PRINCIPLES OF TEACHING

I. TEACHING:
NATURE/CHARACTERISTICS/PRINCIPLES What is
teaching?
 A process of interacting, tutoring or educating.
 Stands for pedagogy, training, and nurturing.
 The process of engaging students in activities that will enable them to acquire knowledge, skills,
as well as worthwhile values and attitudes.
 An aggregate of organized strategies and activities aimed at inducing learning.
 Overall cluster of activities associated with a teacher, and including explaining, questioning,
demonstrating, and motivating.
 Is both science and art; science as it is based on psychological research that identifies cause-
effect relationships between teaching and learning; art, as it shows how those relationships are
implemented in successful and artistic teaching.
 Involves values, experiences, insights, imagination, and appreciation – the “stuff” that cannot be
easily observed or measured (Greene).
 Involves the interplay among such factors as the teacher, the learner, the teaching content, and
strategies as this diagram below:

The Triadic Elements of Teaching

The Teacher
 A key factor in any teaching- learning process. The Learner
 Constructs well- designed plan to achieve  Most important element of teaching.
objectives of the lesson.
 The natural characteristics of students – age,
 Prepares learning environment.
maturity, grade level, health, abilities, family
 Selects appropriate
background, experiences and motivation, and
contents/strategies/learning activities
his/her culture, including values, attitudes ,
 Adjusts contents/activities/strategies/learning
tradition which influence the teaching –
environment to the learners.
learning process to a very large extent.

The Content
Teaching Strategies
 The choice of content/subject matter to be
taught to achieve desired objectives of the
lesson.
 The selection of appropriate instructional
materials/technology to facilitate learning.
 The use of appropriate/effective methods and
strategies of teaching to arrive at the desired
outcomes.
Principles Underlying Instruction
Principle of Context- learning depends on the setting particularly including use of materials in which the
process goes on with this scales of application:
 Textbook only
 Textbook with a supplementary material
 Non- academic and current materials (newspapers, clippings, articles, and magazines)
 Multi- sensory aids
 Field experiences; personal, social and community understanding
Principle of Focus- instruction must be organized about a focus or direction, following these scales of
application, and where focus is established by:
 Page assignment in textbook
 Announced topic together with page or chapter references
 Broad concept or a problem to be solved, or a skill to be acquired to carry on understanding
Principle of Socialization- instruction depends upon the social setting in which it is done, with these
scales of application and where social patterns are characterized by:
 Submission
 Contribution
 Cooperation
Principle of Individualization- instruction must progress in terms of the learner’s own purposes,
aptitudes, abilities and experiential procedures, following theses scales of application and where
individualization may be done through:
 Differential performance in uniforms tasks
 Homogenous groupings
 Control plan
 Individual instruction
 Large units with optional related activity
 Individual undertakings, stemming from and contributing to the join undertaking of the group
learners
Principle of Sequence- instruction depends on effective ordering of a series of learning tasks which
moves:
 From meaningless to emergence of meaning
 From immediate to remote
 From concrete to symbolic
 From crude to discriminating and where sequence comes through:
Logical succession of blocks of content (lesson/courses)
Knitting learning/lesson/course/ together by introductions, previews, pretests, reviews
Organized in terms of readiness
Organized in terms of lines emerging meanings
Principle of Evaluation- learning is heightened by a valid and discriminating appraisal of all its aspects,
following these scales of application:
 Evaluation or direct results only
 Evaluation related to objectives and process
 Evaluation on total learning process and results

II. MANAGEMENT OF INSTRUCTION: Instruction may be well-managed using any of these classifications
of students:
Homogenous learners are classified/grouped in terms of similar elements; such as age, abilities,
interests, physical characteristics, etc.
Heterogeneous, no definite bases for clustering or putting learners together: could be on random
sampling, alphabetized family names, time of enrolment, etc.
Non-graded, no fixed grade/level assignment of children. They come to the center of learning by small
groups or individually depending on their pacing in the accomplishment of tasks.

Difference among the terms technique, strategy, method, and approach:

Technique
 The personal art and style of the teacher in carrying out the procedures of teaching.
 The teacher’s unique way, style or act of executing the stages of a teaching.
Strategy (Methodology)
 A set of decisions on what learning activities to provide achieve an objective.
 An overall or general design of how the lesson will be executed or delivered.
 Can be substituted to methodology.
Approach
 A set of correlative assumptions or viewpoints dealing with nature of teaching and learning.
 The procedure that employs a variety of strategies to assess better understanding and effective
learning.
Method
 A series of related and progressive acts performed by a teacher and pupils to achieve the
desired objectives of the lesson.
 The established way or procedure of guiding the mental processes in mastering the subject
matter.
 A well- planned step-by-step procedure that is directed towards desired learning outcomes.

