ETHICS

WEEK 2: MORALITY (1) does not have its origin in social agreements;
(2) is untainted by mistaken beliefs, irrationality, or
Definition of Morality and Ethics popular prejudices; and
What is Morality? (3) can serve as the true standard for determining
when conventional morality has got it right and
Before investing yourself in the study of an academic when it has fallen into error.
subject, it would be useful to first have some idea of
what you are getting yourself into. One way—sometimes That is the morality whose nature we are going to
the best—to gain such an understanding is by explore in this course.
considering a definition. When you open your The Branches of Moral Philosophy
trigonometry text or chemistry handbook, you’ll likely be
given, very early on, a definition of the area you are There are three core areas of moral philosophy:
about to study. So, as your teacher, I would seem to
have a duty now to present you with a definition of 1. Value theory
morality.  What is the good life?
 What is worth pursuing for its own sake?
Even if we want to we just simply can’t. There is no  How do we improve our lot in life?
widely agreed-on definition of morality. The absence of a  What is happiness, and is it the very same
definition does not leave us entirely in the dark, however. thing as well-being?
(After all, no one has yet been able to offer informative 2. Normative ethics
definitions of literature, or life, or art, and yet we know a  What are our fundamental moral duties?
great deal about those things.) Indeed, we can get a  What makes right actions right?
good sense of our subject matter by doing these four
 Which character traits count as virtues,
things:
which as vices, and why?
 being clear about the difference between  Who should our role models be?
conventional and critical morality;  Do the ends always justify the means, or are
 distinguishing the different branches of moral there certain types of action that should
philosophy and their central questions; never be done under any circumstances?
 identifying starting points for moral thinking; and 3. Metaethics
 contrasting morality with other normative  What is the status of moral claims and
systems, including religious ones. advice?
 Can ethical theories, moral principles, or
Conventional and Critical Morality specific moral verdicts be true? If so,
what makes them true?
Conventional Morality
 Can we gain moral wisdom? If so, how?
Suppose you take sociology or an anthropology course,  Do we always have a good reason to do
and you get to a unit on the morality of the cultures our moral duty?
you’ve been studying. You’ll likely focus on the patterns
of behavior to be found in the cultures, their accepted Moral Starting Points (part 1)
ideas about right and wrong, and the sorts of character One of the puzzles about moral thinking is knowing
traits that these cultures find admirable. These are the where to begin. Some skeptics about morality deny that
elements of what we can call conventional morality—the there are any proper starting points for ethical reflection.
system of widely accepted rules and principles, created They believe that moral reasoning is simply a way of
by and for human beings, that members of a culture or rationalizing our biases and gut feelings. This outlook
society use to govern their own lives and to assess the encourages us to be lax in moral argument and, worse,
actions and the motivations of others. supports an attitude that no moral views are any better
Conventional morality can differ from society to society. than others. While this sort of skepticism might be true,
The conventional morality of Saudi Arabia forbids we shouldn’t regard it as the default view of ethics. We
women from publicly contradicting their husbands or should accept it only as a last resort.
brothers, while Denmark’s conventional morality allows In the meantime, let’s consider some fairly plausible
this. People in the United States would think it immoral to ethical assumptions, claims that can get us started in our
leave a restaurant without tipping a good waiter or moral thinking. The point of the exercise is to soften you
bartender, while such behavior in many other societies is up to the idea that we are not just spinning our wheels
perfectly OK. when thinking
Critical Morality morally. There are reasonable constraints that can guide
us when thinking about how to live. Here are some of
When we talk about morality in this course, we will be them:
referring to moral standards that are not rooted in
widespread endorsement, but rather are independent of 1. Neither the law nor tradition is immune from
conventional morality and can be used to critically moral criticism. The law does not have the final
evaluate its merits. word on what is right and wrong. Neither does
tradition. Actions that are legal, or customary,
It’s possible, of course, that conventional morality is all are sometimes morally mistaken.
there is. But this would be a very surprising discovery.
Most of us assume, as I will do, that the popularity of a 2. Everyone is morally fallible. Everyone has some
moral view is not a guarantee of its truth. We could be mistaken ethical views, and no human being is
wrong on this point, but until we have a chance to wholly wise when it
consider the matter in detail, I think it best to assume comes to moral matters.
that conventional morality can sometimes be mistaken. If 3. Friendship is valuable. Having friends is a good
so, then there may be some independent, critical thing. Friendships add value to your life. You are
morality that better off when there are people you care deeply
about, and who care deeply about you.
ETHICS

