TERMINOLOGY

Terminology is the science studying the structure, formation, development, usage and management of
terms.
A term is a designation of a concept belonging to a language for specific purposes (LSP).
WHY IS X A TERM?
X is a term because it has a precise meaning and it is used within a particular subject field. In this case, X
belongs to the field of Y.
Basic Principles of Terminology (GTT) (ISO 10241)
1. Terminology begins with the concept and aims to clearly delineate each concept.
2. Concepts should not be studied in isolation, but rather as elements in a concept system that can be
drawn up based on a close study of the characteristics of concepts, which bring out the existing
relationships between the concepts.
3. Definitions should reflect the position of a concept in a concept system; the intensional* definition is
preferred as it is more systematic than any other type of definition.
4. The principle of univocity: each concept should be designed by only one term and one term should
only refer to one concept; synonymy and polysemy should be eliminated.
5. The synchrony** principle.
*An intensional definition gives the meaning to a term by specifying necessary and sufficient conditions
for when the term should be used. In the case of nouns, this means listing the properties that an object
needs to have in order to be counted as a referent of the term. (Wiki)
**A synchronic approach (from Ancient Greek: συν- "together" and χρόνος "time") considers a language
at a moment in time without taking its history into account. Synchronic linguistics aims at describing a
language at a specific point of time, often the present. In contrast, diachronic linguistics (from δια-
"through" and χρόνος "time"), as in historical linguistics, considers the development and evolution of a
language through history.
The semasiological approach – specific of Lexicology; sense: from word towards meaning; basic question:
„what does X mean?
The onomasiological approach – preferred in Terminology; sense: from the concept to the
terms(designation); basic question: „what is x called?”
Thus, an onomasiological question is, e.g., "what are the names for long, narrow pieces of potato that
have been deep-fried?" (answers: french fries in the US, chips in the UK, etc.), while a semasiological
question is, e.g., "what is the meaning of the term chips?" (answers: 'long, narrow pieces of potato that
have been deep-fried' in the UK, 'slim slices of potatoes deep fried or baked until crisp' in the US).

Ad hoc research is a question of solving a terminology problem in a translation as quickly as