II. Methods: Purposes, Principles, Factors to consider, Classification

Purposes of Methods
 Make learning more efficient.
 Enable the learner to think logically.
 Facilitate smooth transition from activity to another.
 Serve as guide in preparing all the needed materials, tasks, and equipment.
 Approximate time to be allotted for each activity to avoid waste of time and lapses.
 Make planning clear and precise, to prevent confusion, unnecessary delays and time wastage.
 Help in planning for assessment and evaluation of the lesson.
 Add to a feeling of confidence and security for the teacher and students.
Principles of Selecting Methods
 Must be based on sound principle, laws, and theories of learning.
 Must assist learners to define their purposes and motives.
 Must originate from learners’ past experience.
 Must suit individual differences, needs, interests, and developmental maturity.
 Must bring the learners to the world of diverse learning experiences.
 Must stimulate the learners to think critically, analytically, and creatively.
 Must be challenging.
 Must be flexible.
 Must be consistent with the requirements of the objectives.
 Must be appropriate with the content.
 Must give way to varied students’ participation.
 Must consider to be undertaken to ensure gainful learning.
Factors to Consider in Choosing a Method
Learner’s ability- first and foremost consideration based on the nature/characteristics, age, maturity,
abilities, and etc.
Teacher’s ability- must be personally and professionally qualified to teach.
Objective- expected outcome of the lesson in terms of knowledge/skills and attitude.
Subject Matter- content to be taken so that the desired outcome will be achieved.
Pre-requisite learning- students’ previous experiences that can help facilitate acquisition of new
knowledge, skill, and attitudes.
Classroom set-up- must be inviting to students and conducive to learning.
School facilities/equipment/technologies- the availability of the needed equipment, technologies, tools
for learning found in the right places.
Time allotment- specified target time frame for chosen activities properly.
Safety precautions- students should feel that they are safe and out of danger in school.
School climate- learner should feel the warmth of teachers and classmates.

Two approaches in teaching and the methods of teaching used in each one: A Comparison between
Direct and Indirect Approaches.
DIRECT APRROACH INDIRECT APPROACH
Makes use of expository strategies Makes use of exploratory strategies
Aimed at mastery of knowledge and skills Aimed at generating knowledge for experience
Teacher oriented Learner- centered
Direct transmission of information from the Students search for information with teacher’s
teacher supervision
Teacher- controlled Learner- controlled
Highly structured Flexibility organized
Content- oriented Experience oriented
Learner is passive, receives ready information for Learner is active in search of information
the teacher

