Jurnal 1 Kelompok 9

Review
published: 14 November 2017

doi: 10.3389/fimmu.2017.01526
Multifaceted effects of extracellular

Adenosine Triphosphate and
Adenosine in the Tumor–Host
interaction and Therapeutic
Perspectives
Paola de Andrade Mello1, Robson Coutinho-Silva 2* and Luiz Eduardo Baggio Savio2*
1
Division of Gastroenterology, Department of Medicine, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School,
Boston, MA, United States, 2Instituto de Biofísica Carlos Chagas Filho, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de
Janeiro, Brazil
Cancer is still one of the world’s most pressing health-care challenges, leading to a
high number of deaths worldwide. Immunotherapy is a new developing therapy that
Edited by: boosts patient’s immune system to fight cancer by modifying tumor–immune cells
Salem Chouaib, interaction in the tumor microenvironment (TME). Extracellular adenosine triphosphate
Institut Gustave Roussy, France
(eATP) and adenosine (Ado) are signaling molecules released in the TME that act
Reviewed by:
Alessandro Poggi, as modulators of both immune and tumor cell responses. Extracellular adenosine
Azienda Ospedaliera Universitaria triphosphate and Ado activate purinergic type 2 (P2) and type 1 (P1) receptors,
San Martino (IRCCS), Italy
respectively, triggering the so-called purinergic signaling. The concentration of eATP
Francois Ghiringhelli,
INSERM, France and Ado within the TME is tightly controlled by several cell-surface ectonucleotidases,
*Correspondence: such as CD39 and CD73, the major ecto-enzymes expressed in cancer cells, immune
Robson Coutinho-Silva cells, stromal cells, and vasculature, being CD73 also expressed on tumor-associated
[email protected];
Luiz Eduardo Baggio Savio fibroblasts. Once accumulated in the TME, eATP boosts antitumor immune response,
[email protected], while Ado attenuates or suppresses immunity against the tumor. In addition, both
[email protected]
molecules can mediate growth stimulation or inhibition of the tumor, depending on
the specific receptor activated. Therefore, purinergic signaling is able to modulate
Specialty section:
This article was submitted to both tumor and immune cells behavior and, consequently, the tumor–host interaction
Cancer Immunity and and disease progression. In this review, we discuss the role of purinergic signaling
Immunotherapy,
a section of the journal in the host–tumor interaction detailing the multifaceted effects of eATP and Ado in
Frontiers in Immunology the inflammatory TME. Moreover, we present recent findings into the application of
Received: 16 September 2017 purinergic-targeting therapy as a potential novel option to boost antitumor immune
Accepted: 27 October 2017
responses in cancer.
Published: 14 November 2017
Citation: Keywords: purinergic signaling, P2X7 receptor, CD39, CD73, tumor microenvironment, immunotherapy
de Andrade Mello P, Coutinho-Silva R
and Savio LEB (2017) Multifaceted
Effects of Extracellular Adenosine
INTRODUCTION
Triphosphate and Adenosine in the
Tumor–Host Interaction and
Cancer is still one of the world’s most pressing health-care challenges, leading to death in an esti-
Therapeutic Perspectives. mated number of 600,920 patients per year in the United States (1). However, recent advances in
Front. Immunol. 8:1526. cancer immunotherapy have transformed the treatment of several patients, extending and improving
doi: 10.3389/fimmu.2017.01526 their lives (2, 3). Immunotherapy is a new developing therapy that boosts patient’s immune system
Frontiers in Immunology | www.frontiersin.org 1 November 2017 | Volume 8 | Article 1526

