Journal of Hydrology 559 (2018) 835–847

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Journal of Hydrology
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Research papers

Tracing groundwater recharge sources in the northwestern Indian

alluvial aquifer using water isotopes (d18O, d2H and 3H)
Suneel Kumar Joshi a, Shive Prakash Rai b,⇑,1, Rajiv Sinha a,⇑, Sanjeev Gupta c, Alexander Logan Densmore d,
Yadhvir Singh Rawat b,1, Shashank Shekhar e
a
Department of Earth Sciences, Indian Institute of Technology, Kanpur 208016, India
b
National Institute of Hydrology, Roorkee, India
c
Department of Earth Science and Engineering, Imperial College London, London SW7 2AZ, United Kingdom
d
Institute of Hazard, Risk, and Resilience and Department of Geography, Durham University, Durham DH1 3LE, United Kingdom
e
Department of Geology, University of Delhi, Delhi 110007, India

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Rapid groundwater depletion from the northwestern Indian aquifer system in the western Indo-Gangetic
Received 25 September 2017 basin has raised serious concerns over the sustainability of groundwater and the livelihoods that depend
Received in revised form 15 January 2018 on it. Sustainable management of this aquifer system requires that we understand the sources and rates
Accepted 18 February 2018
of groundwater recharge, however, both these parameters are poorly constrained in this region. Here we
Available online 27 February 2018
This manuscript was handled by Emmanouil
analyse the isotopic (d18O, d2H and tritium) compositions of groundwater, precipitation, river and canal
Anagnostou, Editor-in-Chief, with the water to identify the recharge sources, zones of recharge, and groundwater flow in the Ghaggar River
assistance of Efthymios Nikolopoulos, basin, which lies between the Himalayan-fed Yamuna and Sutlej River systems in northwestern India.
Associate Editor Our results reveal that local precipitation is the main source of groundwater recharge. However, depleted
d18O and d2H signatures at some sites indicate recharge from canal seepage and irrigation return flow.
Keywords: The spatial variability of d18O, d2H, d-excess, and tritium reflects limited lateral connectivity due to the
Water isotopes heterogeneous and anisotropic nature of the aquifer system in the study area. The variation of tritium
Recharge sources concentration with depth suggests that groundwater above c. 80 mbgl is generally modern water. In con-
Recharge zones trast, water from below c. 80 mbgl is a mixture of modern and old waters, and indicates longer residence
Groundwater flow time in comparison to groundwater above c. 80 mbgl. Isotopic signatures of d18O, d2H and tritium suggest
Northwestern Indian aquifer
significant vertical recharge down to a depth of 320 mbgl. The spatial and vertical variations of isotopic
signature of groundwater reveal two distinct flow patterns in the aquifer system: (i) local flow (above c.
80 mbgl) throughout the study area, and (ii) intermediate and regional flow (below c. 80 mbgl), where
water recharges aquifers through large-scale lateral flow as well as vertical infiltration. The understand-
ing of spatial and vertical recharge processes of groundwater in the study area provides important base-
line knowledge for developing a sustainable groundwater management plan for the northwestern Indian
aquifer system.
Ó 2018 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

1. Introduction agriculture has exacerbated groundwater exploitation, leading to

the decline of the water table in major alluvial aquifer systems
Groundwater depletion from major alluvial aquifer systems is a across the world (Konikow and Kendy, 2005; Aeschbach-Hertig
global issue (e.g., Foster and Chilton, 2003; Wada et al., 2012; and Gleeson, 2012). Large-scale groundwater depletion has
Gleeson et al., 2015). The global groundwater extraction rate is resulted in land subsidence, reduction in the base flow of springs

1500 km3 per year (Doll et al., 2012), which is more than the nat- and rivers during dry periods, saltwater intrusion, water quality
ural groundwater recharge rate. Increasing water demand for eco- degradation, and damage to aquatic ecosystems in different parts
nomic development, power generation, drinking water, and of the world (Fishman et al., 2011). This problem is becoming more
challenging given the increasing demands by development and a
growing population, along with poorly understood effects of
⇑ Corresponding authors.
climate-driven changes in the water cycle (e.g., Aeschbach-Hertig
E-mail addresses: [email protected] (S.P. Rai), [email protected]
(R. Sinha). and Gleeson, 2012). These broad issues can be addressed only if
1
Presently at Department of Geology, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, India. we know the sources and areas of groundwater recharge along

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2018.02.056
0022-1694/Ó 2018 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V.
This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
836 S.K. Joshi et al. / Journal of Hydrology 559 (2018) 835–847