A. Method of Teaching Used in the Direct Instruction Approach

1. Deductive Method: Follows these steps in instruction:
a. Statement of the Problem: Teacher tells what the problem is.
b. Statement of the Generalization: Recall rule/principle/generalization that may help solve problems
identified.
c. Inferring: looking for the principle/rule/generalization/ that fits the solution of the problem.
d. Verification: establishing validity using references/materials.
2. Showing Method/Direct Method: a teacher- centered strategy that uses teacher explanation and
modelling combined with student practice and feedback to teach concepts and skills; follows these
steps:
a. Introduction: review of prior learning
b. Presentation: explaining the new concept/modelling the skill.
c. Guided practice necessary feedback: practice exercises to firm- up learned skills.
d. Independent practice: more practice of the skill on concept learned for retention and transfer.
3. Lecture- Discussion/Expository Method: designed to keep learners understand relationships among
organized bodies of knowledge; follows these steps:
I. Planning
 Identifying the goals
 Diagnosing student background
  Structuring activities
 Preparing advance organizers
II. Implementing
 Introduction: defining the purpose of the lesson, sharing of objectives and overview to help
students see the organization of the lesson.
 Presentation
 Defining/ explaining major ideas
 Comprehension monitoring: determining whether or not student understand
concepts and ideas
 Integration: exploring interconnections between important ideas
 Review and closure: summarizing the lecture
4. Demonstration Method: a tell and show; follow these steps
I. Preparation
 Motivation
 Identify the objectives/problems/procedures
II. Explanation of Concepts/Principles/Process/Theories, and etc.
III. Demonstration of concept/process by the teacher while students observe and take down notes.
IV. Discussion of students’ observations.
 Answering problems
V. Verification/justification/conclusion
5. Concept of Teaching Methods
 May either be the concept attainment method or concept formation method.
 Concept attainment focuses on teaching pupils the concepts that the teacher has selected for
study and follows these steps:
 Introduce the concept by name
 Present examples
 Present non- examples
 Present a mixture of examples and non-examples and ask questions which are
the correct examples
 Ask pupils to define the concept
 Ask pupils to find other examples of the concept
 Concept formation method:
 Focuses on the process of concept development/thinking skills development
 Follows three basic steps:
 Teachers provides stimulus in the form of a question or a
problem.
 Pupils provide a number of answers and categorize them
 Pupils label the categorized responses
B. Methods of Teaching Used in the Indirect Instruction Approach
1. Inductive Method Strategies: It is discovery learning strategy where lesson progresses from
observations to generalizations; involves many observable cases or instances that can be compared by
the learners where students form own conclusions/generalizations/rules/principles or formulas; used
when the generalization are important enough to justify the time spent to the lesson.
2. Inquiry/Problem Solving Method: engages learners in critical thinking analysis and problem
solving/investigate work; follows these steps:
I. Presentation and clarification of a problem/issue of inquiry
 Presentation of the objectives
 Statement of the problem, issue or query
  Clarification of the problem
II. Formulation of Hypothesis
 Giving tentative solutions to the problem/query
 Clarity of hypothesis
III. Gathering Data
 Select references/sources of data/information
 Appraise and organize the needed information to answer the problem solving questions
IV. Testing Hypothesis
V. Formulation of Conclusions
VI. Application
 Solving problem using rule/principle etc. in new situations.
3. Laboratory/Investigative Method: provides hands-on experiences about materials or facts obtained
from research, investigation or experiences; follows the following steps:
I. Preparatory
 Motivation
 Orientation to the work/activity
 Presentation of materials
 Precautionary measures
II. Supervised Work Period/Laboratory
 Students work on the problem
 Teacher supervises the students’ work
III. Culminating Activities
 Reporting of group work/result/findings
 Discussion of the process/findings
 Formulation of generalization, rule, concepts, etc.
 Application of the discussed concepts/generalization to new situation
4. Discovery Teaching Method
 Teacher facilitates discovery
 Learners participates actively in the learning process
 Learning depends on students’ own insights, reflections and experiences (discovery learning)
 May use either the inductive discovery and deductive discovery, these are the following specific
steps:
Steps followed in the Inductive Discovery Method:
I. Observe and discuss the specific examples.
II. Identify and describe common elements of features.
III. Discuss other examples and note common elements.
IV. State main idea based on the common elements against the new examples – elements.
 Check them
Steps followed in the Deductive Discovery Method:
I. Present an Idea that can be verified against evidences.
II. Learners gather/collect and find supporting evidences or examples.
III. Reasoning/justifying why certain evidence found is supported to the main idea.
IV. Students continue searching/finding other evidences to support the given idea.
5. Project Method
FEATURES STEPS
 A significant practical unit of activity. I. Purposing
 Involves planning and carrying out of the  Statement of the objectives of the
planned activities. projects.
  Students complete certain task in a natural  Explain the nature of the project.
manner.  Teacher and students decide on the
activities cooperatively.
 Involves the use of physical materials to II. Executing
complete the unit of experience.  Student carry out the activities as planned
 Develops sense of cooperation and under the guidance of the teacher.
responsibility to complete a task.
 Energizes students to evaluate own and III. Evaluation