de Andrade Mello et al. Purines Multifaceted Effects in Cancer
to fight cancer, by modifying tumor–immune cells interaction in response and Ado attenuates or suppresses immunity on the host
the tumor microenvironment (TME) (4). According to the cancer side (38–45), both molecules can mediate growth stimulation or
immunoediting concept, the interaction between cancer and inhibition on the tumor cells, depending on the specific receptor
immune cells occurs in three essential phases: elimination, equilib- activated (46–52). Regardless, the final effect on tumor growth—
rium, and escape—from cancer immune surveillance to immune either beneficial or detrimental—will depend on the eATP/Ado
escape (5–7). In the elimination and equilibrium phase innate levels, the panel of P2 and P1 receptors subtypes and CD39/CD73
and adaptive immune system—mainly NK and T cells—mount expression by immune, tumor, and stromal cells in the TME (22).
an effective immune response against the highly immunogenic Therefore, despite its complexity and dual behavior, modula-
tumors, and allow the less immunogenic ones escape (8–16). This tion of purinergic signaling by targeting eATP/Ado pathways
immunologic pressure selects and favors tumor variants resistant appears to be a promising strategy to modify cancer and immune
to the immune system to proliferate (immunoevasion) (9, 17). cells cross talk in the TME (24, 36, 53). In this review, we will
During this process, both cancer and inflammatory cells release discuss the role of purinergic signaling into the host–tumor
several soluble factors such as cytokines, chemokines, growth interaction detailing the multifaceted effects of eATP and Ado
factors, matrix-degrading enzymes, and nucleotides that facilitate in the inflammatory TME. Furthermore, we will highlight the
tumor immune escape and allow tumor growth, angiogenesis, application of combining purinergic-targeting therapies with
invasion, and metastasis (18–22). Therefore, targeting multiple other anticancer treatments as a potential new strategy to over-
molecules that avoid immunoevasion and boost antitumor come immune escape, potentiate antitumor immune response,
immune responses are the leading paths to successfully treat a and, consequently, restrain tumor growth.
whole range of tumor types (3).
Among the nucleotides released in the TME, extracellular eATP IN THE TME
adenosine triphosphate (eATP) and adenosine (Ado) are potent
modulators of both immune and tumor cell response (23, 24). Measurement of eATP levels in different biological context
eATP and Ado exert their effects acting through P2 and P1 reveals that healthy tissues present very low levels (10–100 nM)
purinergic receptors, respectively, triggering the so-called of this nucleotide in the pericellular space, while in sites of tissue
purinergic signaling (25, 26). Purinergic signaling has long damage, inflammation, hypoxia, ischemia, TME or metastases
been involved with inflammation and cancer having a pivotal it can reach high levels (hundreds of micromoles per liter)
role in modulating cell migration, proliferation, and cell death (24, 54–56). ATP is abundantly released in the extracellular
(27, 28). P2 and P1 receptors are expressed by nearly all cell space due to cell death, cell stress, and activation of pannexin/
types (immune and non-immune cells) and differently trigger connexin channels on immune and endothelial cells (54, 57, 58).
cell signaling according to their subtypes (29–31). The P2 recep- In these settings, increased levels of eATP are sensed as a “danger
tor is subdivided into two separate subfamilies, P2X (P2X1–7) signal” by the innate immune cells resulting in their recruitment
ionotropic ion channels receptors and P2Y (P2Y1, P2Y2, to the damaged-tissue site (42, 57, 59–61). Particularly in the
P2Y4, P2Y6, and P2Y11–P2Y14) G-protein-coupled receptors TME, eATP acting through P2 receptors boosts the antitumor
(25, 26), whereas the P1 receptor family (A1, A2A, A2B, and A3) only immunity at the same time that stimulates endothelial and tumor
comprised by G-protein-coupled receptors subtype (32). These cells (27, 36, 42, 48, 60).
different purinergic receptors express distinct agonist affinity and
specificity, therefore influencing both tumor and immune cells eATP Effect on the Host Side
behavior according to the levels of eATP/Ado in TME (33–35). Activation of P2 receptors by eATP shapes various innate and
Levels of eATP and Ado are tightly controlled by several adaptive immune responses (30). The P2X and P2Y receptors
ectonucleotidases. Among them, CD39 and CD73 are the most expression (either constitutive or upregulated in pathological
important ecto-enzymes expressed in cancer cells, regulatory conditions) varies according to the cell type and therefore dictates
immune cells and vasculature responsible for modulating puriner- immune cell function, such as metabolism, adhesion, activation,
gic signaling within the TME (36, 37). CD39 is a member of the migration, maturation, release of inflammatory mediators, cyto-
ectonucleoside triphosphate diphosphohydrolase (E-NTPDase) toxicity, and cell death, as extensively reviewed in Ref. (30, 36, 62).
family that comprised of eight members (E-NTPDase1–8), each In the innate immunity, activation of P2Y2 and P2X7 receptors
one with a distinct cellular location and catalytic properties leads to stimulation of myeloid cells and promotes chemotaxis
(36, 37). E-NTPDase1 (CD39), E-NTPDase2, E-NTPDase3, of macrophages and neutrophils (38, 63–65). At the same time,
and E-NTPDase8 are plasma membrane-bound enzymes that engagement of P2Y2 and P2X7 receptors induces dendritic cells
degrade with different affinities adenosine triphosphate (ATP) (DCs) activation and chemotaxis (66). Indeed, stimulation of
and ADP to AMP (24, 36, 37). AMP is in turn converted to Ado P2Y11 receptor inhibits IL-12 and boosts IL-10 release by DCs (67)
by CD73, which is an ecto-5′-nucleotidase cell-surface enzyme whereas it activates granulocytes (68). In the adaptive immunity,
(37). This sequential activity of CD39/CD73 is the main pathway engagement of various P2X receptors, such as P2X1, P2X4, P2X5,
for the eATP scavenging and generation of Ado in the tumor and P2X7, results in T-cell activation (39, 69–71). Among them,
interstitium (24, 36). P2X7 has been linked to stimulation of CD4+ and CD8+ effector
Once accumulated in the TME, eATP and Ado act as signal- T cells (40, 69, 72) as well as NKT cells (73), induction of Treg
ing molecules triggering different and opposite effects on both apoptosis (41, 74, 75), and inhibition of Tr1 cell differentiation
host and tumor cells. While eATP boosts antitumor immune (76). In addition, ATP acting via the P2X7 receptor is crucial to