with the interconnectivity and dynamics of aquifer systems at specific objectives are (1) isotopic characterization of groundwater
appropriate regional scales. This information, however, is and surface waters for the Ghaggar River basin; (2) identification of
poorly constrained for many of the world’s major alluvial the recharge sources and zones; and (3) understanding recharge
aquifer systems. processes and groundwater flow dynamics in the aquifer system
The northwestern Indian aquifer system (NWIA) underlies the that underlies the Ghaggar River basin. To achieve our objectives,
states of Punjab, Haryana, and Rajasthan and represents one of we conducted systematic sampling of precipitation, surface waters
the major alluvial aquifer systems of the Indo-Gangetic basin in from both rivers and canals, and groundwater across the study area
northern India and Pakistan (MacDonald et al., 2016). The region (Fig. 1).
is characterized by multiple, semi-confined sand-rich aquifer bod-
ies that are laterally discontinuous but may be highly intercon-
nected (van Dijk et al., 2016a; MacDonald et al., 2016). This is 2. Study area
one of the most agriculturally intensive regions in India, where
annual food grain production has increased four fold from 50 mil- The study area for our investigation encompasses a major area
lion tons in 1950 to 203 million tons in 1999–2000 (Kumar et al., of the NWIA in the Indo-Gangetic basin, focusing on the Ghaggar
2005). Such intensive agricultural activities are mainly attributed River basin which lies between 29°100 N and 30°540 N and 74°200 E
to the so-called ‘green revolution’ in India, aimed at achieving and 77°260 E and covers an area of 22,235 km2 (Fig. 1). The Ghaggar
self-reliance in food production. This intensive food production River originates in the Siwalik foothills of the Himalayas at an alti-
has led, however, to greatly-accelerated demand for irrigation tude of 1927 m asl (above sea level) and flows for
330 km across
water. Since India’s surface water infrastructure was never ade- the study area. In the alluvial part of the basin, the elevation varies
quate to meet this requirement, the focus shifted to groundwater from 350 to 150 m asl. The Ghaggar is a seasonal river that is set
extraction using large numbers of tube wells. The average tube within a large, slightly incised paleo-valley that is more than 3
well density in this region is >15 km2 (Ambast et al., 2006). As a km wide (Bhadra et al., 2009; Sinha et al., 2013; van Dijk et al.,
consequence, the groundwater level in the NWIA is declining at a 2016a; Singh et al., 2017). About 90% of the study area is used
much higher rate than any other comparably-sized aquifer on for intensive agriculture (UNDP, 1985; Ambast et al., 2006), and
the Earth (Rodell et al., 2009; Tiwari et al., 2009; Chen et al., the main sources of irrigation water supply are precipitation,
2014; Panda and Wahr, 2015; Long et al., 2016). Satellite-borne groundwater, and surface water from canals. Water from the Sutlej
gravity measurements suggest that groundwater levels declined River is diverted through a dense canal network for irrigation in the
at
3.1 ± 0.1 cm per year between 2005 and 2010 (Long et al., middle and downstream parts of the basin. Water demand in this
2016) and that water was lost at a rate of
54±9 km3 per year region has greatly increased since 1970 (Kumar et al., 2014) due
between 2002 and 2008 (Tiwari et al., 2009); the average rate of to a progressive shift towards rice cultivation in the monsoon sea-
groundwater depletion is
20.4 ± 7.1 gigatonnes per year for 10 son (July–September). As a result of this, a net annual water deficit
years from 2003 to 2012 (Chen et al., 2014). of 1.63 million-hectare meters for Punjab (estimated for 2008;
Sustainable management of the NW Indian aquifer system Kumar et al., 2014) has to be met through groundwater abstrac-
needs a comprehensive understanding of the sources and rates of tion. As a consequence, there has been a rapid decline in the water
groundwater recharge. In addition, it is also important to know table over much of the region over the last four decades (Rodell
the degree of spatial variability of recharge rates that is imposed et al., 2009; Tiwari et al., 2009; Chen et al., 2014; Long et al.,
by the geological heterogeneity that is inherent within alluvial set- 2016; MacDonald et al., 2016).
tings. Water isotopes are commonly used for determining the The Ghaggar River basin extends across four geomorphic units
sources of groundwater and residence times. The isotopes of that coincide with distinct subsurface hydrogeological units: the
hydrogen (2H and 3H) and oxygen (18O) have proved to be particu- Siwalik hills, the Sutlej and Yamuna sediment fans, the interfan
larly useful tools in hydrogeological studies, providing valuable area, and spatially-restricted aeolian deposits (Fig. 1). The Siwalik
insights into water dynamics in a given basin (Dincer et al. 1970; Hills range in altitude from 400 to 2000 m asl and are made up
Fontes, 1980; Clark and Fritz, 1997; Hoque and Burgess, 2012). A of sandstone and conglomerate. They are separated from sedi-
few local isotopic studies in Punjab and Haryana states have ments of the Indo-Gangetic foreland basin by the Himalayan Fron-
focused on the provenance of groundwater using isotopic tracers, tal Thrust (HFT). The foreland basin fill is dominated by fluvial fans
sources of groundwater salinity (Kulkarni et al., 1996; Lorenzen deposited by the Sutlej and Yamuna rivers, and comprising spa-
et al., 2012), and estimation of recharge rate based on the tritium tially heterogeneous sand, silt, and clay deposits associated with
tagging technique (Datta et al., 1996; Rangarajan and Athavale, abandoned, avulsive river channel belts (UNDP, 1985; Saini et al.,
2000). These studies provide a broad understanding of the mecha- 2009; Sinha et al., 2013; van Dijk et al., 2016a; Singh et al.,
nism of local recharge sources and zones, but it is hard to extrap- 2017). These fans decrease in surface elevation from about 350
olate these local studies to understand basin-scale recharge to 150 m asl over a distance of about 300 km. Van Dijk et al.
mechanisms given the heterogeneity of the alluvial aquifer system (2016a) used aquifer-thickness logs from the Central Groundwater
(Bowen, 1985; Sinha et al. 2013; van Dijk et al., 2016a). There has Board (CGWB) to show that aquifer bodies within the fans are typ-
been no systematic study of recharge sources, zones and ground- ically composed of stacked channel deposits of fine to medium
water flow (e.g., isotopic fingerprinting or age) at an appropriate sand, interspersed both vertically and laterally with non-aquifer
scale in this important region, with the important exception of silt and clay. The aquifer bodies have a median thickness of about
the studies of Lapworth et al. (2015, 2017) and Rao et al. (2017) 6–7 m (van Dijk et al., 2016a). These sediments form a multi-layer
who focused on a region between the Beas and Sutlej Rivers in aquifer system (Lapworth et al., 2017). In contrast, the interfan
Punjab. Comparable work across the rest of Punjab and Haryana area between the Sutlej and Yamuna fans, east of Patiala (Fig. 1),
has not yet been done. is characterized by thinner and less abundant aquifer bodies, even
To investigate the spatial pattern of groundwater recharge at locations that are adjacent to the HFT (van Dijk et al., 2016a).
sources in the NWIA, we focus here on the Ghaggar River basin that This geomorphic framework contrasts with the traditional division
encompasses parts of the states of Punjab, Haryana and Rajasthan of the Indo-Gangetic basin into Siwalik Hills and distal alluvial
in northwestern India. We investigate the sources of groundwater deposits, and reflects an important along-strike stratigraphic
recharge using the stable isotopes of oxygen and hydrogen in heterogeneity in the aquifer system. The bulk specific yield varies
water, coupled with measurements of tritium radioisotopes. Our spatially, with values of 10–26% in the interfan area near the
 S.K. Joshi et al. / Journal of Hydrology 559 (2018) 835–847 837

