council on Legal Education Opportunity, Inc. (CLEO) offers a pre-law
summer institute for underrepresented students as well as Saturday classes for law school
prospectives to develop reading comprehension, logical reasoning and writing skills
(CLEO, Inc, 2021). These skills are all crucial to LSAT and law school success. In
partnering with CLEO, the Center for First Generation Success would house a pre-law
summer institute as well as needed skills training opportunities.
AccessLex was developed as a non-profit to create a pipeline for expanding
diversity in the law school student population (AccessLex, 2021). They provide financial
counseling including scholarship opportunities and loan guidance for their students as
well as bar exam preparation opportunities. In partnering with AccessLex, the Center for
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First Generation Success would provide access to law school financial counseling,
scholarship opportunity awareness, and access to bar preparation programs.
At the Center for First Generation Success, students could meet with other first
generation college graduates, including faculty and staff, who have already paved this
path. They would have access to resume review, guidance, and counseling about law
school as a first generation student. They would receive guidance on experiences needed
prior to law school, taking the LSAT, the application process, and guidance on how to
analyze schools and considerations in deciding where to apply. These opportunities
would exist during regular hours as well as provide supplemental office hours one
evening or Saturday each month to promote access for all students needing the services.
There could be a law school experience class wherein first generation students
interested in law school would have the opportunity to spend time with specially trained
law staff and faculty, learning about the law school experience and understanding barriers
they may face as first generation college graduates. It will be important that the faculty
and staff are either first generation college graduates themselves or have been specifically
trained about identifying and navigating the barriers for first generation and other at-risk
populations. Students will have the opportunity to be matched with a mentor. These
mentor relationships will begin as soon as a student decides to begin the law school
application process and will involve matching a potential law student with a 2L, 3L, or
practicing attorney that will continue with them throughout their educational culmination
at the University of Mississippi. After their 1L year and continuing through their 3L year,
first generation college graduates in the juris doctor program will be matched with
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opportunities for advocacy, experiential learning, and skill implementation. They will be
presented opportunities to invest in underrepresented communities in Mississippi both
during law school and post-graduation. The experiential learning opportunities during
law school would be supported by an endowment for experiential learning so these
students could afford to serve in the Mississippi regions where they are most needed.
These activities will be monitored and guided by the Center for First Generation Success.
A comprehensive, multi-faceted program such as this requires substantial
financial contributions, so through the previously mentioned partnerships as well as
interested donors we can design and implement this Center. Once a successful platform is
implemented for first generation college graduates enrolling in a juris doctor program, the
platform could be expanded in a thoughtful, controlled manner to cover additional degree
and career fields. The initial population to be served by the Center for First Generation
Success would be juris doctor students, but then the Center could grow in a way to ensure
quality and appropriate levels of support as well as proper staffing to reach and assist a
broader first generation student population across the University system.
CONCLUSION
There is unequal access to higher education across the United States and first
generation students are significantly impacted. First generation students are a large,
growing at-risk population that faces multiple barriers to completing a degree. Individuals
must have a degree to earn a living wage, and higher education has become a prerequisite
to obtaining professional employment. Without reducing the barriers for first generation
students, this population will not grow proportionately in academic programs and be
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unable to fill the potential roles in the professional field that would allow them to become
community investors and leaders in the form of a more educated populace.
This qualitative dissertation examined the experiences of six successful first
generation college students in the juris doctor program at the University of Mississippi
School of Law. These participants discussed their perceptions about barriers to academic
success and a few themes emerged. The participants discussed financial barriers, cultural
barriers, fear and imposter syndrome, isolation, and lack of a legal mentor as barriers they
experienced. They combatted these barriers by using their own tenacity, perseverance,
and self-efficacy, and finally, developing their own place in order to successfully
navigate their course to successful law school completion.
The interviews and data gleaned from this qualitative study revealed that there are
significant gaps in support for first generation college graduates enrolled in the juris
doctor program at the University of Mississippi School of Law. There needs to be
solutions and formalized structures in place to guide first generation college graduates in
a juris doctor program in a way that affords them the tools to reduce financial barriers,
lessen the cultural barriers, teach them how to address fear and Imposter Syndrome,
reduce feelings of isolation, and also find an appropriate legal mentor. By capitalizing on
the tenacity, perseverance, and self-efficacy of these students in their drive to make a
place for themselves, we can assist them in reducing barriers to success for their law
degree.
The goal of this dissertation was to analyze the experiences of first generation
college graduates enrolled in the juris doctor program at the University of Mississippi
85
School of Law in order to glean data to develop informed solutions for reducing their
barriers to success through structured programs providing needed support and guidance.
86
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Education, 27(2), 67-81.
Weiston-Serdan, T.L. (2009). A radical redistribution of capital. Journal for Critical
Education Policy Studies, 7(2), 395-415.
Winkle-Wagner, R. & McCoy, D.L. (2016). Entering the (postgraduate) field:
Underrepresented students’ acquisition of cultural and social capital in graduate
school preparation programs. The Journal of Higher Education, 87(2), 178-250.
89
LIST OF APPENDICES
90
APPENDIX A
91
RECRUITMENT SCRIPT
Title: EdD Dissertation Research – First Generation Law Students: Barriers to Success
Investigator Advisor
Melissa L. Jones, MBA, JD Neal Hutchens, Ph.D., JD
Department of Education (Higher Ed) John Holleman, EdD
106 Lott Institute Department of Education (Higher Ed)
The University of Mississippi 120 Guyton Hall
(662) 915-3189 The University of Mississippi
(662) 915-2520 (Hutchens)
(662) 801-4781 (Holleman)
I am a student pursuing an EdD in higher education. I am seeking students to participate
in a research study from August 2020 through March 2021. These students will be first-
generation students pursuing a JD at the University of Mississippi School of Law that are
in their 3L year.
For the purposes of the study, I will conduct two to three brief one-on-one interviews
with each participant to understand their experiences as a first-generation college
graduate pursuing a law degree.
This research has been given IRB approval. No compensation will be provided for
participation in this research. For questions or to indicate your willingness to participate,
please contact Melissa Jones at [email protected].
92
APPENDIX B
93
INFORMATION SHEET
Department of Education (Higher Ed) John Holleman, EdD
106 Lott Institute Department of Education (Higher Ed)
The University of Mississippi 120 Guyton Hall
(662) 915-3189 The University of Mississippi
(662) 915-2520 (Hutchens)
(662) 801-4781 (Holleman)
INCLUDE THE FOLLOWING ONLY IF YOU ARE COLLECTING DATA

