IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRY APPLICATIONS, VOL. 52, NO.

3, MAY/JUNE 2016 1953

Energy Storage Technologies for High-Power

Applications
Mustafa Farhadi, Student Member, IEEE, and Osama Mohammed, Fellow, IEEE

Abstract—Energy storage systems provide viable solutions for High energy storage devices such as pumped hydroenergy
improving efficiency and power quality as well as reliability issues storage (PHES), compressed air energy storage (CAES), and
in dc/ac power systems including power grid with considerable electrochemical batteries are mature technologies that have
penetrations of renewable energy. The storage systems are also
essential for aircraft powertrains, shipboard power systems, elec- been extensively utilized from a few kilowatts in residential
tric vehicles, and hybrid electric vehicles to meet the peak load applications to large utility scale multimegawatt systems for
economically and improve the system’s reliability and efficiency. different grid services such as energy management, backup and
Significant development and research efforts have recently been seasonal reserves, and load leveling [1]–[3].
made in high-power storage technologies such as supercapacitors, Significant research and development efforts are currently
superconducting magnetic energy storage (SMES), and flywheels.
These devices have a very high-power density and fast response focused on high-power storage technologies such as superca-
time and are suitable for applications with rapid charge and pacitors, superconducting magnetic energy storage (SMES),
discharge requirements. In this paper, the latest technological and flywheels that provide a very high-power for short time
developments of these devices as well as advancements in the durations. These storage technologies have the capabilities of
lithium-ion battery, the most power dense commercially available frequent and rapid charges and discharges with high efficiency
battery, are presented. Also, a comparative analysis of these high-
power storage technologies in terms of power, energy, cost, life, and and are suitable for power systems with critical loads, pulse
performance is carried out. This paper also presents the applica- loads, transportation systems, as well as power grids.
tions, advantages, and limitations of these technologies in a power In the following section, the latest technological develop-
grid and transportation system as well as critical and pulse loads. ments of high-power energy storage devices, i.e., supercapac-
Index Terms—Critical loads, flywheels, grid ancillary services, itors, SMES, flywheels, and lithium-ion batteries are presented.
lithium-ion battery, pulse load, supercapacitor, superconducting This section also includes a comparative analysis of these tech-
magnetic energy storage (SMES), transportation system. nologies. Section III describes the application of the high-power
storage technologies in grid systems for services such as volt-
I. I NTRODUCTION age control, frequency regulation, and oscillation damping. The
applications of these devices in transportation systems, criti-
T HE challenges in meeting the projected energy demand
and limiting greenhouse gas require integrating more
renewable energy sources and improving efficiency and operat-
cal loads, and pulse loads are also described in this section.
Moreover, the advantages and limitations of the high-power
storage technologies for these applications are discussed and
ing capabilities of nonrenewable sources as well as efficiency
compared. Finally, the conclusion is drawn in Section IV.
enhancement of transportation systems. In order to achieve
these goals, utilization of energy storage systems is fundamen-
tal. The energy storage implementations help to ensure a high II. H IGH -P OWER E NERGY S TORAGE T ECHNOLOGIES
reliability of the system, reduce its cost, and meet the peak load Different energy storage technologies have been developed
demand economically along with improving the robustness and for a variety of applications. This section presents the lat-
resilience of the existing supply chain network [1], [2]. est technological developments of high-power storage devices.
Energy storage technologies, in terms of power capabilities Their operational principle, specification, and limitations are
and run time, can be divided into two primary categories: high also presented in detail.
energy/extended discharge and high-power/rapid discharge.