Fig. 1. Geomorphic map of the study area, modified after van Dijk et al. (2016a). The continuous blue lines represents surface rivers. The continuous orange lines represent
the canal network. Three rain gauges were installed at Sirsa, Patiala and Chandigarh (green squares) to collect precipitation samples. Canal water sampling locations are
shown by red triangles, river water samples by yellow squares, and groundwater samples by grey circles. Basin margin sampling point is shown as a black square. (For
interpretation of the references to colour in this figure caption, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)

Himalayan foothills and 5–15% in the Sutlej and Yamuna fans for d18O and d2H analysis, and October-November 2012, June
(UNDP, 1985; CGWB, 2009, 2012). 2013, and April and June 2015 for 3H analysis. We collected
The climatic conditions in the Ghaggar basin range from sub- groundwater samples from 244 locations from monitoring wells
tropical to semi-arid, with temperatures of 25–48 °C in summer, of the CGWB and state groundwater departments, public tube
and 5–19 °C in winter (Kumar et al., 2014). Precipitation shows wells, and hand pumps using a grid of about 10  10 km across
marked spatial variation throughout the study area. Mean annual the study area. The wells were purged for 30–45 min depending
rainfall is ranges between 800–1200 mm in the Siwalik Hills, 74% on the depth of the well before sampling. The screening depths
of which is received during July to September. Mean annual rainfall in the sampled wells vary from
6 to 365 mbgl. It is worth men-
in the foreland basin is 400–800 mm but decreases to less than tioning that screening depths are only recorded for government
400 mm in the southwestern part of the study area. tube wells and piezometers, while depths for public tube wells
and hand pumps are based on local information (tube wells and
3. Sampling strategy and measurements hand pumps owner). As per the hand pump/tube wells owner,
there is generally some displacement (±1 to ±3 m) during the
We designed our sampling strategy to document spatial and screen installation. So, we have assumed an uncertainty of ±5 m
vertical variation in the isotopic signature (d18O, d2H, and 3H) of in the screen depths of such wells.
both source water (precipitation, canal water, and rivers) and The primary recharge sources of groundwater in the study area
groundwater across the study area (Fig. 1). Water sampling was are meteoric water, rivers, and irrigation canals. Canal water is typ-
carried out throughout the study area during June and July 2013 ically abstracted from the river network at or near the Himalayan
838 S.K. Joshi et al. / Journal of Hydrology 559 (2018) 835–847