other’s works (projects) objectively based  Viewing of finished project.
on developed criteria.  Evaluation by teacher and students based
on some decided criteria for project
evaluation.
6. Discussion
 A question or problem is considered and sifted by class in order to reach a conclusion.
 Class setting may be formal or informal, with the teacher having more or less a non-role.
 How/When used:
 Multiple opinions shared; everyone examines and responds
 Question stimulate and focus thinking
 Multiple views are encouraged
 Usually student-led, but may also be leaderless or teacher-led
C. Other Indirect Models/Strategies of Teaching
1. Problem-Based Instruction (PBI)
 The essence of PBI consists of presenting students with authentic/meaningful situation that can
serve as springboards for investigations and inquiries.
 Is highly effective approach for teaching higher-level thinking processes involving:
 Deriving questions on problem both socially important and personally
meaningful to students.
 Interdisciplinary focus on a particular subject but solutions requires students to
deliver into many subjects.
 Authentic investigation necessitates students to pursue investigation that seek
real solution to real problems.
 Production of artifacts and exhibits requires students to construct products in
the form of artifacts and exhibits that represents their solutions.
2. Metacognitive Strategy
 Students are trained to become aware of and control their own learning through the
metacognitive process.
 Used when students:
 Plan what strategies to use to meet the goal
 Decide what resources are needed
 Monitor own progress
 Evaluate progress
3. Reflective Teaching Method
 Process that enables individual to continually learn from experiences by considering alternative
interpretations of experiences, actions, discussions, beliefs, using introspection, and analysis.
 Used when students:
 Have already concrete experiences
 Analyze these experiences and form abstractions/generalizations
 Apply generalizations to actual situations
4. Jigsaw Method
 A group activity for learning particular materials.
 How/when used:
 Groups are formed
 Learning material is divided into sections
 One member takes care of a section of the material
 Each member meets with those from other groups who are assigned to a similar
section
 Members discuss/work on the material and return to their previous group to
inform others in their group
 Students are tested after the “puzzle” is completed.
5. Brain Storming
 A strategy that utilizes pupils’ knowledge and ideas.
 Helps pupils explore creative alternatives.
 Provides environment where pupils are free to contribute ideas without fear of ridicule or
failure.
 How/when used:
 Pupils are presented with problem or situation
 They are encouraged to share as many ideas as they can generate
 All ideas are accepted and recorded, reviewed, discussed and organized for
investigation.
6. Student Teams Achievement Strategy (STAS)
 A type of group activity in which students interact together to master a specific academic
material.
 How/when used:
 Information is presented
 Students are divided into learning teams to master lessons using worksheets
through discussion, tutoring, and quizzing one another.
 Scores from these tests are recorded; and if there is improvement from the
previous achievement score of the team, additional points are given.
7. Teacher Questioning Strategies
 Questioning is
o An important key technique in teaching
o Used for a variety of purposes, such as to
 Stimulate thinking
 Arouse interest and curiosity
 Review learned content
 Elicit questions from students
 Promote thought and understanding ideas
 Change the mood/tempo, direction of discussion
 Encourage reflection and self-evaluation
 Types of questions
a. Question according to thinking process
Low-level questions
o Factual + memory questions
o Require only one correct answer
Example
 Who is the father of kindergarten?
  How many regions comprise the Philippines?
High- level questions
o Go beyond memory and factual information
o Require varied points of view/opinions/abstraction/answers/challenging
stimulating questions
Example:
 Why can’ we go away from the traditional strategies?
 In what classroom activity would constructivism be
demonstrated?
b. Questions according to answers requested
Cognitive- memory Questions
 Referred to as low-level questions
 Have one correct and best answer
 Used to drill vocabulary, spelling, mathematical facts, and oral skills
 Usually start with what, who, when, where
 Require short and specific answers
Divergent Thinking Questions
 Associated with high- level thinking questions
 Have many acceptable answers
 Used to encourage creative thinking and discovery learning.
 Usually requires synthesis thinking by combining related ideas learned
Example: what could you do if ?/ what do you think about ?
Convergent Thinking Questions
 Require application of information and analysis of factors involved.
Example: If “A” is this, what will happen to “B”?
c. Open-Discussion Questions
Eliciting Question
 Used to encourage initial response
 Encourage students’ participation
 Rekindle a lagging or dying out
discussion Probing Questions
 Seeks to expand ideas, justify given ideas, and clarify ideas
Evaluative- Thinking Questions
 Require students to judge, value, choose, criticize, defend, or justify some information.
Closure-Seeking Questions
 Used to help students make conclusions, concepts, rules, formula, and solutions or plans
for investigating problems.
d. Other Questioning Strategies
 Observing Strategy- What did you see/observe/feel…?
 Recalling Strategy- When did it happen?
 Inferring Strategy- What do you think happened there?
 Analyzing Strategy- How many processes were involved?
 Verifying Strategy- How may processes were involved?
 Predicting Strategy- What will happen if-------?
 Evaluating Strategy- Which one is similar to your idea? Why?
 Synthesizing/Applying Strategy- Should the city build a dam? Why?
Tips on Asking Questions: Ask questions that are:
 Stimulating/challenging/thought provoking
  Within the students’ level/abilities
 Relevant/timely
 Properly sequenced
 Specific/clear/simple
 Varied