EXCLUSIVELY FROM ADULTS
By checking this box, I certify that I am 18 years of age or older.
Description
The purpose of this research project is to determine the barriers faced by first generation
law school students. I would like to ask you a few questions about your experiences and
perceptions about your law school journey and any potential barriers. You will not be
asked for your name or any other identifying information.
Cost and Payments
There will be no payments associated with this research.
Risks and Benefits
You may feel uncomfortable looking back over some of your experiences. I do not think
that there are any other risks. Your reflection about overcoming any potential barriers
may actually provide a sense of satisfaction and accomplishment.
Confidentiality
I will not record names or other information that would clearly identify participants.
94
Right to Withdraw
You do not have to take part in this study and you may stop participation at any time. If
you start the study and decide that you do not want to finish, all you have to do is to tell
Ms. Jones or Dr. Hutchens or Dr. Holleman in person, by letter, or by telephone (contact
information listed above). You may skip any questions you prefer not to answer.
IRB Approval
This study has been reviewed by The University of Mississippi’s Institutional Review
Board (IRB). If you have any questions, concerns, or reports regarding your rights as a
participant of research, please contact the IRB at (662) 915-7482 or [email protected].
Statement of Consent
I have read and understand the above information. By completing the survey/interview I
consent to participate in the study.
95
APPENDIX C
96
INTERVIEW QUESTIONS
Department of Education (Higher Ed) Department of Education (Higher Ed)
106 Lott Institute 120 Guyton Hall
The University of Mississippi The University of Mississippi
(662) 915-3189 (662) 915-2520 (Hutchens)
The following interview questions will guide my efforts to understand the journey
of first-generation JD students and the barriers to success that they experience at the
1. Tell me about your background and your educational journey to law
school?
a. Why did you select the University of Mississippi School of Law
for your law school endeavors?
2. Tell me about your transition into law school.
3. Did you complete any bridge programs for pre-law students prior to
attending law school at the University of Mississippi?
4. How was your experience in your 2L year different from your 1L year?
5. What types of challenges have you experienced in law school? Who or
where do you go for support when you experience challenges?
6. Summers are important for law students. Tell me about your experiences
for your 1L and 2L summers.
97
7. How have your law school experiences affirmed or helped you rethink
your initial goals when you entered law school? How have they helped
you think about your post-graduation plans?
8. Is there anything else you’d like to share about your experience in law
school?
a. What advice would you give other first-generation law students?
98
VITA
MELISSA L. JONES
Education and Admissions