mountain front. To establish the isotopic signatures of these differ- precipitation from all three stations and this was found to be
ent sources, canal and river water samples were collected from negligible. Remarkably enriched isotopic values were observed
random locations based on accessibility within the study area. for rainfall events of less than 20 mm per day, particularly from
Also, three rain gauge stations were set up in Chandigarh, Patiala, the rain gauge station at Sirsa in the downstream part of the basin
and Sirsa (Fig. 1) to develop a local meteoric water line for the where the climate is semi-arid. A cross plot of d18O and d2H based
Ghaggar River basin. on the monthly weighted isotopic composition of precipitation
All water samples were collected in pre-cleaned polypropylene from all three sites was used to develop a Local Meteoric Water
bottles (20 ml for stable isotopic samples and 500 ml for tritium Line (LMWL) for the study area (Fig. 2). This provides information
samples). The bottles were rinsed at the site twice with the sample on the preservation or alteration of the stable isotopic composition
water. To further avoid any diffusive and evaporative losses from of groundwater and various other water sources. The LMWL
the samples bottles, they were tightly sealed and brought immedi- derived for our study area, along with other LMWLs for the
ately to the laboratory for isotopic analysis. Samples for d18O and Delhi region and the Global Meteoric Water Line (GMWL), are
d2H were analysed during August-October 2013, and those for 3H as follows:
were analysed during March, August, September 2013 (n = 68)
and during August-September 2015 (n = 19). Sample latitude, lon- d2 H ¼ 7:9  d18 O þ 5:56; ðr2 ¼ 0:98Þ ½Study area ð1Þ
gitude, and altitude were measured using a handheld Global Posi-
tioning System receiver during the sampling. Additional d2 H ¼ 7:15  d18 O þ 2:60; ðr2 ¼ 0:98Þ ½Delhi LMWL ð2Þ
parameters such as pH, temperature, and electrical conductivity
(EC) were also measured in the field using handheld pH and EC d2 H ¼ 8:14ð0:02Þ  d18 O þ 10:9ð0:2Þ;
meters. ðr2 ¼ 0:98Þ ½Gourcy etal:; 2005 ð3Þ
Stable isotopic (d2H, d18O) and tritium (3H) analyses were car-
ried out at the Nuclear Hydrology Laboratory at National Institute The slope of our LMWL (Eq. (1)) is close to that of the GMWL
of Hydrology (NIH) Roorkee, India. Measurements of d18O and d2H (Eq. (3)) defined by Gourcy et al. (2005) and the LMWL from Delhi
were made using Continuous Flow Isotope Ratio Mass Spectrome- (Pang et al. 2004) (Eq. (2)).
try and Dual Inlet Isotope Ratio Mass Spectrometry following stan-
dard procedures (Epstein and Mayeda, 1953; Brenninkmeijer and 4.1.2. River and canal waters
Morrison, 1987). The results are expressed in concentrations per The isotopic values of the Ghaggar River samples (n = 10) varied
mil (‰) relative to Vienna Standard Mean Ocean Water (VSMOW) from 7.5‰ to 6.7‰ for d18O and 54.9‰ and 43.8‰ for d2H.
on the d scale: The d18O and d2H values of river water samples fall on the LMWL
  and in close proximity to the AWAP, indicating that modern local
Rsample
d¼  1  1000‰ VSMOW precipitation is the primary source of Ghaggar River water
Rstandard
(Fig. 3a). In contrast, Sutlej River water ranges from 12.6‰ to
where Rsample is the 18O/16O or 2H/1H ratio of the water samples, and 10.5‰ for d18O and 87.8‰ to 70.9‰ for d2H. The d18O of canal
Rstandard is the corresponding ratio for VSMOW. The overall preci- water (n = 20) varies from 12.0‰ to 10.6‰ while d2H ranges
sion, based on ten repeated measurements of each sample, was less from 81.3‰ to 70.3‰ (Fig. 3a, Table S1). The relative isotopic
than ±1.0‰ for d2H and ±0.1‰ for d18O. depletion of canal water compared to the Ghaggar River water
We also analysed tritium (3H) to place some initial constraints and AWAP reflects the Higher Himalayan source of canal water
on the age of groundwater samples in the region. Tritium is ideal that is derived from the Sutlej River.
for the dating of young groundwater (less than 60 years before pre-
sent) because it is incorporated into water molecules and its activ- 4.1.3. Groundwater
ity is not affected by chemical or microbial processes, or by The isotopic values of groundwater samples (n = 244) varied
reactions between the groundwater and aquifer material between 11.6‰ and 4.7‰ for d18O, and 81.4‰ and 34.5‰
(Stewart and Morgenstern, 2001). Electrolytic reduction was used for d2H (Fig. 3a & b, Table S2). A cross plot of d18O and d2H of the
to concentrate tritium in 500 ml of a water sample using a 20- groundwater samples is used to develop a groundwater regression
cell standard Tritium Enrichment Unit. The temperature of the line for the study area (Fig. 3a, Table S2):
sample was maintained at 0° to 5 °C to achieve maximum tritium
fractionation and enrichment. After the electrolytic process, the d2 H ¼ 6:10  d18 O  7:00; ðr2 ¼ 0:95Þ ð4Þ
sample volume was reduced to 25 ml. The tritium activity in
The clustering of a large number of groundwater samples around
enriched samples along with the standards was measured using
the LMWL indicates that local modern meteoric water is a signifi-
an ultra-low-level liquid scintillation counter (Quantulus Wallac
cant source of groundwater recharge in the study area. However,
model 1220), and results are reported in tritium units (TU) with
a cluster of groundwater samples also falls below the GMWL. The
2 sigma errors (Table S2).
slope and intercept of the groundwater regression line (Eq. (4))
are less than those of the LMWL (Eq. (1)), indicating the important
4. Results effect of evaporative enrichment on groundwater (Wassenaar et al.,
2011).
4.1. Oxygen and hydrogen isotopic composition of precipitation, Importantly, we observe systematic variations in d18O values of
surface water, and groundwater groundwater with relation to the depth from which the groundwa-
ter was sampled (Fig. 4). Groundwater samples taken from depths
4.1.1. Precipitation in general above 80 mbgl show a broad range of d18O values
Measured d18O and d2H values of precipitation from three sam- (between 11.6‰ and 4.7‰,) and consistently lie very close to
pling locations (Chandigarh, Patiala, and Sirsa) ranged between the AWAP and canal water samples (Fig. 5c). These samples also
14.8‰ and +5.8‰ for d18O, and between 116.3‰ and +51.5‰ show significant spatial variability in d18O values (Fig. 5a). In con-
for d2H (Fig. 2 & S1). The amount-weighted annual precipitation trast, samples from depths in general below 80 mbgl show a nar-
(AWAP) value of d18O was 6.5‰ and of d2H was 46.8‰. We rower range of values and located closely to the AWAP, varying
checked the effect of altitude variation on isotopic values of between 8.2‰ and 4.8‰ for d18O and between 58.2‰ and
 S.K. Joshi et al. / Journal of Hydrology 559 (2018) 835–847 839

Fig. 2. Cross plot of d18O and d2H for precipitation samples (grey open squares); solid black line shows the LMWL and grey solid line shows the GMWL, big triangle shows the
value of Amount Weighted Annual Precipitation (AWAP).