4. We are not obligated to do the impossible. 17. A morality that celebrates genocide, torture,
Morality can demand only so much of us. Moral treachery, sadism, hostility, and slavery is,
standards that are impossible to meet are depending on how you look at it, either no
illegitimate. Morality must respect our limitations. morality at all or a deeply failed one. Any
morality worth the name will place some
5. Children bear less moral responsibility than importance on justice, fairness, kindness, and
adults. Moral responsibility assumes an ability reasonableness.
on our part to understand options, to make
decisions in an informed way, and to let our [NOTES]
decisions guide our behavior. The fewer of these
abilities you have, the less blameworthy you are  Ethics – sharpens our reasoning ability
for any harm you might cause. What is morality?
6. Justice is a very important moral good. Any
 What other people consider good actions are
moral theory that treats justice as irrelevant is
bad actions to you, vice versa
deeply suspect. It is important that we get what
 Morality is the distinction between right or wrong,
we deserve, and that we are treated fairly.
good or bad behavior
7. Deliberately hurting other people requires  Morality varies from one person’s perspective to
justification. The default position in ethics is this: another as long as you’re happy with what
do no harm. It is sometimes morally acceptable you’re doing
to harm others, but there must be an excellent  Debate between the mind and feeling
reason for doing so or else the harmful behavior  Purpose in life
is unjustified.  Looking after your own happiness
 Particular system of values and conduct
8. Equals ought to be treated equally. People who
 Set of personal or social standards for good and
are alike in all relevant respects should get
bad behavior or character
similar treatment. When this fails to happen—
when racist or sexist policies are enacted, for  No widely argued on definition of morality
instance—then something has gone wrong.  One’s own personal sense of right/wrong; own
discernment
9. Self-interest isn’t the only ethical consideration.
How well-off we are is important. But it isn’t the Ethics
only thing of moral importance. Morality  Ethics and morality are generally used
sometimes calls on us to set aside our own interchangeably
interests for the sake of others.
 Other ethical practices acceptable in architecture
10. Agony is bad. Excruciating physical or emotional but not in other courses
pain is bad. It may sometimes be appropriate to  Ethos means character in Greek
cause such extreme suffering, but doing so  Mores means customs in Latin
requires a very powerful justification.  Ethics refers to the right action
 Morality is the practice of rightness or
11. Might doesn’t make right. People in power can
wrongness
get away with lots of things that the rest of us
 Morality is prescriptive, it tells you what to do
can’t. That doesn’t justify what they do. That a
 Morality is the practice of ethics
person can escape punishment is one thing—
whether his actions are morally acceptable is  Morality – moral (goodness), -ity
another.  Morality – manner, character
 “We are discussing no small matter, but how we
12. Free and informed requests prevent rights ought to live.” -Socrates
violations. If, with eyes wide open and no one  Moral philosophy is the study of what morality is
twisting your arm, you ask someone to do and what it requires of us.
something for you, and she does it, then your  1980s – atomic bomb
rights have not been violated— even if you end  GMO – genetically-modified organisms
up hurt as a result.  Ethics – code of values
13. There are a number of points to make about WEEK 3: MORALITY, RELIGION, AND OTHER
these claims. NORMATIVE SYSTEMS
14. First, this short list isn’t meant to be exhaustive. Other Normative Systems
It could be made much longer.
We can also better understand morality by contrasting its
15. Second, we are not claiming that the items on principles with those of other normative systems. Each of
this list are beyond criticism. We are only saying these represents a set of standards for how we ought to
that each one is very plausible. Hard thinking behave, ideals to aim for, rules that we should not break.
might weaken our confidence in some cases.
The point, though, is that without such scrutiny, it There are many such systems, but let’s restrict our focus
is perfectly reasonable to begin our moral to four of the most important of them: those that govern
thinking with the items on this list. the law, etiquette, self-interest, and tradition.