Manuscript received June 22, 2015; revised September 19, 2015; accepted
A. Supercapacitor Energy Storage
November 3, 2015. Date of publication December 22, 2015; date of cur- Supercapacitor technology stores the electrical energy
rent version May 18, 2016. Paper 2015-ESC-0464.R1, presented at the 2015
IEEE Industry Applications Society Annual Meeting, Addison, TX, USA, directly between two electrodes rather than converting the
October 18–22, and approved for publication in the IEEE TRANSACTIONS charge to another form, such as mechanical energy in flywheels
ON I NDUSTRY A PPLICATIONS by the Energy Systems Committee of the IEEE or chemical energy in batteries. The capacitance and energy
Industry Applications Society. This work was supported in part by the Florida density of the supercapacitors are of thousand times larger than
International University Dissertation Year Fellowship and in part by the Office
of Naval Research and the U.S. Department of Energy. conventional electrolytic capacitors [1], [4].
The authors are with the Energy Systems Research Laboratory, Department Also known as double-layer capacitors, supercapacitors store
of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Florida International University, energy across the double layer formed at the interface between
Miami, FL 33174 USA (email: [email protected]; [email protected]).
an electrically conductive carbon and an electrolyte. In order
Color versions of one or more of the figures in this paper are available online
at http://ieeexplore.ieee.org. to increase the energy density of the supercapacitors, high
Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/TIA.2015.2511096 surface-area materials such as activated carbon are used as
0093-9994 © 2015 IEEE. Personal use is permitted, but republication/redistribution requires IEEE permission.
See http://www.ieee.org/publications_standards/publications/rights/index.html for more information.
1954 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRY APPLICATIONS, VOL. 52, NO. 3, MAY/JUNE 2016

Fig. 1. Supercapacitor structure.

shown in Fig. 1. The design and modeling of the supercapac-

itor are described in [5]–[7]. In the case of a rough aspect
of the electrode/electrolyte interface and a uniform electrolyte
concentration, the dimensionless imaginary impedance of a
supercapacitor Lm∗ can be found as [7]
  Fig. 2. Effective capacitance of supercapacitor as a function of frequency for
(1 + γ 2 ) sinh(ω ∗) cosh(ω ∗) + sin(ω ∗)cos(ω ∗)
Lm∗ = 2
different electrode thicknesses [7].
(1 + γ) ω ∗ cosh2 (ω ∗) − cos2 (ω ∗)
 
γ sinh(ω ∗ ) cos(ω ∗ ) + cosh(ω ∗ )sin(ω ∗ )
+2 2
(1 + γ) ω ∗ cosh2 (ω ∗ ) − cos2 (ω ∗ )
(1)

where γ is the ratio of the electrolyte and the electrode conduc-

tivity (κ/σ) and ω ∗ is the dimensionless angular frequency that
can be found using the following equation:
 Fig. 3. Schematic of an SMES system.
ω ∗ = ωaCL2 (κ + σ)/2κσ (2)
of supercapacitors with a high energy density storage device,
where a is the interfacial area per unit volume, L is the thick-
such as batteries, offers a very useful solution for numerous
ness of the electrode, and C is the capacitance per interfacial
applications ranging from large-scale grid applications to elec-
area.
tric vehicles and portable devices [8]–[13]. This is thoroughly
Based on (1), the imaginary impedance of the supercapaci-
discussed in Section III.
tor highly depends on the dimensionless angular frequency and
the ratio of the electrolyte and the electrode conductivity. In a
pure capacitor, the cell capacitance is equal to the inverse of B. Superconducting Magnetic Energy Storage
the frequency times the imaginary component of the frequency
response. Thus, the cell capacitance can be found as a function One of the new storage technologies in the demonstra-
of Lm∗ as tion/applied research phase is the SMES. This system stores
electric energy in the form of a magnetic field in a supercon-
κσ
C= ∗
. (3) ducting coil. The superconducting coil stores the energy by the
Lm ω(κ + σ)L flow of a direct current based on the following equation:
The supercapacitor model can be used to plot the effective 1 2
capacitance of the supercapacitor cell under different work- E= Li (4)
2
ing frequencies and different electrode thicknesses. The result
is plotted in Fig. 2. As the result shows, at low frequen- where L is the coil inductance that depends on the size and
cies, the capacitance increases as the thickness increases. On geometry of the coil and as well as the cross-sectional area of
the contrary, at high frequencies, the thinner electrodes result the wire.
in a higher capacitance. Also, increasing γ (decreasing σ) A typical SMES system structure is shown in Fig. 3. As
increases the effective capacitance of the cell since the current can be seen, the system includes a superconducting coil, a
distribution will be more uniform. refrigerator, and a power conditioning system. The supercon-
There are two types of electrolytes utilized for supercapaci- ducting material utilized in an SMES system enhances the
tor technologies: aqueous and organic. Aqueous electrolytes are storage capacity since currents pass with almost no resistance.
stable to 0.9 V, while the organic electrolytes are stable to 2.7 V. However, in order to maintain the coil in the superconducting
As a result, organic electrolyte capacitors offer a much higher state, it needs to be cryogenically cooled at a very low temper-
energy density than the aqueous capacitors due to a higher cell ature. The low–temperature superconductor, niobium–titanium
voltage; however, they are more expensive. (NbTi), is typically utilized in SMES systems due to its ductile
Since the supercapacitor technology directly stores electri- nature, which makes it possible to produce the fine filamentary
cal energy, the charging and discharging processes are very structure. This characteristic enables the conductor to endure
fast and efficient. On the contrary, the energy density of the the alternating stress conditions produced in a pulsed magnet
supercapacitors is very low. As a result, a hybrid combination winding [14]–[16]. In the case of the NbTi conducting wire, the
FARHADI AND MOHAMMED: ENERGY STORAGE TECHNOLOGIES FOR HIGH-POWER APPLICATIONS 1955