Fig. 3. (a) Cross plot of d18O and d2H for groundwater samples (generally above 80 mbgl shown by purple circles, and generally below 80 mbgl shown by orange circles) along
with canal samples (red triangles), Ghaggar River samples (yellow squares), and Sutlej River samples (blue squares). Black continuous line represents the local meteoric water
line (LMWL), grey continuous line shows the global meteoric water line (GMWL), and black dashed line is the groundwater (GW) regression line. (b) Cross plot of d18O and d2H
for groundwater samples generally above and below 80 mbgl, indicating different recharge conditions in the Ghaggar basin in northwestern Indian aquifer system. (For
interpretation of the references to colour in this figure caption, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)

35.0‰ for d2H (Figs. 4, 5b & d). We define the regression lines for 4.2. Deuterium excess
groundwater samples taken from both above and below 80 mbgl
(Fig. 3a & b) as follows: The deuterium excess (d-excess) was defined as d = d2H – 8 
18
d O (Dansgaard, 1964), and quantifies the surplus deuterium
about Craig’s line (Craig, 1961). The deuterium excess depends
d2 H ¼ 6:10  d18 O  7:14;
on conditions prevalent during primary evaporation, including
ðr2 ¼ 0:95Þ ½groundwater samples above 80 mbgl ð5Þ variation in humidity, ocean surface temperature, and wind speed,
and thus gives information on the sources of water vapour (Gat,
1983; Clark and Fritz 1997). While equilibrium processes do not
d2 H ¼ 5:86  d18 O  8:4; change the d-excess for any of the phases, non-equilibrium evapo-
ðr2 ¼ 0:97Þ ½groundwater samples below 80 mbgl ð6Þ ration causes a decrease in the d-excess which indicates an
increase in the vapour phase. Most groundwater samples have d-
excess values close to that of precipitation, and a few samples
Both regression lines (Eqs. (5) & (6)) have a lower slope than the are similar to the d-excess value of canal water (Fig. 6). The d-
GMWL and a negative intercept, suggesting evaporative enrichment excess values of groundwater samples derived from depths in gen-
of the groundwater. eral above 80 mbgl are spatially variable and vary from 4.1‰ to
840 S.K. Joshi et al. / Journal of Hydrology 559 (2018) 835–847

The average tritium concentrations of precipitation and canal

water samples were 8.2 ± 0.3 and 9.0 ± 0.3 TU, respectively. The tri-
tium concentration in groundwater varies between
0.1 TU (min-
imum) and 12.9 ± 0.5 TU (maximum). These values vary both
vertically (i.e. with depth) and spatially (i.e. with distance from
the Himalayan mountain front) (Fig. 7b & c). Tritium concentration
shows a clear decline with depth (Fig. 7b), although groundwater
samples taken generally above 80 mbgl show a much broader
range of values, from 0.3 ± 0.2 up to 12.9 ± 0.5 TU, than samples
from below that depth (Fig. 7b & c). Spatially, Tritium concentra-
tions vary from 1.3 ± 0.2 to 8.4 ± 0.4 TU particularly in the area
within 80 km of the Himalayan front (Fig. 7c). In the middle and
downstream regions of the study area between 80 km and 320
km downstream of the Himalayan front (Fig. 7c), TU values for
samples from generally above 80 mbgl lie between 0.3 ± 0.2 to
10.2 ± 0.5. In contrast, tube well samples from generally below
80 mbgl show lower TU values, typically less than 4.4 ± 0.2. We
observe three downstream patterns of TU value variation for those
deeper samples, (Fig. 7a & c): (1) In the area within 80 km of the
Himalayan front, the majority of samples have TU values less than
1.2 ± 0.1 TU; (2) in the middle area between 80 to 200 km down-
Fig. 4. d18O variation with sampling depth for all groundwater samples within the
stream, TU values vary from
0.1 to 4.4 ± 0.2 TU; and (3) beyond
study area. The distinction between samples taken generally above 80 mbgl are
wider in range, which shows the multiple sources of recharge up to the depth of 80 200 km downstream, TU values are less than 1.9 ± 0.2 TU (except
m compared to samples below that depth. for 3 measurements). Thus, the deeper samples generally show
downstream TU variation compared to groundwater samples
derived from in general above 80 mbgl.
+14.9‰ (Fig. 8a), which depends upon the mixture of canal
recharge or precipitation and groundwater irrigation return flow.
4.4. Estimation of canal water contribution to groundwater recharge
In contrast, samples below 80 mbgl have d-excess values in the
range of 0.8‰ to +11.3‰, and most samples have values very
The stable isotopic composition of groundwater samples from
close to that of precipitation (Fig. 6). The negative and very low
generally above 80 mbgl in a number of tube wells (especially in
d-excess values of a few groundwater samples derived from below
the middle and downstream parts of the basin) indicate important
80 m depth mainly correspond to the downstream part of the
recharge from highly depleted canal water. We have quantified the
study area.
proportion of this recharge using a two-component separation
approach (Clark and Fritz, 1979; Rai et al., 2009; Engelhardt
4.3. Tritium concentrations et al., 2014). For this, we assume that the isotopic composition of
groundwater samples is derived by mixing of two end-member
Tritium concentration was measured for 91 samples of river, components, namely AWAP (average d18O value of 6.5‰) and
canal, and groundwater in the study area (Fig. 7a, Table S3), and canal water (11.6‰). The volumetric ratio of canal recharge to
22 samples of precipitation for Roorkee in north India (Table S4). total recharge, p, is then given by:

Fig. 5. (a) and (b) show spatial variation of d18O values for groundwater samples taken generally above and below 80 mbgl, respectively. The continuous blue lines represent
river network. Basin margin point is shown by black square. The Ghaggar basin boundary shown by red continuous line, and the administrative boundary between Punjab and
Haryana is shown by the grey continuous line. Panels (c) and (d) show cross plot of d18O and d2H for groundwater samples from two different depth zones - above 80 mbgl
(purple circles) and below 80 mbgl (orange circles). Red triangles represent canal water samples, yellow squares are Ghaggar River water samples, and blue squares are Sutlej
River water samples. Black continuous line is the LMWL and the grey continuous line is GMWL. (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure caption, the reader
is referred to the web version of this article.)
 S.K. Joshi et al. / Journal of Hydrology 559 (2018) 835–847 841