Phi Kappa Phi, 2019
eLearning Training Course (eTC)

University of Mississippi, 2018
Mississippi Bar Admission, 2014
Juris Doctor
University of Mississippi School of Law, 2013
Masters of Business Administration, Human Resources Specialization

Ellis College of New York Institute of Technology, 2009
Bachelor of Arts, English

Ellis College of New York Institute of Technology, 2006
Administrative Experience
Associate Director, Lott Leadership Institute, 2017 – Present
University of Mississippi, Oxford, MS
• Plan, coordinate, develop, and implement special programs for high school and
undergraduate students.
• Counsel students on internships, graduate school endeavors, and career paths.
• Serve as liaison between the Institute and other cross-campus partners and
external constituents.
Teaching Experience
Instructor (LIBA 199: Leadership Perspectives), June 2021 – Present
• Instruct students in developing an understanding of leadership values and
principles.
• Instruct students in developing informational interview plans and assist with the
logistical elements of executing the interview with community, state, and
national leaders.
99
Instructor (LA 201: Introduction to Law), January 2021 – Present
• Instruct a class of 50 students on the development of the law in our society.
• Introduce students to legal terminology and reasoning.
• Assist students with recognizing substantive areas of the law.
• Instruct students in better understanding the legal and paralegal professions as
well as the related ethical implications.
Instructor (CJ 370: Domestic Crimes and Family Law), January 2020 – Present
• Instruct a class of 40 students on the origins of violence in the family from the
administration of justice perspective.
• Assist students in developing increased critical thinking about important issues in
family violence.
• Instruct on the structural forces and issues behind family violence both
domestically and internationally.
• Assist students in developing increased problem-solving skills based on
enhanced understanding of issues in current policy and practice.
• Guide students for enhanced communication skills and reading/research acumen
as it pertains to family violence.
Instructor (LA 205: Legal Research/Writing II), January 2019 – Present

• Instruct a class of 40 students on increased critical thinking and problem-solving
skills based on enhanced development of legal evaluation, research, and
demonstrated verbal and written communications.
• Guide in drafting legal documents including legal memos, correspondence,
briefs, and other legal documents.
Instructor (LAW 758: Speaker’s Edge), January 2019 – Present

• Instruct a class of law, accountancy, and MBA students in leveraging the
elements of a formal competition to hone their communication, coaching, and
critical thinking skills.
• Present students with multiple opportunities to develop and give presentations
as well as critique and coach each other in this intensive two-week program for
advanced business communication.
Instructor (LA 204: Legal Research/Writing I), August 2018 – Present

• Instruct a class of 40 students on the basics of legal research, writing, and
analysis.
100
• Guide students to increased critical thinking and problem-solving skills based
on enhanced development of legal evaluation, research, and demonstrated
verbal and written communications.
University and Community Service