the generation of inflammatory Th17 lymphocytes by contribut- on the P2X7 receptor. P2X3 receptor overexpression seems to be
ing for the generation of a microenvironment with high levels of crucial for HCC cell survival and basal proliferation as well as
IL-1β, IL-6, and IL-17 (77, 78). proliferation in response to changes in ATP concentrations in the
In the context of TME, recent studies have highlighted the TME (92). Moreover, high P2X3 receptor expression is associated
importance of eATP acting through the P2X7 receptor in the with poor prognosis in patients with HCC. P2X5 overexpres-
chemotherapy-elicited anticancer immune response, also known sion was also demonstrated in human basal cell and squamous
as immunogenic cell death (ICD) (42, 60). Accordingly, ATP carcinomas, but differently, it was expressed exclusively on cells
derived from dying tumor cells stimulates P2X7 receptors in undergoing proliferation and differentiation, suggesting a differ-
DCs, thus activating the NLRP3/ASC/caspase-1 inflammasome ent role in tumor growth (93).
and driving the secretion of interleukin-1β (IL-1β). IL-1β is then P2X7 is far the most P2X receptor subtype studied in cancer.
required for the adequate polarization of IFNγ-producing CD8+ Unlike the other P2 receptors, P2X7 is unique for its capacity to
T cells, which is critical for the efficacy of chemotherapy (42, 60). form a nonselective pore on the plasma membrane upon stimula-
Despite its role in ICD, eATP-P2X7 signaling has also been tion with high levels of eATP, leading to cell death (94, 95). Its role
related to the control of tumor growth. Recent studies have shown in carcinogenesis remains a controversy, but now it is known that
that host P2X7 expression limits tumor growth and metastasis P2X7 receptor triggers cell death or growth according to its level
spread by supporting an antitumor immune response (47, 79). of activation and cell type stimulated (94, 96–98). As mentioned
Host P2X7 seems to boosts cytokine release, chemotaxis, and earlier, P2X7 receptor overstimulation with a high level of exog-
tumor infiltration by inflammatory cells. Accordingly, P2X7 enous eATP triggers tumor cell death, while its tonic stimulation
host genetic deletion in mouse (P2X7-KO) impaired immune with endogenous eATP often induces cancer cell survival and
response against melanoma (B16) and colon carcinoma cells proliferation (28, 99, 100). Whereas the former leads to a marked
(CT26), leading to accelerate tumor growth in comparison to mitochondrial catastrophe, the latter stabilizes the mitochondrial
P2X7-WT hosts. Moreover, transplantation of P2X7-WT bone network, increases mitochondrial potential, oxidative phospho-
marrow to P2X7-KO mice reduced tumor growth at a rate similar rylation, and aerobic glycolysis, culminating in a large increase
to the P2X7-WT group (47). in the overall intracellular ATP content and gain in proliferative
Even though eATP acting through P2X7 receptor seems to be advantage by P2X7-expressing cells (99). P2X7 receptor activa-
an important signaling to stimulate immune cell response against tion also triggers NFATc1, Erk, PI3K/Akt, and HIF-1α intracel-
the tumor, a critical role for the ATP/P2X7 receptor axis in modu- lular pathways (101–103), being the PI3K/Akt pathway linked to
lating myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs) functions in the the P2X7-dependent tumor cell growth, invasiveness, metastatic
TME has also been described (23). Accordingly, P2X7 receptor spreading, and angiogenesis (101, 104). Also supporting a role
activation stimulates the release of reactive oxygen species, for P2X7 receptor in tumor growth is the fact that many types
arginase-1, and transforming growth factor-β 1 (TGF-β1) from of cancer such as leukemia (98, 105, 106), melanoma (107), neu-
monocyte MDSCs present in the TME, contributing to MDSC roblastoma (108), pancreatic adenocarcinoma (109), esophageal
immunosuppressive effect. Therefore, considering these contra- carcinoma (110), breast (111), prostate (112), thyroid (113), and
dictory effects the use of both antagonist/agonist of the P2X7 head and neck cancer (114) showed an increased expression of
receptor has been investigated as a promising novel strategy for P2X7 receptor. Moreover, in vivo experiments demonstrated
anticancer therapy and will be discussed with more details below. that blocking P2X7 receptor activation by either silencing or a
pharmacological manipulation decreased tumor progression
eATP Effect on the Tumor Side and inhibited metastatic diffusion (100, 115). Therefore, it seems
Practically all types of cancer cells express P2X and P2Y receptors reasonable to say that P2X7 receptor is an important target in
that efficiently sense changes in ATP concentration in the TME cancer therapy not only for its role in the immune system but also
and modulate different cellular functions such as proliferation, for its impact on tumor growth. An overview of eATP effect on
differentiation, and apoptosis (24, 28). Cancer cells may be tumor and host side is illustrated in Figure 1.
more sensitive to the cytotoxic or to the trophic effect of e ATP
according to the expression of their P2 receptor subtypes as well eADENOSINE IN THE TME
reviewed in Ref. (28).
Among the P2Y receptors, stimulation of P2Y2 and P2Y11 High levels of extracellular adenosine (eAdo) were also demon-
receptors leads to cell proliferation and migration of human strated in the TME. While Ado levels in healthy tissue are around
hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) cells (49, 80). P2Y2 receptor the nanomolar range, it can reach the micromolar range in the
activation is also highly involved with tumor invasiveness and tumor core (36, 51, 116, 117). In the later context, many factors
metastatic diffusion in prostate and breast cancer (81–87). On the can contribute to Ado production, but hypoxia seems to be the
other hand, eATP-P2Y2 receptor signaling inhibited nasopharyn- main driver for the eAdo accumulation (118). In this setting, eAdo
geal carcinoma and human colon carcinoma growth (50, 88). is mainly generated at the expenses of the eATP metabolism via
P2Y1 receptor activation induces apoptosis and inhibits human the sequential enzymatic activity of CD39 and CD73 (119–122).
intestinal epithelial carcinoma, prostate cancer, and melanoma CD39 catalyzes the first enzymatic reaction by breaking down
cell proliferation (89–91). ATP and ADP into AMP, whereas CD73 hydrolyzes AMP into
In the P2X receptors family, a role for P2X3, P2X5, and P2X7 Ado. CD73 irreversibly converts AMP to Ado being considered
in carcinogenesis has already been depicted, with a major focus the rate-limiting enzyme for Ado formation (37, 122).