16. Third, many of these claims require

interpretation in order to apply them in a
satisfying way. When we say, for instance, that
equals ought to be treated equally, we leave all
of the interesting questions open. (What makes
people equals? Can we treat people equally Law
without treating them in precisely the same way?
And so on.)
ETHICS

The fact that a law tells us to do something does not  It immediately solves the old problem of the
settle the question of whether morality gives its stamp of objectivity of ethics. Ethics is not merely a matter
approval. of personal feeling or social custom. Whether
something is right or wrong is perfectly objective:
Some immoral acts (like cheating on a spouse) are not
It is right if God commands it and wrong if God
illegal. And some illegal acts (like voicing criticism of a
forbids it.
dictator) are not immoral. Certainly, many laws require
what morality requires and forbid what morality forbids.  The Divine Command Theory explains why any
But the fit is hardly perfect, and that shows that morality of us should bother with morality. Why shouldn’t
is something different from the law. That a legislature we just look out for ourselves? If immorality is
passed a bill is not enough to show that the bill is morally the violation of God’s commandments, then
acceptable. there is an easy answer: On the day of final
reckoning, you will be held accountable.
Etiquette
There are, however, serious problems with the theory.
We see the same imperfect fit when it comes to
standards of etiquette. Forks are supposed to be set to  Atheists would not accept it, because they do
the left of a plate, but it isn’t immoral to set them on the not believe that God exists.
right. Good manners are not the same thing as morally
good conduct. Morality sometimes requires us not to be  But there are difficulties even for believers. One
polite or gracious, as when someone threatens your can be skeptical and ask, is a conduct right
children or happily tells you a racist joke. So the because the gods command it, or do the gods
standards of etiquette can depart from those of morality. command it because it is right? This is a
question of whether God makes the moral truths
Self-interest true or whether he merely recognizes that
they’re true.
The same is true when it comes to the standards of self-
interest. Think of all of the people who have gotten First, we might say that right conduct is right because
ahead in life by betraying others, lying about their past, God commands it. But this idea encounters several
breaking the rules that others are following. It’s an difficulties.
unhappy thought, but a very commonsensical one: you
sometimes can improve your lot in life by acting 1. This conception of morality is mysterious.
immorally. And those who behave virtuously are
2. This conception of morality makes God’s
sometimes punished, rather than rewarded, for it.
commands arbitrary.
Whistleblowers who reveal a company’s or a
government official’s corruption are often attacked for 3. This conception of morality provides the wrong
their efforts sued to the point of bankruptcy, and targeted reasons for moral principles.
for their courageous behavior. Though the relation
between self-interest and morality is contested, it is a The second option has a different drawback.
plausible starting point to assume that morality can
 In taking it, we abandon the theological
sometimes require us to sacrifice our well-being, and
conception of right and wrong. When we say that
that we can sometimes improve our lot in life by acting
God commands us to be truthful because
unethically.
truthfulness is right, we acknowledge a standard
Tradition that is independent of God’s will. The rightness
exists prior to God’s command and is the reason
Finally, morality is also distinct from tradition. That a for the command.
practice has been around a long time does not
automatically make it moral. Morality sometimes requires God and Morality
a break with the past, as it did when people called for the
Part 1 of a pair. Stephen considers the relationship
abolition of slavery or for allowing women to vote. And
between morality and God. Specifically, he asks: is
some nontraditional, highly innovative practices may be
morality the same thing as the commands of God? Is
morally excellent. The longevity of a practice is not a
there no morality if there is no God? Ultimately, Stephen
foolproof test of its morality.
will argue that morality and God's commands are
Morality and Religion distinct, even if there is a God and she commands moral
things. However, in this first video, Steve considers why
The Presumed Connection between Morality and you might like the view that morality just is God's
Religion commands.
In popular thinking, morality and religion are inseparable: Part 2 of a pair. Stephen considers the relationship
People commonly believe that morality can be between morality and God. Specifically, he asks: is
understood only in the context of religion. Thus, the morality the same thing as the commands of God? Is
clergy are assumed to be authorities on morality. there no morality if there is no God? Stephen thinks the
When viewed from a non-religious perspective, the answer to both these questions is 'no'. He argues that, if
universe seems to be a cold, meaningless place, devoid you believe God exists and that we should follow his
of value and purpose. commands *for certain reasons*, then you should *not*
think that morality just is whatever God commands.
The Divine Command Theory

The basic idea is that God decides what is right and

wrong. Actions that God commands are morally
required; actions that God forbids are morally wrong, and
all other actions are permissible or merely morally
neutral.

This theory has a number of attractive features.