• Develop Pathways to Leadership Program, 2021
• Co-Develop Washington, D.C. Internship Experience Program, 2020-2021
• Admissions Committee Member, LLI Summer Programs, 2018 - Present
• Staff Representative, Lott Institute Student Advisory Board, 2017-Present
• Emerging Leaders Conference, 2017 - Present
• Internship Selection Committee, UM Internship Experiences, 2017 – 2019
• Sunflower Freedom Project Fellows Committee Member, 2017-2019
• Coach for University of Mississippi’s Speakers Edge Program, 2017-2018
• Assisted with Coaching, Gabrielli Family Law Moot Court Team, 2015-2017
• Judge for University of Mississippi’s Speakers Edge Program, 2015-2016
• Volunteer Attorney for Mississippi Volunteer Lawyer’s Program, 2014-2020
• Assisted with developing a federal criminal law text and drafted the
accompanying video scripts for Wolters Kluwer, 2013-2014
101

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University of Mississippi

Electronic Theses and Dissertations Graduate School

FIRST GENERATION LAW STUDENTS: BARRIERS TO SUCCESS

Follow this and additional works at: https://egrove.olemiss.edu/etd

Part of the Higher Education Commons

A Dissertation Presented in partial fulfillment of requirements for the degree of Doctor of

All rights reserved.

A significant population of higher education students are first generation students;

interconnected, heightened risk factors (Gardner, 2013).

emphasis on the democraticizing benefits of an educated populace meld together in a lens

First-generation students fulfilling an educational pathway to the level of a juris doctor

can fill roles as mentors so desperately needed in their underrepresented communities. By

social justice in higher education for this populace.

structure of first generation success could be implemented to guide first generation

needed to reduce the barriers for successful juris doctor completion.

work ethic, and love of learning.

mentoring me through this process.

Thank you to my committee members, Dr. Hutchens, Dr. Edmondson, and

not sure which direction to follow.

Thank you to my mentor, boss, and friend, Billy Gottshall. It is your

encouragement, support, and understanding that allowed me to accomplish this goal

while managing all of the other facets of work and life.

you for the sequestered moments to work on this research.

LIST OF FIGURES ........................................................................................................... viii

LIST OF TABLES .............................................................................................................. ix

CHAPTER I: AN OVERVIEW OF BARRIERS TO SUCCESS ........................................ 1

PROBLEM OF PRACTICE ........................................................................................... 2

CARNEGIE PROJECT ON THE EDUCATIONAL DOCTORATE .......................... 10

CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK ................................................................................. 15

RESEARCH QUESTIONS .......................................................................................... 21

SUMMARY OF CHAPTER I: AN OVERVIEW OF BARRIERS TO SUCCESS.... 25

LIST OF REFERENCES .............................................................................................. 26

CHAPTER II: DATA PRESENTATION ......................................................................... 32

INTRODUCTION TO DATA PRESENTATION ....................................................... 33

DATA PRESENTATION ............................................................................................. 34

PERSONAL PROFILES .............................................................................................. 35

RESEARCH QUESTION 1 .......................................................................................... 39

RESEARCH QUESTION 2 .......................................................................................... 50

SUMMARY OF CHAPTER II .................................................................................... 59

LIST OF REFERENCES ............................................................................................. 61

CHAPTER III: FINDINGS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ............................................ 63

INTRODUCTION TO FINDINGS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ........................... 64

LIMITATIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS FOR RESEARCH ........................... 78

RECOMMENDATIONS FOR PRACTICE ................................................................. 80

LIST OF REFERENCES ................................................................................................... 87

Figure 1. FGCG-JD Barriers to Success. .......................................................................... 39

Figure 2: Internal Components for Success ...................................................................... 48

Based on the number of institutions of higher education in America, both non-

resources on higher education. Due to these significant investments, success in higher

education is important. In American higher education, success is often defined as

graduation or degree attainment. This success is particularly important in professional,

bachelor’s degree. In my Dissertation in Practice, I looked at the narrow focus of

perceptions of first-generation college graduates enrolled in a JD program (FGCG-JD)

regarding factors related to their academic success in graduate-level education at the

of Mississippi School of Law.

First generation students are a significant population. Based on a 2011 report by

of first generation and minority students. Mississippi Public Universities published an

total population of 2,976,149 (United States Census Bureau, 2019).

Looking at 2019-2020 enrollment trends from the Office of Institutional