TABLE I
P OWER , E NERGY, AND C OST C OMPARISON OF THE H IGH - POWER S TORAGES T ECHNOLOGIES

coolant can be liquid helium at 4.2 K or superfluid helium at utilized in a hybrid configuration with a high energy storage
1.8 K. device such as a battery or fuel cell. Examples include aircraft
Recent advances in superconducting materials and cryogenic powertrains and shipboard power systems, where the system
systems have made the SMES a feasible and attractive solu- requires a very high-power for a short period in order of a few
tion for many applications. Depending on the superconducting seconds and even milliseconds [22]–[27].
coil and the power conditioning system, the SMES can respond
very quickly (within a millisecond) and for power ratings up to
several megawatts. The SMES technologies also have a high- D. Lithium-Ion Battery
power density and long cyclic life. However, the energy density Lithium-ion energy storage has been utilized in a wide range
of the system is relatively low and its cost is high. Currently, of applications, ranging from a few kilowatt hours in res-
the SMES system is utilized in shipboard power systems, indus- idential applications such as rooftop photovoltaic arrays to
trial power quality applications, and for supplying short bursts multimegawatts for grid ancillary services such as frequency
of electricity in power grids [17]–[21]. regulation and spinning reserve. The anode in lithium-ion bat-
teries is made of graphitic carbon while different lithiated metal
oxides such as LiCoO2 and LiMO2 can be used as a cathode.
C. Flywheels
When the battery is charged, the cathode is turned into lithium
The flywheel energy storage system is a mechanical energy ions and move through the lithium salts electrolyte toward the
storage technology that absorbs energy from the grid and con- anode where they combine with external electrons.
verts it into a spinning disc. The disc is connected to a central Lithium-ion batteries have a very high energy density, fast
shaft and rotates on two magnetic bearings that are placed in a response, and long cyclic life. Also, the efficiency of lithium-
vacuum to reduce windage losses occurring due to air resis- ion batteries is very high. These advantages led lithium-ion
tance against moving parts. The flywheel can be sped up to batteries to be widely used in portable electronic devices and
take in electricity from the grid or slowed down to rapidly uti- considered as promising devices in electric and hybrid vehi-
lize the energy. The faster a flywheel rotates the more energy it cles. Currently, lithium-ion batteries took over 50% of the
can store. The amount of kinetic energy E stored in a spinning small portable application market. However, the main chal-
object is a function of its mass and its velocity as the following lenges for their large-scale utilization are the high cost due to
equation: the requirements of special packaging and internal overcharge
protection circuits. These needs are essential to ensure the
1 2
E= Iω (5) chemical and mechanical long-term reliabilities of lithium-ion
2 battery technologies. Moreover, the limited sources for lithium
where I is the moment of inertia and ω is the rotational velocity. are an important issue for the viability of lithium-ion batteries
In the case of a flywheel with a solid disc, the stored kinetic [28]–[31].
energy can be expressed by
1 1 E. Comparative Analysis of High-Power Energy Storage
E= M r2 ω 2 ≈ M v 2 (6)
4 4 Technologies
where M is the mass of the rotating disc, v is the linear veloc- Depending on the characteristics and performances of a
ity of the outer rim of the cylinder, and r is the radius of the high-power storage technology, it can be optimally utilized for
disc. Equation (6) shows that increasing the rim speed is more specific applications yet less suitable for other applications.
effective than increasing the mass of the disc for increasing the In this section, the characteristics and performance of various
energy capacity of a flywheel system. However, a flywheel sys- high-power storage technologies are compared.
tem is limited by the strength of the disc material to withstand Table I presents the power, energy, and cost characteristics of
the stresses caused by rotation [22]–[25]. various high-power storage technologies. Also, Fig. 4 compares
Although, the power density of the flywheel is very high, its these storage technologies based on the normalized average
energy density is relatively low. Thus, in grid applications, they data from Table I. As can be seen, the lithium-ion battery has
are only suitable for frequency regulation and short-time power the highest energy density and the lowest capital cost per unit
quality services. Moreover, the flywheel energy storage can be energy, while the cost per unit power of the lithium-ion battery
1956 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRY APPLICATIONS, VOL. 52, NO. 3, MAY/JUNE 2016