Fig. 6. Cross plot of d18O values and d-excess. Groundwater samples are represented by purple circles (above 80 mbgl) and orange circles (below 80 mbgl). Red triangles
represent canal water samples, yellow squares are Ghaggar River water samples, and blue squares are Sutlej River water samples. (For interpretation of the references to
colour in this figure caption, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)

p ¼ ðd18 Ogw  d18 Oprecip Þ=ðd18 Ocanal  d18 Oprecip Þ ð7Þ The cross-plot of d-excess vs. d18O for the groundwater samples
shows an inverse correlation (Fig. 6). The positive d-excess (>10‰)
where d18Ogw is the value of groundwater, d18Oprecip is the value of of the groundwater samples (generally above 80 mbgl) is consis-
precipitation (AWAP), and d18Ocanal is the average value of canal tent with source water derived from the Higher Himalayas
water. (Pande et al., 2000; Rai et al., 2014) and provides additional
The canal water contribution to groundwater recharge is spa- evidence of recharge from Sutlej River water that has been
tially variable across the study area (Fig. 8b). Most tube wells with redistributed through the canal network. A few samples have
depths of up to 80 mbgl in the downstream part of the basin have lower d-excess values, which suggests evaporative enrichment of
an estimated canal recharge component of more than 50% of total groundwater during the recharge process. The d-excess values of
recharge, whereas this value is quite variable (25% to 50%) in the groundwater samples that lie between canal water and AWAP
middle part of the basin. values suggest mixing of groundwater from different sources.
These d-excess results are broadly consistent with our d18O and
d2H measurements. Low d-excess values in downstream part
5. Discussion (between 280 and 320 km from the northern basin margin)
suggest a significant evaporative enrichment of recharged ground-
5.1. Spatial variation in isotopic characteristics of groundwater water (Fig. 9c). This is likely due to the prevailing semi-arid climate
in a southwest part of the study area and slow rate of recharge (56
Our analysis of isotopic characteristic of groundwater in the mm/yr for Punjab and 70 mm/yr for Haryana; Rangarajan and
Ghaggar basin shows that d18O and d2H of groundwaters vary in Athavale, 2000). Towards the distal part of the basin, the thickness
space as well as depth. To understand the relationship between of non-aquifer material in the subsurface increases (van Dijk et al.,
isotopic and aquifer characteristics, we have plotted aquifer thick- 2016a). The spatial variation of d18O and d2H with distance
ness logs from the basin margin in Himalayan front to the distal suggests that in-situ vertical recharge at a variable rate takes place
part of the basin along cross-section A-B along with d-excess and throughout the study area. This is obvious on account of the
isotopic composition (d18O and d2H) of groundwaters (Fig. 9a–e). variable water table (Supplementary Fig. S2) and heterogeneity
The d18O values of groundwater samples range from 5.2‰ to in the subsurface in NWIA system (Fig. 9a). The isotopic data is
7.7‰, and from 1.2 to 8.4 TU for tritium concentration (generally in conformity with the observed geological heterogeneity of the
above 80 mbgl) in the upstream parts (from the basin margin up to NWIA system and the decrease in bulk aquifer body percentage
80 km downstream, Fig. 7c & 9d); these values clearly reflect that from proximal to distal parts of the basin, which results in limited
precipitation is the main recharge source. However, in the middle lateral connectivity of aquifer bodies (van Dijk et al., 2016a,b).
and downstream parts of the basin (
80 to 320 km downstream of
the basin margin), the d18O value and tritium concentration of 5.2. Vertical variability of d18O and tritium
groundwater samples generally above 80 mbgl are much more
variable than those from the generally below 80 mbgl. This could Groundwater d18O values fall within a narrow range near the
reflect multiple recharge sources such as irrigation return flow, AWAP for samples generally below 80 mbgl (Fig. 4). This is likely
canal water leakage, and precipitation in this part of the basin. due to the attenuation of d18O and d2H values with depth, as water
842 S.K. Joshi et al. / Journal of Hydrology 559 (2018) 835–847

Fig. 7. (a) Spatial distribution of tritium concentrations in groundwater samples (generally above and below 80 mbgl) in the Ghaggar River basin. The continuous blue lines
represent river network. Basin margin point is shown by black square. The Ghaggar basin boundary shown by red continuous line, and the administrative boundary between
Punjab and Haryana is shown by the grey continuous line. (b) Variation of tritium concentrations with depth of groundwater samples represented by purple circles (above 80
mbgl) and orange circles (below 80 mbgl), and (c) Tritium concentration as a function of distance from the basin margin from the Himalayan front. (For interpretation of the
references to colour in this figure caption, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)

from different sources moves downward and attains the isotopic northwestern India, while tritium concentrations in precipitation
signature close to the AWAP generally below 80 mbgl (Fig. 4). Sim- measured during 2004 to 2010 at Roorkee in north India, varies
ilarly, a decrease in tritium concentration is observed with depth between 2.6 and 15.5 TU (Table S4). We therefore consider tritium
(Fig. 7b). The comparatively low tritium concentrations below 80 concentrations of groundwater of 2 to 12.9 ± 0.5 TU as indicating
mbgl indicate relatively large travel time in the groundwater flow recharge from modern water. However, tritium concentrations
system, resulting in loss of tritium by radioactive decay. As men- below 1 TU indicates groundwater that is likely older than 50 yrs
tioned earlier, precipitation is the main recharge source, and there- (Liu et al., 2014). The presence of a mixture of modern and old
fore, we compare our results with tritium concentration of water below 80 mbgl indicates that significant recharge from mod-
precipitation for the northwest India. The eight precipitation sam- ern sources reaches down to tube well depth (i.e., 320 mbgl) except
ples measured here yielded values of
3 to 17 TU. Kumar et al. in a few locations. This, in turn, suggests that there is significant
(2010) reported tritium concentrations of 6.6 to 17.6 TU for vertical leakage through the thick but discontinuous non-aquifer
 S.K. Joshi et al. / Journal of Hydrology 559 (2018) 835–847 843