[PPT]
ETHICS

MORALITY AND OTHER NORMATIVE SYSTEMS  The Divine Command Theory explains why any
of us should bother with morality. Why shouldn’t
Law
we just look out for ourselves? If immorality is
 The system of rules which a particular country or the violation of God’s commandments, then
community recognizes as regulating the actions there is an easy answer: On the day of final
of its members and which it may enforce by the reckoning, you will be held accountable.
imposition of penalties. There are, however, serious problems with the theory.
 The fact that a law tells us to do something does
not settle the question of whether morality gives  Atheists would not accept it, because they do
its stamp of approval. not believe that God exists.
 Edmund Burke – Morality is more important  But there are difficulties even for believers. One
than laws, because law depends on morality can be skeptical and ask, is a conduct right
 Immanuel Kant – in law, a man is guilty when because the gods command it, or do the gods
he violates the rights of others. In ethics, he is command it because it is right? This is a
guilty if he only thinks of doing so. question whether God makes the moral truths
true or whether he merely recognizes that
Etiquette they’re true.
 The customary code of polite behavior in society WEEK 4: CULTURAL RELATIVISM AND ETHICAL
or among members of a particular profession or EGOISM
group.
 The set of conventional rules of personal SKEPTICISM IN MORALITY
behaviour in polite society, usually in the form of
 Ayn Rand – The achievement of his own
an ethical code that delineates the expected and
happiness is man’s highest moral purpose.
accepted social behaviors that accord with the
conventions and norms observed by a society, a Ethical Egoism
social class, or a social group. 
 It claims that each person ought to pursue his or
Self-Interest her own self-interest exclusively. This is the
morality of selfishness.
 It refers to a focus on the needs or desires of
one's self. Most times, actions that display self-  It holds that our only duty is to do what is best
interest are often performed without conscious for ourselves. Other people matter only insofar
knowing. A number of philosophical, as they can benefit us.
psychological, and economic theories examine
the role of self-interest in motivating human  People ought to be self-interested and that our
action. neighbors ought not to give to charity. Ethical
 The act of considering the advantage to yourself Egoism makes a claim about morality, or about
when making decisions, and deciding to do what the way things should be.
is best for you.
Psychological Egoism
Tradition
Psychological Egoism, by contrast, asserts that each
 A tradition is a belief or behavior passed down person does in fact pursue his or her own self-interest
within a group or society with symbolic meaning exclusively.
or special significance with origins in the past.
It makes a claim about human nature, or about the way
 The handing down of information, beliefs, or
things are.
customs from one generation to another. 2: a
belief or custom handed down from one Two arguments are often given for Psychological
generation to another.  Egoism.
 The transmission of customs or beliefs from
generation to generation, or the fact of being 1. The Argument That We Always Do What We
passed on in this way. Want to Do.

The Divine Command Theory 2. The Argument That We Always Do What Makes
Us Feel Good.
Morality and Religion
Cultural Relativism
 H.L. Mencken – Morality is doing right, no
The Callatians, who lived in India, ate the bodies of their
matter what you are told. Religion is doing what
dead fathers. The Greeks, of course, did not do that—
you are told, no matter what is right.
the Greeks practiced cremation and regarded the funeral
The basic idea is that God decides what is right and pyre as the natural and fitting way to dispose of the
wrong. dead. The Eskimos lived in small settlements, separated
by great distances, and their customs turned out to be
Actions that God commands are morally required; very different from ours. The men often had more than
actions that God forbids are morally wrong; and all other one wife, and they would share their wives with guests,
actions are permissible or merely morally neutral. lending them out for the night as a sign of hospitality.
This theory has a number of attractive features. Moreover, within a community, a dominant male might
demand—and get—regular sexual access to other men’s
 It immediately solves the old problem of the wives. The women, however, were free to break these
objectivity of ethics. Ethics is not merely a matter arrangements simply by leaving their husbands and
of personal feeling or social custom. Whether taking up with new partners—free, that is, so long as
something is right or wrong is perfectly objective: their former husbands chose not to make too much
It is right if God commands it and wrong if God trouble. All in all, the Eskimo custom of marriage was a
forbids it.
ETHICS

volatile practice that bore little resemblance to our WEEK 5: MORAL REASONING AND THE MINIMUM
custom. CONCEPTION OF MORALITY