self-discharge rate and are appropriate for a storage period not

longer than 10 min. In contrary, the lithium ion has a lower self-
discharge rate and can be utilized for the storage period of up
to 10 days.
The life span and life cycle of high-power storage technolo-
gies are shown in Fig. 6. It can be seen that the supercapacitor
has a very long life cycle that can reach up to 1 000 000 cycles;
however, it has a relatively lower life span than the other tech-
nologies. Also, the life cycle of lithium ion is relatively low
due to chemical deterioration with the operating time; and as
a result, it is not optimal for frequent charge and discharge
process.

III. H IGH -P OWER E NERGY S TORAGE A PPLICATIONS

The storage technologies discussed in Section II can be uti-
lized for various applications with high-power requirements.
These applications are power grid, transportation systems, crit-
ical loads, and pulse loads. The main requirements of these
Fig. 4. Comparing power, energy, and cost of high-power storage technologies
using normalized average data from Table I.
applications and the overall importance of each requirement
are shown in Fig. 7. It should be noted that some of the
requirements such as long life span and the acceptable oper-
is very high and its power density is considerably lower than the ation temperature are either equally important for all systems
other technologies. The supercapacitor is the most power dense or case sensitive, which is not considered in this graph. The
storage, which also has a low cost per unit power. However, the requirements of the applications presented in Fig. 7 and the
energy density of the supercapacitor is lower than the flywheel characteristics of different high-power storage technologies
and its capital cost per unit energy is higher. It can also be seen shown in Figs. 4–6 can be used to identify the most optimal
that the energy density of the SMES technology is very low and storage technology and the advantages and limitations of each
its cost per unit energy is very high, yet it has a very high-power technology for the proposed application. These applications and
density. their requirements are discussed in detail in this section.
The performances of the high-power storage technologies in
terms of efficiency, discharge time, operating temperature, and
A. Power Grid
self-discharge rate are compared in Fig. 5. It can be seen in
Fig. 5(a) that all these technologies have a very high efficiency, The aim of this section is to explain the most significant
reaching up to 99% in the case of SMES and lithium-ion bat- applications of the high-power storage technologies for a power
tery. The efficiency of supercapacitor energy storage depends grid with a considerable penetration of renewable energy.
on both the manufacturing technology and state-of-charge of 1) Frequency Regulation: Frequency regulation is one of
the supercapacitor during the operation, and it is typically in the the important grid ancillary services that balance between gen-
range of 90%–98%. It should be noted that the high efficiency eration and load to maintain a frequency of 60 Hz. High-power
of the storage technology also means more compact modules energy storage systems are a very suitable alternative to provide
and less burden on the cooling system so that air cooling can spinning reserve for frequency regulation services, since their
suffice and reduce the overall installation cost. response times are very fast and they have a very high efficiency
The discharge time of various high-power storage technolo- when compared to traditional storage devices such as PHES
gies at their nominal power is shown in Fig. 5(b). The discharge and CAES systems. New policies on adoption of energy stor-
time of the supercapacitor, flywheel, and SMES is typically age systems have already made them commercially viable in
lower than 100 s and as a result are suitable for a system that enhancing frequency regulation techniques [32]. For instance,
requires high-power for a short duration of time. In contrast, the large flywheel and appropriate power monitoring software are
lithium-ion battery has a very long discharge time owing to its combined to make the flywheel installation very useful for this
very high energy density. service [22], [23], [33]. Moreover, the studies on the utilization
Fig. 5(c) shows the operating temperature of the high-power of other high-power energy storage technologies have shown
storage technologies. It can be seen that most of the stor- that most batteries and other short-time storage technologies
age technologies have a wide operation temperature. For high such as the supercapacitor and SMES can be utilized for fre-
operating temperature conditions, special cooling systems may quency control, especially the primary control [14], [28], [29],
be required, particularly for the lithium-ion battery that is [34]–[36].
extremely sensitive to over temperature [32]. 2) Voltage Control: Voltage control is the use of grid
The self-discharge per day rate for different high-power equipment to maintain voltages on the transmission system
energy storage technologies is shown in Fig. 5(d). As can be within required limits by injecting or absorbing reactive power
seen, the supercapacitor, flywheel, and SMES have a very high [37], [38]. Energy storage devices with the appropriate power
FARHADI AND MOHAMMED: ENERGY STORAGE TECHNOLOGIES FOR HIGH-POWER APPLICATIONS 1957