possible.
Subject-related research (also known a systematic or thematic terminology work) is more reliable
method because it allows the terminology of all or part of a clearly defined subject area and the
relevant concepts as they relate to each other to be set out in a systematic/organized form.
The terminology record is a tool for synthesizing and organizing data. The main criteria for preparing a
record are the validity, conciseness, timeliness, and complementarity of the data.
The three main steps in the creation of terminology records are:
1. Researching
2. Creating record
3. Sharing (how the final records are used)
Data categories - the different types of information recorded in termbases, in the different fields of the
entries, such as definitions, parts of speech, and usage notes.
Types of Data Categories :
1. concept-related
2. term-related
3. technical/administrative
Acronyms are new words formed from the initial letters of a set of other words. These can be forms such
as CD (“compact disk”) or VCR (“video cassette recorder”) where the pronunciation consists of saying
each separate letter. But, more typically, acronyms are pronounced as new single words, as in NATO,
NASA or UNESCO. These examples have kept their capital letters, but many acronyms simply become
everyday terms such as LASER (“light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation”), RADAR
(“radio detecting and ranging”), SCUBA (“self-contained underwater breathing apparatus”) and ZIP
(“zone improvement plan”) code.
The combination of two separate forms to produce a single new term is also present in the process called
blending. However, blending is typically accomplished by taking only the beginning of one word and
joining it to the end of the other word.
Gasoline+alcohol=gasohol.
Smoke+Fog=Smog.
Smoke + haze= smaze
Smoke + murk= smurk.
Binary+digit=bit
Breakfast+lunch= brunch
A very specialized type of reduction process is known as backformation. Typically, a word of one type
(usually a noun) is reduced to form a word of another type (usually a verb). A good example of
backformation is the process whereby the noun television first came into use and then the verb televise
was created from it. Other examples of words created by this process are:
Donate from “donation”
Emote from “emotion”
One of the most common sources of new words in English is the process simply labeled borrowing. It is
the process where we take over words from other languages or simply we borrow words from other
languages.
When we conjoin or join two separate words to produce a single form, it is called compounding.
Common English compounds are:
Book+case= bookcase
Door+knob= doorknob,
Finger+print= fingerprint
The element of reduction that is noticeable in blending is even more apparent in the process described as
clipping. This occurs when a word of more than one syllable (facsimile) is reduced to a shorter form
(fax), usually beginning in casual speech. The term gasoline is still used, but most people talk about gas,
using the clipped form. Other common examples:
Ad- advertisement
Bra- brassiere
Cab- cabriolet
A change in the function of a word, as for example when a noun comes to be used as a verb (without any
reduction), is generally known as conversion
Initialisms are very similar to acronyms in that they are made up of letters of some name or phrase,
usually the first letter of each word as is common with acronyms. The difference between an acronym
and initialism is that the abbreviation formed with initialisms is not pronounced as a word, rather you say
the individual letters, such as FBI (Federal Bureau of Investigation), CIA (Central Intelligence Agency),
and DVD (Digital Video Disk*).
A definition: a descriptive statement that gives the essential characteristics of a concept as well as
characteristics that distinguish the concept from all others.
A context can be: definitional/defining, explanatory, associative
Defining contexts include the essential characteristics of the concept under study.
Explanatory contexts provide information about some of the characteristics.
Associative contexts demonstrate the use of the term in the subject field under study, but do not help to
illustrate the textual match through correspondence of semantic features.
Examples
Defining context: "BSE or ‘Mad Cow Disease’ is a progressive, fatal disease of the nervous system of
cattle."
Explanatory context: "The disease has an incubation period of four to five years, but ultimately is fatal for
cattle within weeks to months of its onset. BSE first came to the attention of the scientific community in
November 1986 in the United Kingdom (UK)."
Associative context: "BSE is a federally reportable disease in Canada, under the authority of the Health of
Animals Act."
Types of definitions:
- Definitions by genus and specific difference
- Partitive definitions
- Definitions by synonym
- Definitions by description
- Mixed synonym and description
- Operational definitions
- Definitions by demonstration
- Extensional Definitions
- Definitions by genus and specific difference
Definitions by genus and specific difference: also called analytical / Aristotelian definition
- Suitable to define nouns
- Analyzes their characteristics
- indicate the superordinate concept (the concept immediately above or at a higher level), then the
characteristic(s) that distinguish the concept from others in the same concept system.
Ex. lead pencil: Pencil whose graphite core is fixed in a wooden casing that is removed for usage by
sharpening.
Superordinate concepts - pencil / writing instrument.
Essential and delimiting characteristics - casing must be removed for usage by sharpening; graphite core
is fixed in wood casing.
Partitive definitions: describe a whole by its parts, or describe a part in relation to the whole
formulas: part of, component of, section of, period of, element in, ingredients making up, etc., followed
by the superordinate concept.
Ex. lead cartridge: The part of a mechanical pencil’s lead advance mechanism which stores and guides the
lead refill as it moves forward.
Superordinate concept - lead advance mechanism.
Essential and delimiting characteristics - stores the lead; guides the lead as it is advanced.
Definitions by synonymy: define the concept using a term with the same meaning, considered to be more
familiar to the target audience.
Softlifting: software piracy, software theft
Definitions by description: list the essential characteristics of the concept (nature, material, purpose,
means, cause and effect, time, place).
Mirror: a polished surface, usually made of glass, that forms images by reflection.
Nature - a polished surface.
Material - glass.
Purpose - to form images.
Means - by reflection.
Mixed: ex. synonym and description - begin with a synonym, then describe use, purpose, nature, etc.
Impulse (physiology): the signal that travels along the length of a nerve fibre.
Operational definitions: describe the performance of observable and repeatable operations
- Useful for defining processes, methods, mechanisms and machines by describing how they are
conducted or how they operate or function.
Ex. Printer: A computer peripheral that produces a durable record of data in the form of a sequence of
discrete graphic characters belonging to a predetermined character set.
Extensional Definitions – (in highly specialized terminological documents directed at field specialists)
- the definition can be formulated as an exhaustive list of the subordinate concepts which
correspond to the objects in the class.
Ex. threatened species: Critically endangered species, endangered species or vulnerable species.
Definitions: intensional vs extensional
by extension: “«expenses» include costs, charges and necessary outlays of every description; «notice»
includes a demand, consent or waiver.” (in legal texts - contracts)
by intension: “«business day» means a day on which banks and foreign exchange markets are open for
business in London and New York.”
Best practices for definitions:
A terminological definition must meet the following requirements:
• Reference to a system: the definition inserts the concept into a concept system.
Example bicycle: land-vehicle used for transportation, having two wheels, a frame and a seat, which is
pedal-driven and human-powered
• Conciseness: the definition is concise, clear, and brief but still containing all the essential
distinguishing characteristics.
Example original definition:
Term: ageing Definition: Gradual rise in strength due to physical change in metals and alloys, in which
there is breakdown from supersaturated solid solution and lattice precipitation over a period of days at
atmospheric temperature.
poor shortened form: Term: ageing Definition: Gradual rise in strength due to physical change in metals
and alloys.
good shortened form: Term: ageing Definition: Rise in strength in metals and alloys in which there is a
breakdown from super-saturated solid solution.”
• Affirmativeness: the definition states what the concept is, rather than what it is not.
Example trailer Definition: Non-mechanically propelled vehicle.
• Noncircularity: the definition does not use words whose definitions refer back to the concept in
question, nor does it begin with the term itself.
Example: textiles Definition: Products of the textile industry.
• Absence of tautology - the definition is not a paraphrase of the term, but rather a description
of the semantic features of the concept. Avoid the following:
Example: textiles Definition: Products of the textile industry.
• Substitutability - Use of term of the same part of speech that - the definition begins with a term of
the same part of speech as the term being defined so that the term can be replaced by the definition within
text without changing the sentence.
There are two types of relationships: hierarchical and non hierarchical ~ associative
Hierarchical relationships
Narrower Term (NT): if X is a NT of Y, then X is narrower in some sense than Y. For example, milk NT
cow milk, grain NT rice.
Broader Term (BT): if Y is a BT of X, then X is broader than Y; for example cow milk BT milk, rice BT
grain. BT is the inverse of NT.
Hyponymy shows the relationship between a generic term (hypernym) and a specific instance of it
(hyponym). A hyponym is a word or phrase whose semantic field is more specific than its hypernym. The
semantic field of a hypernym, also known as a superordinate, is broader than that of a hyponym.
In other words, hyponymous relations refer to the super- and subordinate relationships between words.
Words on the superordinate level are called hypernyms, and words on the subordinate level are called
hyponyms.
The hierarchical relationship is based on the definition of the word. The word meaning of a hyponym (eg
sweep, wipe, and scrub) is included in its hypernym (clean). Hypernym is then the “broader term” of its
hyponyms (a more “specific term” than the hypernym