Figure 1 | Schematic illustration showing extracellular adenosine triphosphate (eATP) contrasting effects on tumor and host side. eATP can trigger different and
opposite effects on both tumor and host cells depending on the cell type and receptor activated. The final result—either stimulating or restraining tumor growth—will
depend on the eATP levels, the panel of P2 receptor subtypes and CD39/CD73 expression by tumor and immune cells present in the tumor microenvironment.
Overall, eATP is a potent pro-inflammatory mediator, mostly boosting immune cells response.
Many cells have the capacity to generate eAdo in the TME, eAdo Effect on the Host Side
such as tumor cells (43, 120, 123–126), Tregs (120, 127, 128), Extracellular adenosine exerts immunosuppressive activities in vari-
Th17 (129, 130), MDSCs (44, 131, 132), endothelial cells (127, ous immune subsets, interfering with antitumor immune responses
133, 134), cancer-associated fibroblast (135, 136), and mesen- (36). Innate and adaptive immune cells react to Ado stimulation
chymal stromal/stem cells (MSCs) (45, 137). Exosomes derived according to the expression/density of the four P1 receptor subtypes,
from CD39+CD73+ tumor cells (138), Tregs (139), or MSCs (45) namely A1, A2A, A2B, and A3 (30, 32). These receptors sense different
can also contribute to eAdo production. Once in the pericellular levels of Ado and are classified as high-affinity (A1, A2A, and A3) and
space, Ado can exert a local signaling effect through the activa- low-affinity receptors (A2B) (32). A1 and A3 are Gi-coupled receptors
tion of the P1 purinergic receptors, be metabolized to inosine or that inhibit adenylate cyclase and cyclic AMP production, while A2A
recaptured by the cell via nucleoside transporters (140). and A2B are Gs-coupled receptors that stimulate cAMP synthesis
Likewise eATP, eAdo acts as an endogenous immunomodula- and downstream signaling pathways (32, 141).
tory molecule, but unlike the former, it mostly mediates immu- Activation of A2A and A2B receptors protect tissues against
nosuppressive effects (30). Particularly in the tumor interstitium, excessive immune reaction and therefore play a major role in
eAdo acting through P1 receptors downregulates cell-mediated Ado immunosuppressive effects (142–146). Stimulation of A2A
immunity at the same time that stimulates tumor cells and pro- receptor is related to the inhibition of DC activation (147), Th1/
motes angiogenesis (45, 133, 136, 137). Th2 cytokine production (148, 149), T cells proliferation and

activation (148, 149), and NK cells activation, maturation, and A3 is by far the most studied Ado receptor in cancer and
cytotoxicity (125, 150), as well as enhancement of the suppressive conflicting results have also been reported for this receptor. A3
function of Tregs, Tr1 cells, and macrophages (151–153). In addi- receptor is expressed by many tumor cell lines, such as HL60 and
tion, A2A receptor activation prevents the LPS-induced increase in K562 human leukemia (171, 172), Jurkat lymphoma (173), U937
ectonucleotidase activities during inflammation (154, 155). monocytic–macrophagic human cell lines (174, 175), Nb2 rat
Activation of the A2B receptor has a major effect on Tregs and lymphoma (176), A375 human melanoma (177), PGT-betamouse
MDSCs, stimulating Treg proliferation or differentiation from pineal gland tumor cells (178), human glioblastoma (179, 180),
naïve T cells, production of IL-10 (156) and enhancing the sup- and human prostatic cancer cells (181). Moreover, A3 overexpres-
pressive function of MDSCs (44). A2B signaling is also linked to sion (either protein or mRNA levels) has been reported in human
vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) secretion and tumor melanoma, colon, breast, small-cell lung, thyroid, pancreatic,
angiogenesis (44, 157). Engagement of A2A and A2B receptors and HCC vs adjacent normal tissue, supporting the notion that
inhibits neutrophils activation (158) and immune cells adhesion A3 receptor levels may reflect the status of tumor progression
to endothelial cells (127). On the other hand, activation of A1 and (182–184). In accordance with this statement, A3 activation
A3 receptors promotes neutrophils chemotaxis and stimulates increases HT29, DLD-1 and Caco-2 colon cancer cell proliferation
pro-inflammatory activities (158). (160). However, A3 stimulation also results in antitumoral effects,
In general, Ado accumulation in the TME and its immunosup- inhibiting proliferation of Nb2-11C and YAC-1 lymphoma, K562
pressive effect via A2A and A2B receptors is a critical regulatory and HL60 leukemia, B16-F10 and A375 melanoma, LN-Cap and
mechanism implemented by the tumors to evade the immune- PC3 prostate carcinoma, MIA-PaCa pancreatic carcinoma, breast
mediated cancer cells destruction, allowing tumor growth and and Lewis lung carcinoma cells (176, 185–189). Contrasting
impairing cancer immunosurveillance (159). In this way, new responses were also reported for A3 stimulation on metastatic
strategies targeting Ado production and signaling have emerged spreading, leading to either increased (HT29 colon carcinoma)
as a promising approach in cancer immunotherapy and will be or decreased (prostatic cancer) cell migration (179, 181). Despite
discussed in more details below. these dual effects, the A3 receptor has been pointed as a potential
target for tumor growth inhibition (182, 190). A phase I/II clinical
eAdo Effect on the Tumor Side trial using an A3 agonist for the treatment of advanced unresect-
Differently from its effect on the host side, where Ado is well able HCC has been performed and despite preliminary data,
known for its strong immunosuppressive activities, on the tumor favorable results were demonstrated in patients (191).
side Ado can either stimulate or inhibit tumor growth, depend- Rather than acting through P1 receptors, eAdo can also
ing on the cell type and receptor expressed by the tumor bulk promote tumor cell death via its continuous uptake into the
(160). Likewise, pro- and antitumoral effects coming from A1, cell (52). Our group demonstrated that Ado formed from eATP
A2A, A2B, and A3 activation have been described (160). A1 recep- degradation is the main factor responsible for apoptosis induc-
tor activation is related to stimulation of MDA-MB-468 breast tion in human cervical cancer cells. Accordingly, eAdo trans-
carcinoma cells proliferation (161) and melanoma cells chemo- ported into the cell through the nucleoside transporters leads to
taxis (162). On the other hand, it may inhibit LoVo colon (163), AMPK activation, p53 increase, PARP cleavage, and autophagy
TM4 Sertoli-like (164), MOLT-4 leukemia, T47D, HS578T, and induction, culminating in cell death (52). Similar results were
MCF-7 breast, and glioblastoma cancer cells proliferation (160). also reported in human gastric cancer cells (192), malignant
Ado-A1 signaling has also been reported to protect endometrial pleural mesothelioma cell (193), mouse neuroblastoma cells
carcinoma invasion and metastasis, by promoting cortical actin (194), astrocytoma cells (195), and human epithelial cancer
polymerization, increasing cell–cell adhesion thus preserving cells originating from breast, ileum, colon, and ovary (89, 196),
epithelial integrity (165). In the same manner, activation of A2A bringing a distinct insight into the Ado effect on the tumor side.
and A2B receptors leads to controversial scenarios depending on An overview of eAdo effect on tumor and host side is illustrated
the cell type studied. A2A stimulation results in increased MCF-7 in Figure 2.
breast cancer proliferation (166), whereas it promotes A375
melanoma cell death (167). Activation of A2B receptor inhibits
ER-positive MDA-MB-231 breast cancer cell proliferation, while PURINERGIC SIGNALING AS POTENTIAL
it boosts oral squamous cell carcinoma progression (168, 169). TARGET FOR CANCER THERAPY
Stimulation of A2B receptor also leads to reduced cell–cell contact
and increased cell scattering in breast, lung, and pancreatic cancer As depicted alongside this review, purinergic signaling has a
cell lines, suggesting a role for this receptor in tumor invasion and major role in controlling tumor growth, survival, and progres-
metastatic spreading (170). These conflicting results might reflect sion, not only by acting on tumor cells but also by modulating
differences in the experimental settings where distinct tumor the immune system and the interaction of tumor and immune
cell lines were exposed to diverse agonist/antagonist drugs with cells in the TME (24). Therefore, many potential targets involv-
different specificity and selectivity. Moreover, the use of specific ing ATP and Ado signaling has emerged as attractive candidates
agonist might not reflect the real effect triggered by Ado in the for cancer therapy. In this topic, we will discuss recent findings
context of the tumor bulk given the complexity and heterogeneity in this field highlighting P2X7, CD39, CD73, and A2A receptor
of cells, Ado receptors, and downstream signaling that interact to targeting therapy to restrain tumor progression in vivo models
produce the final cellular response. and in patients.