III. THE INSTRUCTIONAL ACT REQUIREMENTS

A. Instructional Objective (s)
 A statement of what the learner is to be able to do upon completion of the learning experience.
 A demonstrable behavioural change in the learner.
 Referred to as behavioural or performance objectives.
 May be expressed in statement or question form.
 Must be
 S- specific
 M- measurable
 A- attainable
 R- result oriented
 T- time bound
Three elements to consider in writing instructional objectives:
1. performance- behavior that the learner is expected to display.
2. the condition/s under which the behavior is to occur.
3. the criterion of success- the standard against which the learners’ performance is evaluated.
May contain either or both of the following in a lesson: knowledge content, which may be:
a. Cognitive- knowledge of concepts/principles/facts.
b. Affective- attitude/values.
c. Psychomotor- motor skills.
Skills content, which may include one or a combination of the following in as lesson:
1. Work Habits, discussion, reading, writing, and note-taking.
2. Dictionary reference and library skills.
3. Reporting, research, and computer skills.
4. Interpreting skills for maps, charts, tables, and graphs.
5. Inquiry skills- problem solving, experimenting, and hypothesizing.
6. Social skills- respecting rules, accepting criticism, and maturity.
7. Cooperative and competitive skills- leadership and participation.
Taxonomy of Objectives: Objectives are classified in three domains:
Cognitive Taxonomy: involves mental process
 Knowledge or recall of
 Terminology/facts/events/persons
 Trends and sequences
 Classifications and categories
 Criteria
 Methodologies
 Principles, theories, and structures
 Comprehension
 Translation
 Interpretation
 Extrapolation
 Application
  Abstractions in particular situations
Analysis
 Involves breaking a whole into parts and understanding their relationships
Synthesis
 Putting parts together in a new form
Evaluation
 Judging quality or worth of something based on established criteria
Psychomotor Taxonomy: involves through motor control manipulation of materials
Perception
 Use of senses to become aware of doing a motor activity
Set
 Readiness to take an action
 Requires perception
Guided Response
 Concerned with early stage of learning a skill
 Includes imitation, trial, and error
Mechanism
 Concerned with habitual responses done with proficiency and confidence
Complex Overt Response
 Skillful performance of an act
 Act done with accuracy, high level proficiency and less effort
Adaptation
 Skills learned can be modified in this stage to meet certain requirement
Origination
 New movements may be created to fit certain situation