 Ruth Benedict – Morality differs in every Moral Reasoning in Ethical Issues

society, and is a convenient term for socially
Reason and Impartiality
approved habits.
 Different Cultures Have Different Moral Moral judgments must be backed by good reasons; and
Codes. Therefore, there are no universal moral second, morality requires the impartial consideration of
truths, the customs of different societies are all each individual’s interests.
that exist.
Moral Reasoning
The following claims have all been made by cultural
relativists: When we feel strongly about an issue, it is tempting to
assume that we just know what the truth is, without even
1. Different societies have different moral codes; having to consider arguments on the other side.
that a certain action is right, then that action is Unfortunately, however, we cannot rely on our feelings,
right, at least within that society. no matter how powerful they may be. Our feelings may
2. There is no objective standard that can be used be irrational; they may be nothing but the by-products of
to judge one society’s code as better than prejudice, selfishness, or cultural conditioning.
another’s. There are no
3. moral truths that hold for all people at all times. Thus, if we want to discover the truth, we must let our
4. The moral code of our own society has no feelings be guided as much as possible by reason. This
special status; it is but one among many. is the essence of morality. The morally right thing to do is
5. It is arrogant for us to judge other cultures. We always the thing best supported by the arguments. Of
should always be tolerant of them. course, not every reason that may be advanced is a
6. The moral code of a society determines what is good reason. There are bad arguments as well as good
right within that society; that is, if the moral code ones, and much of the skill of moral thinking consists in
of a society says it is. discerning the difference.

The Cultural Differences Argument The first thing is to get one’s facts straight. The facts
exist independently of our wishes, and responsible moral
1. Different cultures have different moral codes. thinking begins when we try to see things as they are.
2. Therefore, there is no objective truth in morality.
3. Right and wrong are only matters of opinion, and Next, we can bring moral principles into play. In our three
opinions vary from culture to culture. examples, a number of principles were involved: that we
should not “use” people; that we should not kill one
What Follows from Cultural Relativism person to save another; that we should do what will
benefit the people affected by our actions; that every life
1. We could no longer say that the customs of
is sacred; and that it is wrong to discriminate against the
other societies are morally inferior to our own.
handicapped. Most moral arguments consist of principles
2. We could no longer criticize the code of our own
being applied to particular cases, and so we must ask
society.
whether the principles are justified and whether they are
3. The idea of moral progress is called into doubt.
being applied correctly.
What We Can Learn from Cultural Relativism
The rote application of routine methods is never a
First, Cultural Relativism warns us, quite rightly, about satisfactory substitute for critical thinking, in any area.
the danger of assuming that all of our practices are Morality is no exception.
based on some absolute rational standard. They are not.
The Requirement of Impartiality
Some of our customs are merely conventional—merely
peculiar to our society—and it is easy to lose sight of that Almost every important moral theory includes the idea of
fact. Cultural Relativism begins with the insight that impartiality. This is the idea that each individual’s
many of our practices are like this—they are only cultural interests are equally important; no one should get
products. special treatment. At the same time, impartiality requires
that we do not treat the members of particular groups as
The second lesson has to do with keeping an open mind.
inferior, and thus it condemns forms of discrimination like
As we grow up, we develop strong feelings about things:
sexism and racism.
We learn to see some types of behavior as acceptable,
and other types as outrageous. The Minimum Conception of Morality
Cultural Relativism provides an antidote for this kind of We may now state the minimum conception: Morality is,
dogmatism. Realizing this can help broaden our minds. at the very least, the effort to guide one’s conduct by
We can see that our feelings are not necessarily reason—that is, to do what there are the best reasons
perceptions of the truth— they may be due to cultural for doing—while giving equal weight to the interests of
conditioning and nothing more. each individual affected by one’s action.
Many of the practices and attitudes we find natural are This paints a picture of what it means to be a
really only cultural products. conscientious moral agent. The conscientious moral
agent is someone who is concerned impartially with the
Ethical Relativism
interests of everyone affected by what he or she does;
 It is the view that ethical or moral values and who carefully sifts facts and examines their implications;
beliefs are relative to the various individuals or who accepts principles of conduct only after scrutinizing
societies that hold them. Thus, according to the them to make sure they are justified; who will “listen to
ethical or moral relativists, there is no objective reason” even when it means revising prior convictions;
right and wrong. and who, finally, is willing toact on these deliberations.
ETHICS

As one might expect, not every ethical theory accepts

this “minimum.” This picture of the conscientious moral
agent has been disputed in various ways. However,
theories that reject it encounter serious difficulties. This
is why most moral theories embrace the minimum
conception, in one form or another.