Fig. 5. Performance comparison of the high-power storage technologies. (a) Efficiency. (b) Discharge time. (c) Operating temperature. (d) Self-discharge rate.

Fig. 6. Lifetime comparison of the high-power storage technologies. (a) Life span. (b) Life cycle.

converter systems can perform as a dynamic reactive power storage devices and the necessary power electronics interface
supply for voltage support. In this application, batteries and have made them a viable alternative for this application. The
other high-power storage technologies are well suited as they storage system must detect the disturbance and respond within
can respond immediately to the voltage variations [17], [24], 20 ms at full power and inject or absorb oscillatory power for up
[39]–[42]. For this purpose, the four quadrant power convert- to 20 cycles. As a result, SMES and other high-power storage
ers enable the storage devices to continuously provide reactive technologies, including supercapacitors, flywheels, and high-
power at the grid frequency, with minimum impact on the real power batteries can be utilized for this application [18]–[21],
energy being stored [43], [44]. [48]–[50].
3) Oscillation Damping: In stable grids without distur- 4) Voltage Ride Through: With the increasing penetration
bances, the relative rotor angular positions of synchronous of the renewable power plants, many countries have enforced
machines remain constant. However, power variations in renew- stringent technical requirements for plants to maintain the grid
able resources, such as wind or PV, or loss of a major stability during grid disturbances. Modern grid codes that have
transmission line can cause considerable power oscillation in been recently developed require the large wind farm to not only
an interconnected ac grid. This can result in rotor angular withstand various grid faults but also contribute to the network
instability and undamped electromechanical oscillations of the stability and support the grid similarly to conventional gener-
synchronous generator. Such oscillations across a weak trans- ation units. Such requirements are referred to as voltage ride
mission link may separate a number of generators and can through (VRT) capability [51]–[54]. During a major fault in the
result in partial or total power interruption if not properly mit- ac grid, the voltage collapses at the point of common coupling
igated [45]–[47]. This kind of disturbance can be effectively of the plant and the grid. As a result, the power that can be trans-
mitigated by injecting or absorbing real oscillatory power at ferred from the dc-link of the power plant to the ac side will be
frequencies of 0.5–1 Hz, opposing the disturbance. Using gen- highly limited. In this case, the trapped energy in the dc side
eration plants with fast relief valves is a typical solution to can cause severe overvoltage in the bus capacitor and voltage
damp such an oscillation. Advances in both high-power energy stress on the converter. In order to bypass the excess power and
1958 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRY APPLICATIONS, VOL. 52, NO. 3, MAY/JUNE 2016

Fig. 7. Overall importance of the energy storage characteristics for high-power applications. 1—less important. 2—important. 3—very important. (a) Grid services
with high-power demand (frequency regulation, voltage control, oscillation damping, and VRT). (b) Transportation system. (c) Critical load with a short-time
failure. (d) Pulse load.