B. Lesson Plans
 One of the most important aspects of instructional planning considered as the blue print of what
the teacher and students intend to accomplish after a teaching- learning episode.
 Written outline of instructional objectives, activities, methods and strategies on how stated
objectives will be achieved with the help of appropriate instructional materials to be used.
 Lesson plans vary in types:
Brief- an outline of teachers’ activities usually done by neophyte teachers.
Detailed- all activities, teachers’ questions and students’ expected answers are reflected and
usually done by pre- service teachers.
Semi-detailed- include all activities, questions, and statements.
Suggested Forma/Parts of a Lesson Plan
I. Objective
II. Subject Matter
Topics/Concepts
Values Integrated
References
Materials (include one or a combination of written materials, audio-visuals, computer materials,
models, chart, and etc.)
III. Learning Activities
A. Preparatory Activities
Drill; Review; Introduction; or Motivation
B. Developmental Activities
 1. Presentation of the Lesson
2. Discussion/Analysis
3. Practice drill/try-out activities
4. Abstraction/Generalization
5. Exercises to fix skills learned
C. Application: may be in the form of demonstration, debates, tests, exhibits to determine what
has been learned (should be related to the present lesson).
D. Evaluation
IV. Assignment/Agreement
C. Determining Appropriate Learning Activities
1. Learning Activities Describes
 Consist of all classroom action and interaction that happen during the teaching – learning
process, done to achieve the objectives for certain lesson to promote learning and retention.
 Made up tasks that students engage in order to learn, including those that:
o Accomplish routines (keeping room space safe, collecting papers, distributing
materials etc.)
o Make students ready for the new lesson.
o Develop student’s knowledge, skills, and attitudes as related to lesson
objectives.
o Enhance or reinforce and evaluate newly – acquired learning.
 Should consider integration appropriate sequence, variety, meaningfulness and immediacy in
relation to their use.
2. Types of Learning Activities
Introductory/preliminary/opening activities:
a. refer to tasks that the teacher provides the learners to prepare them for the new lesson;
b. may be done by:
 gaining students attention (interest to the lesson)
 informing them of the lesson objective
 recalling of pre-requisite learning
Developmental Activities
a. refer to all the tasks that learners engage in to attain the objectives for which the present lesson is
taught.
b. considered as the heart of good instruction
c. usually carried out by a presentation of the new information, considering:
 appropriateness of modes or methods of teaching used
 high involvement of students
 use of varied thought – stimulating and interest – maintaining tasks
 logical organization and connection among the contents of the lesson and point –to –
point smooth transitions
 the relation of the new lesson to previous learning
 clarity of presentation
d. may follow a sequence where the teacher:
1. provides initial share experiences
2. engage students in relevant activities
3. provides further input
4. fosters closure by providing:
a. follow-up and concluding activities
b. synthesizing the results of the learning gained from work – study done
 c. determining what has been learned so far.
d. providing constant student feedback
 The students move from activities involving experiencing, observation, and
recording/expression; questioning/analyzing, hypothesizing, generalizing, and engaging in her
guided or independent practice.
 An evident interaction between teacher and students, between student and materials, and
among students, is fairly evident throughout the learning process.
Concluding activities should be kept briefly and tightly focused on content and should involve most
pupils: include such activities as synthesis of lesson highlights concepts learned, evaluation of learning,
and/or reinforcement of the lesson thought.
3. Principles in Selecting Learning Activities
a. Learning activities should relate back to the lesson objective; in all cases, they should
contribute to the attainment of lesson objectives.
b. Learning activities must suit the learner’s level in terms of needs, interest, experience,
comprehension, ability, and even number.
c. Learning activities must also jibe with the teaching method used.
d. Learning activities must also suit the subject matter at hand.
e. Learning activities should fit the time and context of the teaching situation.
f. Learning activities have to be interactive that is, they should not only be cognitive
development focused but also values – and – skills enhancing to ensure a holistic kind of
learner’s development.
g. Learning activities must be multi – level varied, and well – sequenced.
h. Learning activities should consider the laws of learning (readiness effect, & exercise) and the
principles of multi – sense appeal, and the development of values and mental, and motor
abilities, and skills.
i. Learning activities should engage students with the most direct experience possible that is,
they must allow students to utilize all their senses.
D. Determining Appropriate Instructional Materials and Tools
1. What Instructional Material Tools Are For
 To enrich instruction through added/unique dimensions
 To make instruction more accessible to a greater number of students
 To make instruction more effective at less cost
 To accommodate various student learning styles for improved learning
 To increase student interest and enthusiasm for learning
 To present abstract ideas in more concrete and contextualized terms
2. Types of Instructional Materials and Tools
Visuals- representations of objects, persona or events in realistic or precise expression on
canvas, paper or other surfaces. Include the following:
o Still pictures/photographic prints- include textbook, periodicals and similar printed
materials; serve as efficient substitutes for first-hand experience; are relatively cheap
and convenient to use.
o Graphics- make use of symbols representing the phenomena they portray – come in
many forms; maps diagrams, charts, tables, graphs, posters, cartoons that illustrate
lessons for better understanding, with less use of unnecessary teacher talk.
o Realia- refers to all objects as they exist in natural context.
o Models- refer to objects that are constructed when realia are unavailable.
o Drawings- may be the likeness of the real thing or symbolic representations such as
maps, charts, graphs, and cartoons.
 o Visual Display Devices- come in the form of chalkboards, market boards, flip charts, and
bulletin boards are valuable in emphasizing the major points of the lesson.
o Projection Devices- may be slide and firm strips projector or opaque/overhead
projectors which provide colorful and realistic production of original subjects.
3. Principles in the Selection of Instructional Materials
Appropriateness/Instructional Materials: must be appropriate to the
 Objectives and content of the reason
 Ability and interest levels of learners
Authenticity: they must relay accurate, up to date, and reliable information.
Meaningfulness: they must be meaningful and stimulating to learners.
Cost-effectiveness: this means that the cost of media utilization must diminish as the number of
students using those increases.
Breadth: they must encompass varying groups of learners and satisfy many different purposes
and can be used with several types of leaners.
E. Determining Appropriate Evaluation Instruments
1. The concept of evaluation
 Aims basically to determine student mastery of what has been taught,
 Is a two-part process:
1. Measuring pupils’ individual performance.
2. Judging about the adequacy of the instrument- may use one or two major approaches
in determining how well a pupil has performed:
1. norm-reference assessment, where a pupils’ performance is compared to the
average performance of his/her classmates.
2. criterion- reference assessment, where the rating is based on comparison of
students’ performance with a pre-determined standard- instruments used for
evaluation may be:
1. informal evaluation- depends on teacher’s observations of a variety of pupil
performance as they do learning tasks, complete projects, and inferences about
what learners can and cannot do; may use this question as a basic guide in
selecting informal assessment techniques, “Will the procedure provide the
information/need to make an adequate judgment about child’s performance?”.
2. Formal evaluation- includes teacher-prepared tests and commercially- available standardized
tests, such as rating scales, learning checklists, essay tests, true-false tests, multiple-choice tests,