Figure 2 | Schematic illustration exhibiting extracellular adenosine (eAdo) opposing effects on tumor and host side. Likewise extracellular adenosine triphosphate
(eATP), eAdo can exert distinct and contrasting effects on both tumor and host cells depending on the cell type and receptor activated. eAdo can also promote
tumor cell death via its continuous uptake into the cell. As depicted by eATP, the sum of eAdo levels, the group of P1 receptor subtypes, and CD39/CD73
expression by tumor and immune cells in the tumor microenvironment will dictate the final effect on tumor growth. Overall, eAdo is a potent immunosuppressive
nucleoside, mostly inhibiting immune cell responses.
both strategies either stimulating or blocking P2X7 receptor have

Targeting P2X7 Receptor in Cancer been studied to hinder cancer growth (46, 197).
Therapy P2X7 receptor overstimulation by using high levels of eATP
As discussed earlier, the P2X7 receptor has contrasting effects when was the first attempt to increase tumor cell death through its
activated on the tumor or the host cells, potentiating or inhibit- known apoptotic/necrotic function. Administration of very high
ing tumor growth—depending on the level of stimulation—while levels of ATP (25 and 50 mM) effectively reduced the growth
boosting inflammation, respectively. Evidence supporting P2X7 of hormone-refractory prostate cancer and melanoma tumors
growth-promoting activity has increased recently, and it appears in vivo, respectively (198, 199). However, these studies were
to result from a large number of effects, i.e., inducing the release of performed in nude athymic mice, therefore excluding a role for
immunosuppressive molecules by MDSCs and promoting VEGF the immune system on this antitumor effect. eATP acting exclu-
release, angiogenesis, and tumor cell proliferation (23, 100). On sively through P2X7 receptor also inhibited colon carcinoma and
the other hand, P2X7 receptor seems to restrain tumor growth by melanoma tumor growth in C57BL/6 wild-type mice, by perturb-
promoting DC/cancer cell interaction, cytokine release, chemot- ing the balance between two signaling axes—P2X7-PI3K/AKT
axis, and infiltration of immune cells in the TME (53). Therefore, and P2X7-AMPK-PRAS40-mTOR—and promoting tumor cell