maintain the voltage of the dc-link, fast response energy stor- cell, and other battery type energy storage systems [31], [59],
age devices such as flywheel and supercapacitor are utilized. [60]. For this application, high-power storage devices such
Also, the energy storage system enables the power plant to ride as supercapacitors and flywheels are of significant interest to
through the fault uninterrupted and support the grid by injecting provide short/rapid discharges during starting and acceleration
reactive power [10], [11], [26], [27], [55]–[57]. periods. The high-power storage technologies are deployed as
Although all high-power storage technologies can be uti- a rapid response buffer between the electric drive system and
lized to provide the grid services discussed in this section, the primary storage device to improve the performance of the
some technologies can more effectively meet the requirements system in terms of cost, system life, and overall efficiency
of this application. Fig. 7(a) shows the main requirements of [61]–[66]. Besides the transportation system, there are many
the energy storage for high-power grid services and the overall industrial and railway vehicles and aircraft applications where
importance of each requirement. As can be seen, since there is the concept of high-power storage hybridization can be utilized
less space and weight limitation for the energy storage plant, with similar improvements and advantages discussed [67]–[69].
low cost per unit power and energy plays more important roles
for the selection of the storage technology. Having long life
span and life cycle as well as high efficiency of the storage are C. Critical Loads
the other important factors that need to be considered. Thus, Many commercial, public, and even residential end-users
based on the characteristics of the storage technologies dis- require a highly reliable power supply to reduce the effects
cussed in Section II and presented in Figs. 4–6, the flywheel and associated with outages and poor power quality. In general,
supercapacitor can be more optimally used for the high-power this requirement is fulfilled by uninterruptible power supplies
grid services while they have limitation on the long discharge (UPSs). The UPS system usually utilizes an energy storage
capability and energy capital cost. Also, the SMES technology device shunt connected to an intermediate dc-link. For these
has a high life cycle and high round-trip efficiency. Moreover, applications, the lead acid battery has been the predominant
the capability of this technology to provide a very high-power storage system. However, most power failures and disturbances
(up to 10 MW) makes it distinctive for power grid application are very short (less than 1 s); therefore, the use of battery banks
[58]. However, low energy density and the current high material in these applications requires oversized banks, paying an extra
and manufacturing cost make SMES technology less attractive cost for unusable energy reserve. Also, telecommunication cen-
for small and medium energy storage plants. In the case of the ters and many safety and public health facilities are required
lithium-ion battery, although it has a low cost per unit energy to have standby gensets. For this application, short-duration
and a long discharge capability, its high cost per unit power is energy storage can be adapted to mitigate brief power distur-
its main limitation for high-power grid services. bances and provide a bridge to startup and synchronize the
standby gensets for long-term supply.
The main requirements of the energy storages for the criti-
B. Transportation System
cal loads with a short-time failure are depicted in Fig. 7(c). The
Transportation systems typically utilize high energy storage overall importance of the storage requirements and the charac-
devices with a long discharge time to maximize the overall teristics of the flywheel energy storage discussed in Section II
system efficiency and to minimize the system cost, weight, shows that the flywheel energy storage systems can be effec-
and volume simultaneously. Fig. 7(b) shows the main require- tively utilized for immediate power availability to a critical
ments of the energy storage for transportation system and the load during a power disturbance such as a power outage and
overall importance of each requirement. The most practical bat- dips or surges in voltage and/or current. Compared to batteries,
tery technologies for transportation systems include lithium-ion the flywheel system, as a short-time high-power UPS, offers
and nickel-based batteries [30], [31]. Other technologies being lower cost per unit power and has a lower operating cost due
explored include the internal combustion hydrogen engine, fuel to lower maintenance and replacement costs. Moreover, the
FARHADI AND MOHAMMED: ENERGY STORAGE TECHNOLOGIES FOR HIGH-POWER APPLICATIONS 1959