completion tests, matching type tests, and etc.
 May also be used to:
1. assess progress of individual learners
2. evaluate own performance of teacher
3. refine instructional plans and/or provide instruction to clear up
understanding of certain topics taught
4. provide basis for instructional planning when the same content tested is
taught again- has a need for good record keeping to monitor the
progress/development of learners overtime.
3. When to use some test types?
 Use informal evaluation tools when looking for specific behaviors that learners are
expected to demonstrate.
 Use rating scales and checklist when judgement about several levels of performance
quality is needed.
  Use essay tests especially for upper grade levels when determining students to put
together isolated process of information in a meaningful way.
 Use true-false test when covering a broad range of content.
 Use matching type test if pupils’ grasp of association is to be tested.
 Use completion test to sample only a cross-section of content and to eliminate guessing
among pupils.
4. What evaluation type to use during the instructional act?
a. Prior to Instruction: Pre- assessment
 Done to determine the learner’s entry behavior (what knowledge/skills/attitudes they
already know or still need to know) before objectives are set or before instruction
begins for maximum learning purposes.
 Involves use of such instruments as readiness test, aptitude test, pre-test on course
objectives, or observational techniques.
b. During Instruction: Formative Evaluation
 Provides on-going feedback to the teachers and students regarding their success or
failure during instruction.
 Helpful in deciding whether changes in subsequent learning experiences are needed.
 Helpful in determining specific learning errors that need correction.
 Usually makes use of paper and pencil tests and observational methods.
c. After Instruction: Summative Evaluation
 Is provided to determine
o How well students have learned/attained instructional objectives.
o What rating the students deserve to get.
o How well instruction was done.
 Includes the use of achievements tests, rating scales, or evaluation of students’
products.
F. Classroom Management
1. Classroom Management Concept
 Focuses on what a teacher must do to organize and manage time, materials and space
efficiently and smoothly to prevent potential classroom problems or reduce their
frequency.
o Involves such aspect as
 Organization, teacher’s behavior, and classroom organizational
patterns (e.g. how teaches structures classroom activities) and
discipline.
o Includes classroom climate, which has to do with the emotional tone and
quantity of human relationships in the classroom.
o Helps both students and teachers as it-
 Enhances mental and social development of learners in a room
that is confidence building and where children grow in their
competence as human beings.
 Facilitates the achievement of instructional goals/objectives,
which, however, requires the development of a systematic way
of organizing classroom activities.
 Provides intellectual and physical freedom with in specified
limits that is, learning knowledge, skills, and values without
having to fear or be embarrassed by mistakes committed but
also guided by rules and regulation.
  Allow children to develop skills of self-direction and
independence: requires a good balance between
permissiveness and highly – directed instruction.
 Works towards a warm, but firm, relationship between teachers
and students, which means that while teachers extend “human
– ness” to children, they still maintain the basic firmness
needed/wanted in teacher- student relationship.
o Includes management of time, discipline, physical environment, routines and
procedures, and instructional management.
2. Physical Environment
 Refers to that kind of classroom environment that permits orderly movements, reduced
distractions, and best use of available space.
 Includes good room arrangement (Evertson, 1989), where
o High traffic areas free of congestion
o Students are easily seen by the teacher
o Frequently- used materials and supplies are readily accessible
o Students can easily see instructional presentations and display
 May have to answer these important questions, among others, to ensure good
classroom management:
o How are the desks to be arranged? What seating arrangement should be
followed?
o Where should the teacher’s desk be located?
o Where is the pencil sharpener and other equipment and how does the location
affect their students in class?
o Where should the reading group meet?
o Where can students work cooperatively?
o How should materials be distributed and collected?
o Should ventilation and light be adjusted?
3. Time Management
 Refers to effective allocation of class time to minimize time spent on non – instructional
tasks, to keep pupils’ attention engaged when formal instruction is being presented, or
when they are working on assignments and other learning activities, and to reduce the
total amount of time spent on non – productive kind of activities (Savage & Armstrong,
1987).
 Includes such aspects as:
o Transitions- smooth and efficient movement from one aspect of lesson
to another so that “slack time” and classroom-control problems are
reduced.
o Beginning – of – class activities- include the role taking, materials
development, announcement- making, and other administrative and
non-teaching procedures done before instructional activities start.
o Pacing- the lesson the rate at which a teacher helps learners to move
through the lesson, which needs to be break enough to provide a sense
of productive movement but not so quick that the students cannot
cope.
o Providing assistance- involves developing procedures for responding to
pupils who need help but not to a point where other pupils become
 frustrated and are tempted to misbehave too because the teacher’s
attention may have been concentrated on only one student.
4. Instructional Management
 Involves gaining and maintaining the cooperation of students in activities that make full
use of class time.
 Includes the development of the following skills:
 Movement management: maintaining the momentum and making
transitions between lesson topics smooth.
 Group focus- maintaining group alertness and concentrated effort.
 Avoidance of satiation impediments- to maximize learning by providing
challenging and varying activities.
 Can be made effective by
 Giving clear instruction that specify exactly how they should change
seats, enter and leave the room, move through corridors to other
designated areas, and change activity types.
 Agreeing on specific signals for students to know when formal
instruction is about to begin (e.g. teacher’s quiet gaze).
 Assigning “teachers helpers” or “peer helpers” either to distribute
materials or return/collect papers or to help classmates needing
assistance.
 Providing other stimulating activities for early finishers.
Routines and Procedures
 Have to be planned and made systematic for recurring and predictable classroom events
to be effectively managed.
 Classified into three types
 Routines related to administrative matters, such as checking
attendance, collecting and returning accomplished work.
 Routines related to pupils’ behavior, such as behaviors when
entering/leaving classroom, when using classroom resources, etc.
 Routines related to special information that students need while doing
learning tasks, such as directions in working with others expectations
regarding work outputs, etc.
 Need to be reasonable: (i.e., normal, natural, not regimented, and implemented
sensibly).
Discipline
 Have the primary goals of teaching students’ self-control and responsibility and the
methods used to respond to disciplinary problems; need to be evaluated in terms of
how well they respond to the goals.
 Can be effectively managed if teachers:
 Regard discipline management as an integral part of their roles as
teachers
 Develop a plan of classroom control as much as they plan content
lessons
 Seek long-term solutions to misbehaviour problems by attempting to
address their underlying causes (Brophy, 1993).
 Follow this basic principles:
o Respect pupil dignity- comments and responses to
misbehaviour are directed towards a specific behavior
 and never to the general character or worth of the
child.
o Private correction is preferable to public correction –
dealing with the problems as quietly as possible.
o Identify and address causes of misbehaviour more than
the misbehaviour itself.
o Distinguish between trivial and serious problems.
o The responses to misbehaviour must be consistent fair.
o Students must be helped to recognize their
misbehaviour.