death through autophagy (48). Again, this result was focused on A438079 (115), and also P2X7 blocking antibodies (115). A recent
the stimulation of the tumor P2X7 receptor, and no mention to phase I clinical trial using anti-P2X7 antibody to treat basal cell
the host counterpart was reported. Regardless of these promis- carcinoma demonstrated exciting results and showed that 65% of
ing results, three clinical trials fail to demonstrate a beneficial patients respond to the treatment and had a significant reduction
impact by using exogenous ATP to treat cancer in patients, being on the lesion area (213). The authors support the use of antibod-
an improvement of the quality of life the only positive effect ies against P2X7 receptor as a safe and well tolerable treatment
demonstrated (200–202). Besides eATP, the use of P2X7 receptor for BBC.
agonists, such as BzATP and ATPγS, has also been employed to An important point to be considered is that the use of P2X7
delay tumor growth, but once more, only the effect on the P2X7 receptor antagonists have been shown to demonstrate strong
receptor tumor side was evaluated (203, 204). Accordingly, BzATP anticancer effects in immune-competent mice expressing P2X7
inhibited the formation of DMBA/TPA-induced skin papillomas in both tumor and host side (47, 100), suggesting that blocking
and carcinomas in wild-type FVB mice (203), while ATPγS P2X7 on the tumor side is critical to the final antitumor action,
decreased the tumor growth and metastasis of mouse mammary despite the mild immunosuppressive effect due to inhibition of
carcinoma cells in wild-type C57BL/6 mice (204). the P2X7 on the host side (53). Regardless, more studies inves-
P2X7 receptor activation through the eATP released from tigating the P2X7 receptor function in host/tumor interactions,
the irradiation and chemotherapy has also an important role in and their impact on tumor growth will indicate the feasibility of
controlling tumor response to those treatments (205–207). In using P2X7 as a new target in cancer therapy.
glioblastoma, P2X7 receptor expression by tumor cells dictated
patient response to radiotherapy (208). Accordingly, high levels of
P2X7 receptor are associated with good prognosis and increased
Blocking CD39 Activity—First Step to
glioma radiosensitivity. Moreover, P2X7 silencing prevents tumor Inhibit Ado Formation and Restore
response to radiation in an in vivo model of glioblastoma, rein- Antitumor Immune Response
forcing that functional P2X7 expression is crucial for an efficient The conversion of eATP to Ado, either in physiological or patho-
radiotherapy response (208). Likewise, eATP acting via P2X7 logical conditions, is mainly coordinated by the sequential activity
receptor on DCs is determinant for the chemotherapy-induced of CD39 and CD73. In the TME, those enzymes will affect tumor
ICD, stimulating host-specific immune responses (206, 207). We growth according to their ability to produce Ado and therefore
recently showed the importance of P2X7 receptor overactivation trigger an immunosuppressive signaling (24, 37).
in colon cancer cells to potentiate chemotherapy cytotoxicity Increased expression of CD39 has been widely reported in
(209). According to our data, hyperthermia—by influencing several tumors, such as medulloblastoma (214), sarcoma (215),
plasma membrane fluidity—boosted P2X7 functional responses HCC (216), pancreatic cancer (217), colorectal cancer (218, 219),
to eATP, leading to maximal tumor cell death, mainly in associa- gastric cancer (216), and endometrial cancer (220); as well as in
tion with chemotherapy drugs. Therefore, P2X7 hyperactivation infiltrating immune cells (216, 221–224) and tumor endothelial
by hyperthermia might be used as an adjunct therapy in the cells (216, 225), influencing tumor growth, metastasis and angio-
treatment of cancer. genesis. As an example, expression of CD39 by Tregs plays a per-
Tumor P2X7 receptor expression and activation and its impact missive role in a mouse model of hepatic metastasis by inhibiting
on cancer proliferation have long been investigated. However, NK cell antitumor immunity and contributing to tumor immune
two recent studies also demonstrated a critical role for the host escape (226).
P2X7 receptor in stimulating the antitumoral immune response Therefore, strategies to block CD39 activity and Ado genera-
and restraining the tumor growth (47, 79). Correspondingly, ani- tion has become a new approach to avoid Ado immunosuppres-
mals with host genetic deletion of P2X7 were not able to mount sive effects and restores the antitumor responses (36). So far, few
an effective host inflammatory response, reporting reduced cell approaches targeting CD39 by using pharmacological inhibitors,
infiltration at the tumor bed, accelerated tumor growth, and genetic deletion or antibodies have been rendered promising
metastatic spreading in comparison to the wild-type group. results (215, 224, 226, 227). As reported in the literature, blocking
Although the overstimulation of P2X7 receptor with agonists CD39 activity by using the inhibitor ARL67156 partially over-
appears to be the most logical strategy to decrease tumor prolifera- comes T cell hyporesponsiveness in a subset of patient samples
tion, by inducing both tumor cell death and antitumor immune with follicular lymphoma (224). In the same line, CD39 blockage
response, recent studies have been demonstrated that blocking with both inhibitor (ARL67156) and antibody (OREG-103/
P2X7 receptor activation is more efficacious in preventing tumor BY40) increased T cells and NK cell-mediate cytotoxicity against
growth, mainly in those cancers in which P2X7 receptor is over- SK-MEL-5 melanoma cells (228). In an in vivo model, injection of
expressed (28, 46, 47, 100). Administration of P2X7 inhibitors POM1, a pharmacological CD39 inhibitor, was able to limit B16-
and antagonists has been shown to decrease cancer cell growth or F10 melanoma and MCA 38 colonic tumor growth at the same
spreading in animal models of colon (100), breast (115) and ovar- rate as demonstrated in animals CD39−/− (226). Indeed, CD39
ian carcinoma (210), neuroblastoma (101), melanoma (47, 100), deletion inhibited metastatic melanoma and colonic growth in
and glioma (211). the liver as well as decreased tumor angiogenesis (226). Similarly,
Several inhibitors and antagonists have been used to block CD39 deletion abrogated B16-F10 melanoma and LLC lung
P2X7 receptor in tumor cells, including oxidized-ATP (100, carcinoma tumor growth, angiogenesis, and pulmonary metas-
212), BBG (210), AZ10606120 (47, 100, 101), A740003 (47, 101), tases in mice (227). In another study, treatment with a specific