Fig. 8. (a) Spatial variation of d-excess of groundwater samples generally above 80 mbgl. There are four distinct zones, I to IV, shown by black dashed line, indicating different
recharge sources for the study area. (b) Spatial variation of canal contribution to the groundwater recharge in the study area derived from the two-component mixing model.
Panels (c)–(f) show cross plots of d2H and d18O of groundwater samples generally above 80 mbgl (purple circles), where d-excess varies between 6‰ and 11‰ in zone I,
between 1‰ and 5‰ in zone II, between 8‰ and 15‰ in zone III, and between 2‰ and 4‰ in zone IV. (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure caption,
the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)

layers within the sedimentary sequence (van Dijk et al., 2016a) and Fig. 8a & b) reveal spatially variable recharge processes in the study
that these layers do not provide a barrier to vertical recharge of area. This leads us to identify four distinct groundwater recharge
groundwater (Bowen 1985, Toth, 2009; Sinha et al., 2013; van zones (Fig. 8a).
Dijk et al., 2016a; Hoque et al., 2017: Fig. 9b). An attempt was also Zone I represents the upstream area of the basin, where the d-
made to corroborate our results with hydraulic calculations using excess ranges from +6‰ to +11‰ (Fig. 8a). A cross-plot of d18O vs.
the velocity figures for sandy aquifers from Soni et al. (2014) and d2H shows that all groundwater samples (generally above 80 mbgl)
Shekhar et al. (2015) and our results are satisfactory even at such fall on the LMWL and are very close to AWAP (Fig. 8c) suggesting
large scale of aquifer system. Similar results have been reported recharge predominantly through local precipitation. Tritium con-
by Lapworth et al. (2015) from the Beas-Sutlej region of Punjab centrations in groundwater samples generally above 80 mbgl in
using anthropogenic tracers. this zone are up to 12.9 ± 0.5 TU. This indicates that the groundwa-
ter is of modern age, and derived from local meteoric precipitation.
5.3. Spatial variability in groundwater recharge sources and zones Previous work interpreted Zone I as characterized by high perme-
ability and high hydraulic conductivity (van Dijk et al., 2016a). Our
The spatial variation of d18O values, tritium concentrations and work, however, has shown that this zone is recharged by local pre-
d-excess of groundwater samples generally above 80 mbgl, and the cipitation based on the inferred groundwater recharge sources and
canal contribution to groundwater recharge (Fig. 5a, b, Fig. 7a, flow paths. Therefore, the implication of our work is that recharge
844 S.K. Joshi et al. / Journal of Hydrology 559 (2018) 835–847

Fig. 9. (a) Cross section A-B (see Fig. 1 for location) showing Central Groundwater Board aquifer-thickness logs from the study area, modified from van Dijk et al. (2016a).
Depth ranges with non-aquifer material are colored green and ranges with aquifer material are colored yellow. Note that aquifer bodies cannot be correlated laterally with the
available data; median log spacing is 7 km. (b) the geographic location of point A and B, which is used to prepare cross section A-B, basin margin point in black color filled-
square and Ghaggar River basin. (c) Downstream variation of d-excess with distance from the basin margin from the Himalayan front. (d) Downstream variation of d18O
values from the basin margin from the Himalayan front. (e) Downstream variation of d2H values from the basin margin from the Himalayan front. (For interpretation of the
references to colour in this figure caption, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)

rates in this zone would be high although we do not provide any conditions. Here, water gets fractionated during the recharge
quantification at this stage. process and bears enriched values of d18O and d2H and low
Zone II represents an area where the d-excess ranges from +1‰ d-excess. The canal contribution to groundwater at a number of
to +5‰ (Fig. 8a) and groundwater samples fall on or below LMWL locations, is less than 50% (Fig. 8b). This is consistent with slow
in the cross plot of d18O vs. d2H and very close to AWAP (Fig. 8d). recharge rates in this zone (Rangarajan and Athavale, 2000).
The primary source of recharge is local precipitation. However, a
number of samples fall between the isotopic values of canal water 5.4. Conceptual model of the hydrological processes controlling
and AWAP, indicating recharge through a mixture of canal water isotopic signatures of groundwater
and local precipitation. The enriched isotopic composition and
low d-excess of groundwater samples reflect fractionation during It has already been established that the hydrological processes
recharge through rainfall or irrigation return flow. Tritium concen- operating in the basin have subtle differences as we move down-
trations of groundwater samples range from
2 to
10 TU, indi- stream. Traced downstream, the variability in the recharge pro-
cate modern recharge at depths generally above 80 mbgl. The cesses including the source and rate of recharge, appears to
canal contribution to groundwater in a number of locations, esti- correlate with both the complex and spatially-variable subsurface
mated by using two-component analysis, ranges from 0% to 50% sedimentary architecture (van Dijk et al., 2016a) and with anthro-
in zone II (Fig. 8b). This zone is characterized by a high tube well pogenic forcing such as the canal network. We use this information
density and rapid decline in groundwater levels due to overex- to develop a conceptual model for the hydrological processes oper-
ploitation of groundwater resources. Therefore, induced recharge ating in the Ghaggar Basin (Fig. 10). The boundary conditions for
to groundwater through irrigation return flow might be one expla- the conceptual model are: a) geomorphic setting, (b) the spatial
nation for evaporative enrichment of isotopic signatures of variability of d18O and d2H, (c) the spatial variation of tritium con-
groundwater. centration in groundwater, (d) longitudinal cross-sections based on
Zone III represents the area where the d-excess ranges from aquifer-thickness logs, and (e) groundwater flow directions
+8‰ to +15‰ (Fig. 8a), and where d18O and d2H of the groundwater derived from water table.
fall mostly above the LMWL and very close to the isotopic compo- The available aquifer-thickness data, indicate that the aquifer
sition of canal water. Relatively more depleted values of d18O are system is composed of stacked, laterally-discontinuous high-
observed in this zone compared with zones I and II, which we permeability aquifer bodies, separated both laterally and vertically
interpret as evidence of active recharge by canal water. Tritium by low-permeability non-aquifer material (Fig. 9a). This inter-
values are also higher than those in zone II, because of the signifi- leaved pattern of occurrence, coupled with the basin surface topog-
cant contribution of the canal to groundwater. The canal contribu- raphy, imposes and maintains a hierarchy of groundwater flow
tion to groundwater recharge ranges up to 100% (Fig. 8b). systems, from shallow to deep (Hoque et al., 2017). The flow sys-
Zone IV represents the distal end of the study area where d- tems can be referred as local, if recharge and discharge areas are
excess value ranges from 2‰ to +4‰, and d18O and d2H values fall contiguous; intermediate, if these regions are separated by one or
below the LMWL but close to AWAP (Fig. 8f). The d18O and d2H val- more local systems; and regional: if they extend over the full extent
ues of groundwater samples, more enriched than the AWAP, are of the basin (Toth, 2009). Our depth-wise isotopic data suggest that
evidence of recharge by local precipitation, modified by evapora- local flow patterns in the Ghaggar Basin extend down to a depth of
tive fractionation. This zone is characterized by semi-arid c. 80 m and are dominated by local vertical recharge from meteoric
 S.K. Joshi et al. / Journal of Hydrology 559 (2018) 835–847 845