IV. MODELS OF INTSRUCTIONAL

DELIVERY Formal Education
 Is highly institutionalized established, and therefore, traditional mode of delivery, with
organized content, methods, and activities to follow.
 Is hierarchical structured/chronologically graded.
 Spans all educational levels: elementary through college.
 Is carried out mostly in schools/educational institutions on a face – to – face teacher-student
encounter.
Non-Formal Education
 Carried outside the formal school.
 Is provided to particular types of learners who may be out of school youth, illiterate,
underemployed, unemployed, school leavers, and professional or technical workers needing
training in certain occupational skills.
 Includes organized educational activities or programs such as functional education and literacy,
continuing education, and livelihood training.
Distance Study/Distance Education/Open Learning
 Is basically the kind of study characterized by the “physical separateness of learners and
teachers” (Moore, 1975) for much, most, or even all of the time during the whole teaching-
learning process.
 Is often conducted through the use of print, mechanical or electric media/devices (TV, radio,
audio/video, tapes, computers, internet, and etc.) outside the school premises.
 Includes such instructional materials as learning modules instruction, learning package
materials, and the like on line instructional programmed.
 Based on a pre-produced course that may either be self – instructional or self – contained, with,
without or with less teacher’s guidance.
*****nothing follows*****

References:
 Principles of Teaching 1, Corpuz, Brenda B & Salandanan, Gloria G., Lorimar Publishing Inc.
 Handbook on Principles of Teaching 2, Casinto, Carlon Domingo, C., Rex Bookstore