anti-CD39 antibody significantly improved survival in a lethal the immune system response, favoring cancer growth and
metastatic patient-derived sarcoma model (215). spreading. Supporting this assumption, studies performed with
Altogether, these studies indicate that blocking Ado forma- CD73-deficient mice showed that animals lacking CD73 have an
tion through targeting CD39 is a promising strategy in cancer increased antitumor immunity and are resistant to carcinogen-
therapy not only for boosting the antitumor immune response esis (245–247). Therefore, targeting CD73 appears to be a useful
(immunotherapy) but also for blocking tumor angiogenesis therapeutic tool to treat cancer.
(antiangiogenic therapy). However, future studies involving the Many approaches using small molecules inhibitors such as
use of anti-CD39 antibodies will provide supportive insights into ACPC and antibodies against CD73 have shown important anti-
the potential clinical application of CD39-targeting therapy in tumor and antimetastatic effects in various preclinical models of
oncology (36). melanoma (127, 245, 246, 248), fibrosarcoma (247), breast (125,
134, 235, 249, 250), prostate (247), and ovarian cancer (123).
Those effects are mainly attributed to the immune-stimulating
Inhibiting CD73 Activity—Second Step activity of CD73 blockage on host and tumor cells. However, a role
to Block Ado Formation and Improve for CD73 in controlling cancer cell proliferation independently of
Antitumor Immune Response the immune system was also reported (251). Accordingly, CD73
CD73 is a 5′ ectonucleotidase enzyme that degrades extracel- gene-silencing in human tumor cells promoted cell-cycle arrest
lular AMP—derived from the ATP metabolism—to Ado (37). As and apoptosis, decreasing cell growth rate in a xenograft tumor
mentioned earlier, the sequential enzymatic activity of CD39 and model.
CD73 is the main pathway for the generation of Ado in the tumor Targeting CD73 has also been shown to suppress tumor
interstitium. In this context, CD73-derived Ado exerts many angiogenesis (133, 134). Anti-CD73 therapy with monoclonal
immunosuppressive effects to attenuate antitumor immunity antibody significantly reduced tumor VEGF levels and abolished
(122). Likewise CD39, CD73 is expressed by cancer cells, regula- tumor angiogenesis in a mouse model of breast cancer (134).
tory immune cells, and the vasculature, therefore affecting tumor Accordingly, tumor-derived CD73 triggered VEGF production
growth, metastasis and angiogenesis (36). by tumor cells, while endothelial-derived CD73 promoted the
Elevated CD73 expression has been reported in several formation and migration of capillary-like structures by endothe-
types of human cancers such as glioma (229–231), head and lial cells, demonstrating that CD73 expression on tumor and host
neck (128), melanoma (232), thyroid (233), breast (234–238), cells contribute to tumor angiogenesis.
pancreas (239), colon (219, 240), bladder (241, 242), ovarian A phase I clinical trial study is currently undergoing to test
(243), prostate (244), and leukemia (126), being positively safety, tolerability, and antitumor activity of anti-CD73 mAb,
correlated with poor prognosis. In addition to tumor-derived MEDI9447, in cancer patients (NCT02503774) (Table 1).
CD73, host CD73 also negatively regulates tumor immunity MEDI9447 is a selective, potent, and non-competitive inhibitor
(245). Accordingly, both hematopoietic and nonhematopoietic of CD73 that blocks both membrane-bound and soluble states
expression of CD73 is important to promote tumor immune of this enzyme (252). Preclinical data using mouse syngenic
escape. For example, Tregs-derived CD73 contributed to their CT26 colon carcinoma tumor model showed that MEDI9447
immunosuppressive effects (245), while enzymatic activity of inhibited tumor growth by promoting changes in both myeloid
CD73 on tumor-associated endothelial cells restricted T cells and lymphoid infiltrating leukocytes within the tumor inter-
homing to tumors (127). Altogether, these data suggest that stitium (253). Among these changes, increasing number of
both tumor and host CD73 cooperatively protect tumors from CD8+ effector T cells and activated macrophages in the TME
Table 1 | Clinical trials currently underway that are testing the potential use of anti-CD73 mAb and A2A antagonists alone or in combination with other immunotherapies
to treat cancer.
Phase Propose of study Intervention Condition ID
I Evaluate the safety, tolerability, Monotherapy: anti-CD73 mAb (MEDI9447) Advanced solid tumors NCT02503774
pharmacokinetics, immunogenicity, or
and antitumor activity Combination: anti-CD73 mAb (MEDI9447) and anti-PD-L1 mAb
(MEDI4736)
I/Ib Determine the safety, tolerability, Monotherapy: adenosine (Ado) A2A receptor antagonist (PBF-509) Non-small cell lung cancer NCT02403193
feasibility, and preliminary efficacy or
Combination: Ado A2A receptor antagonist (PBF-509) and anti-PD-1
mAb (PDR001)
I/Ib Study the safety, tolerability, and Monotherapy: Ado A2A receptor antagonist (CPI-444) Non-small cell lung cancer NCT02655822
antitumor activity or Malignant melanoma
Combination: Ado A2A receptor antagonist (CPI-444) and anti–PD-L1 Renal cell cancer
mAb (atezolizumab) Triple negative breast cancer
Colorectal cancer
Bladder cancer
Prostate cancer