There are two types of hierarchical relationships: generic-specific and part-whole. Hierarchical
relationships are those most frequently used to structure knowledge.
Generic-Specific Hierarchies
In generic-specific relationships, the characteristics of superordinate concepts (broader concepts) are
inherited by subordinate concepts (narrower concepts).

Partitive Hierarchies (Part-Whole) (meronym vs holonym)

In a partitive relationship, there is no inheritance of characteristics between the whole and its parts.
Associative relationships
Related Term (RT): the thesaurus conceptual model contains the RT relationship to express any kind of
associative relationship between two terms that is not a hierarchical relationship. This relationship is
hence very ambiguous in that it is the default for all other relationships.
Terminology standards.
Standardization is the process of producing an agreement on the technical specifications or other precise
criteria to be used consistently as rules, guidelines, or definitions of characteristics to ensure that
materials, products, services, processes and systems are interconnected and interoperable. In other words,
the process that leads to an agreement that will make things work together.
DEFINITION: (International) Standardization is the process of producing consensus agreements between
(national) delegations representing all the economic stakeholders concerned on specifications and criteria
to be applied consistently in the following fields:
- classification of materials;
- manufacture and supply of products;
- testing and analysis;
- terminology.

In the field of terminology, there are two different types of standards: technical standards, also known as
specification standards, and terminology standards.
Technical Standards
Technical standards in terminology are like any other technical standard. They lay down the
characteristics or commonly agreed-upon specifications of a terminological product, service, process or
system.
Terminology Standards
Terminology standards, on the other hand, are like measurement standards in that they are considered
fundamental standards. They specify the commonly agreed-upon vocabulary to be used in a standard or
family of standards. Terminology standards, instead of giving the specifications for a product, service or
process, specify the preferred terms along with the definitions (specifications of the term) to be used to
ensure a common understanding of the key concepts in a given standard.
Terminology standardization can be subdivided into two distinct – yet complementary – types of
standardizing activities:
• Standardization of terminologies
• Standardization of terminological principles and methods
International Standards provide a reference framework, or a common technological language, between
suppliers and their customers – which facilitates trade and the transfer of technology. The result of this
process is a standard.
Terminology standardization (almost) always involves a choice among competing terms.
Principles of standardization
• simplification
• consensus
• application
• revision
• economic consequences
Standardization institutions:
International level:
• ISO
• International Electrotechnical Committee IEC
• International Telecommunication Union ITU

Terminology standards: de jure – produced by a standardization / official body

• de facto – established by the market (once the technology becomes dominant it becomes the de
facto standard incl. the terminology
Standards are voluntarily used as they guarantee interconnectivity and interoperability, not because
they are binding.
Related terms
 Harmonization - the process of aligning terms and definitions between languages or between
language variants within a language; often achieved by recommendation rather than by the force
of a standard.
 Officialization - the process whereby an authoritative body selects a term (or name) and
 Language management - recording, storing and disseminating terminology without interfering
in its development.
 Language planning - the intervention into language to either create new terminology to fill gaps
in a language (as in the case of domain loss) or to encourage the growth and development of a
language.

Entry (EN) Vat

Grammatical category Noun
Subject field Oenology
Sub-field (s) Wine production
Definition a large container used for mixing or storing liquid
substances, especially in a factory
Source https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/vat
Note
Context The largest capacity vats can hold up to 1 000 200 litres,
which is the colossal amount that the world’s largest oak
vat holds at the Caves Byrhh.
Source https://www.gourmetodyssey.com/blog/2016/04/14/231-
The-role-of-vats-barrels-and-other-types-of-container-
in-making-wine
Spelling variants
Synonyms Barrel, cistern, basin
Source of synonyms https://www.thesaurus.com/browse/vat
Abbreviation
Author Tacu Alexandra-Gabriela
Date
Access keys (related terms)
Entry (RO/TU/GR)
Grammatical category
Subject field
Sub-field (s)
Definition
Source
Note
Context
Source
Spelling variants
Synonyms
Source of synonyms
Abbreviation
Author
Date
Access keys (related terms)