Fig. 10. Schematic model of the hydrological processes in the groundwater system of the Ghaggar River basin in northwestern Indian Aquifer system. The Sutlej and Yamuna
sediments fans indicate thinning of the aquifer material from proximal to distal margin. The schematic model is categorised into four zones (Fig. 8a), zone I and II are very
close to the proximal part of the basin where rainfall amount varies from 800 to 1200 mm/year, indicating precipitation is the main recharge source in both zones I and II.
Further, recharged water travel deeper and join the regional groundwater flow system in zones I and II. The depleted isotopic value in zone III indicates active recharge source
from higher altitude and mixing between groundwater and surface water. The enriched isotopic value in zone IV (located in semi-arid condition where rainfall amount is less
than 400 mm/year) indicates evaporative enrichment due to the less aquifer material in the distal margin of Sutlej and Yamuna sediments fans in northwest Indian aquifer
system.

and canal sources, while intermediate and regional flow patterns hydrological process of mixing of this old groundwater in zone III
extend to deeper depths and show evidence for sustained lateral with vertically recharged groundwater from sources like rainfall
flow (Fig. 10). A similar flow pattern has been proposed for the and return flow of canal and groundwater irrigation.
Bengal basin by Ravenscroft et al. (2005), and Toth (2009) showed
similar hierarchically nested groundwater flow systems within the 6. Conclusions
exploited depth of the aquifer. The observed vertical variations in
isotopic signature of the groundwater are thus likely due to tortu- This study is the first systematic attempt to identify the
ous groundwater flow paths; surface topography and subsurface recharge sources and zones and to characterise groundwater
lithological variations impose hydraulic heterogeneity and aniso- dynamics in the northwestern Indian aquifer in Punjab and Har-
tropy, which controls the flow patterns and depth of groundwater yana using water isotopes (d18O, d2H and 3H). Our results reveal
penetration (Zijl, 1999). that recharge sources for groundwater in the region are local mete-
This conceptual model helps to explain the major lateral and oric water, canal seepage, and both canal and groundwater-derived
vertical variations in groundwater d18O, d2H and tritium concentra- irrigation return flow. These recharge sources vary spatially in their
tions, which we interpret as due to the heterogeneous distribution importance. The influence of canal water to recharge is most
of aquifer and non-aquifer sediments in the subsurface. For exam- apparent in the Zone II to IV in the study area. The spatial variabil-
ple, the tritium results show comparatively higher residence time ity in d18O, d2H value and tritium concentration reflects limited lat-
for groundwater from generally below 80 mbgl compared to the eral connectivity of the aquifer due to the heterogeneity of aquifer
groundwater above 80 mbgl. This indicates the existence of longer material. However, the variation of d18O with depth shows the
flow paths for groundwater below 80 mbgl, which is likely con- effect of averaging of the isotopic composition of different ground-
trolled by the aquifer heterogeneity and anisotropy. water sources at various depths. Variability in tritium concentra-
Furthermore, as illustrated in the schematic model in Fig. 10, tions with depth reveals that groundwater generally above 80
water recharged in zones I and II must travel deeper to account mbgl is of modern age. However, groundwater generally below
for the regional groundwater flow system. The groundwater veloc- 80 mbgl is a mixture of modern and old water. The spatial distribu-
ity through sand-rich aquifer bodies like those in the Ghaggar tion of aquifer and non-aquifer material in the subsurface likely
Basin are typically
1 to 2 m/day (Soni et al., 2014; Shekhar forces some recharge water to follow longer, deeper, and more tor-
et al., 2015). Furthermore, the model (Fig. 10) suggests the tuous flow paths resulting in low tritium values. Two kinds of flow
846 S.K. Joshi et al. / Journal of Hydrology 559 (2018) 835–847

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