has been reported. In addition, mice treated with a combination Blocking A2A Receptor—Alternative
of anti-CD73 and anti-programmed cell death protein (PD)-1 Approach to Restrain Ado
antibodies showed increased tumor rejection and survival rates
when compared with mice treated with an individual antibody.
Immunosuppressive Effect and Boost
Synergistic effects by combining CD73 blockade with other cur- the Antitumor Immunity
rently available anticancer agents, including anthracycline (254), Targeting the Ado receptor A2A is also an alternative approach
radiation (160), anti-cytotoxic T-lymphocyte antigen (CTLA)-4 to block the Ado immunosuppressive effect and boost the anti-
antibodies (255, 256), and anti-PD-1 antibodies (255) have also tumor immunity (36). As depicted earlier, A2A receptor plays an
been reported and highlight the potential clinical application important role in triggering Ado immunosuppressive activities
of CD73 target therapies in combination with other anticancer in many immune subsets. Therefore, blocking Ado A2A receptor
modalities to improve antitumor immune response as well as with antagonist appears to be an attracting strategy, besides
tumor death. CD39 and CD73 inhibition, to increase innate and adaptive
Figure 3 | Therapeutic strategies to overcome tumor immune escape and boost cancer immunosurveillance in the tumor microenvironment (TME). In the
inflammatory TME, tumor and immune cells interact to produce a favorable immunosuppressive microenvironment. Extracellular adenosine triphosphate (eATP),
a pro-inflammatory mediator, accumulates in the TME, but it is rapidly converted to the immunosuppressive factor adenosine (Ado) via the sequential enzymatic
activity of CD39 and CD73. Ado acting through A2A and A2B receptors inhibits dendritic cells (DCs), NK, and effector T cells activation while it enhances the
suppressive function of Tregs, macrophages, and myeloid-derived suppressor cell (MDSC). Strategies by targeting Ado formation, i.e., by blocking CD39/CD73
enzymes and Ado receptors (mainly A2A) will build up eATP concentration and improve the antitumor immune response. Specifically on DCs, eATP acting through
P2X7 receptor will trigger NLRP3 inflammasome activation and IL-1β release with consequent stimulation of CD8+ and CD4+ lymphocyte-mediated antitumor
response, which is a critical step for the efficacy of chemotherapy and radiotherapy. Therefore, combining purinergic-targeting therapies with other anticancer
modalities may be a new strategy to overcome immune escape, potentiate antitumor immune response, and consequently restrain tumor growth.

immune response against the tumor (153). Many studies have researchers have pointing the anti-adenosinergic signaling as
been shown the potential use of A2A antagonists alone or in com- the next-generation target in immuno-oncology.
bination with other therapies to enhance antitumor immunity in
preclinical models (125, 150, 257, 258). Combination therapies CONCLUSION
targeting both A2A receptor and co-inhibitory molecules, such
as CTLA4 and PD-1, have shown synergistic effects (256, 257, Despite its complexity and contradictory effects, purinergic sign-
259). Coadministration of A2A antagonist with anti-CTLA4 aling has emerged as a novel targetable therapy to improve other
mAb marked inhibited tumor growth and enhanced antitu- anticancer modalities and cannot be underestimated considering
mor immune responses in a mouse melanoma model (256). its role in carcinogenesis. Strategies by blocking Ado formation
Moreover, dual blockade of A2A receptor and PD-1 significantly and its immunosuppressive effects in the TME favoring eATP
reduced CD73+ tumor growth and metastasis spreading as well accumulation, and its pro-inflammatory effects appears to be
as prolonged mice survival (257, 259). The mechanism of the the most promising approach to maximize the efficacy of other
combination therapy was mainly dependent on NK cells, CD8+ therapies such as immunotherapy, radiotherapy, and chemo-
T, cells and IFN-γ. Importantly, the overexpression of CD73 by therapy (Figure 3). However, considering the multifaceted effects
tumor cells was critical for the efficacy of the combined therapy, of eATP and Ado in the TME, where host immune and stromal
suggesting that CD73 might be a potential biomarker for the cells as well as tumor cells are modulated in different ways,
selection of patients undergoing this method of treatment. choosing the most feasible purinergic target will be a challenging
Supporting this statement, co-inhibition of CD73 and A2A task. Ongoing and upcoming clinical trials will hopefully identify
receptor by either gene deletion or pharmacological therapy the best combinatorial approach to boost antitumor immune
limited tumor initiation, growth, and metastasis in vivo (260). response and successfully restrain tumor growth.
In the double knockout (KO) mice, tumor control required
CD8+ T-cell and IFN-γ production within the core of tumors, AUTHOR CONTRIBUTIONS
while therapeutic activity of CD73 antibodies depend on Fc
receptors binding. Interestingly, A2A single KO mice showed a PM, RC-S, and LS wrote the article. All the authors contributed
significant upregulation of CD73 expression in tumor cells and to the study conception and design, and critically revised the
endothelial cells, suggesting that CD73 overexpression might manuscript.
be a mechanism of escape and resistance to monotherapy with
A2A antagonists. So far, two clinical trials (phase I) are cur- FUNDING
rently underway to evaluate safety, tolerability, and antitumor
activity of A2A antagonists as a single agent and in combination This work was supported by funds from the Conselho Nacional
with PD-1/PD-L1 inhibitors in patients (NCT02403193 and de Desenvolvimento Cientifico e Tecnológico do Brasil (CNPq),
NCT02655822) (Table 1). Therefore, associating A2A antago- Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior
nist with other checkpoint blockade inhibitors appears to be (CAPES), and Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado do Rio
a promising strategy to improve patient survival and yet many de Janeiro (FAPERJ—Pós-doutorado Nota 10 Edital 05/2016).
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Am J Cancer Res (2014) 4:172–81. distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

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published: 14 November 2017

Multifaceted effects of extracellular

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both strategies either stimulating or blocking P2X7 receptor have

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Phase Propose of study Intervention Condition ID

Frontiers in Immunology | www.frontiersin.org 8 November 2017 | Volume 8 | Article 1526

Frontiers in Immunology | www.frontiersin.org 9 November 2017 | Volume 8 | Article 1526

REFERENCES 9. Kim R, Emi M, Tanabe K. Cancer immunoediting from immune sur-

Frontiers in Immunology | www.frontiersin.org 10 November 2017 | Volume 8 | Article 1526

Frontiers in Immunology | www.frontiersin.org 11 November 2017 | Volume 8 | Article 1526

Frontiers in Immunology | www.frontiersin.org 12 November 2017 | Volume 8 | Article 1526

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Frontiers in Immunology | www.frontiersin.org 17 November 2017 | Volume 8 | Article 1526

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