flywheel UPS technology is more environmentally friendly and implementation in transportation systems, critical loads, and
the system can be designed to be more compact since the power pulse loads. The main requirements of these applications and
density of the flywheel is very high [70]–[73]. the overall importance of each requirement were presented. By
Similar to the flywheel, the supercapacitor has a high-power mapping these requirements with the characteristics and perfor-
density and low cost per unit power. As a result, it is well suited mances of high-power storage technologies, one can identify
for a system that suffers from short-time failure. Also, it can the most optimal storage technology and the advantages and
be employed as a bridging power supply to a more permanent limitations of each technology for the proposed application.
backup energy source such as a genset or fuel cell. Typical This study had shown great advantages achieved with the uti-
supercapacitor UPS sizes can range from 20 kW to several mil- lization of the high-power storage devices and a very high
liwatts with modular solution systems. In addition to being very demand for their future advancements.
compact, the supercapacitor UPS offers very low maintenance
and standby power costs [74]–[77].
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rotor synchronous reluctance motor/generator for flywheel-based unin- received the M.S. and Ph.D. degrees in electrical
terruptible power supplies,” IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron., vol. 55, no. 8, engineering from Virginia Polytechnic Institute and
pp. 3038–3046, Aug. 2008. State University, Blacksburg, VA, USA, in 1981 and
[74] A. Lahyani, P. Venet, A. Guermazi, and A. Troudi, “Battery/ 1983, respectively.
supercapacitors combination in uninterruptible power supply (UPS),” He is currently a Professor and the Director of the
IEEE Trans. Power. Electron., vol. 28, no. 4, pp. 1509–1522, Apr. Energy Systems Research Laboratory, Department
2013. of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Florida
[75] J. Jia, Y. Wang, S. Li, and G. Wang, “A dynamic discharge structure for International University, Miami, FL, USA. He has
ultracapacitor application in the fuel cell UPS,” in Proc. 10th Int. Conf. authored or coauthored more than 350 technical
Control Autom. Rob. Vis., 2008, pp. 2102–2107. papers in the archival literature as well as in national
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back-up using ultracapacitors,” in Proc. IEEE Int. Conf. Ind. Inf. Syst. distributed control of power grids and renewable energy systems.
(ICIIS), 2011, pp. 551–556. Dr. Mohammed is a Fellow of the Applied Computational Electromagnetic
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dination of shipboard power systems in presence of pulsed loads,” IEEE International Steering Committee Chair for the IEEE International Electric
Trans. Power Syst., vol. 28, no. 4, pp. 3675–3682, Nov. 2013. Machines and Drives Conference and the IEEE Biannual Conference on
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ysis of energy control techniques for DC microgrid and pulsed power Engineering Society (PES) Governing Board (1992–1996) and the Chairman
load applications,” in Proc. 40th Annu. Conf. IEEE Ind. Electron. Soc. of the IEEE Power Engineering Society Constitution and Bylaws Committee.
(IECON’14), Dallas, TX, USA, Oct. 28–Nov. 1, 2014, pp. 4204–4210. He also serves as a Chairman, Officer, or an Active Member on several
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controlled battery/ultracapacitor hybrid,” IEEE Trans. Power Electron., an Editor of the IEEE T RANSACTIONS ON E NERGY C ONVERSION, IEEE
vol. 20, no. 1, pp. 236–243, Jan. 2005. T RANSACTIONS ON S MART G RID, IEEE Magnetics Conferences, Associate
[81] M. Farhadi and O. Mohammed, “Performance enhancement of actively Editor of the IEEE T RANSACTIONS ON I NDUSTRY A PPLICATIONS, as well
controlled hybrid dc microgrid and pulsed power load,” IEEE Trans. Ind. as an Editor of The International Journal for Computation and Mathematics
Appl., vol. 51, no. 5, pp. 3570–3578, Sep./Oct. 2015. in Electrical and Electronic Engineering. He was the recipient of the 2010
[82] M. Farhadi and O. Mohammed, “Adaptive energy management in redun- IEEE Power Engineering Society Cyril Veinott Electromechanical Energy
dant hybrid dc microgrid for pulse load mitigation,” IEEE Trans. Smart Conversion Award. He has also been the recipient of many awards for excel-
Grid, vol. 6, no. 1, pp. 54–62, Jan. 2015. lence in research, teaching, and service to the profession and has chaired
[83] M. Farhadi and O. Mohammed, “Event based protection scheme for a sessions and programs for numerous international conferences in addition
multi-terminal hybrid dc power system,” IEEE Trans. Smart Grid, vol. 6, to delivering numerous invited lectures at scientific organizations around the
no. 4, pp. 1658–1669, Jul. 2015. world.