Topics in Algebra solution

Sung Jong Lee, lovekrand.github.io

November 6, 2020

Problems in the Section 2.6.

1. If H is a subgroup of G such that the product of two right cosets of H in G is again a

right coset of H in G, prove that H is normal in G.

Proof. Consider the product of Hg and Hg −1 . Consequently, HgHg −1 = Hc for some

c ∈ G. As egeg −1 = e = hc for some h ∈ H, c ∈ H. Therefore, HgHg −1 = H, implying
gHg −1 = H. Hence H is normal in G.

2. If G is a group and H is a subgroup of index 2 in G, prove that H is a normal subgroup

of G.

Proof. We can represent the coset decomposition of G in two different ways. That is,

G = H q xH, G = H q Hx

for some x 6∈ H. This forces us that xH = Hx, hence H is normal in G.

3. If N is a normal subgroup of G and H is any subgroup of G, prove that N H is a

subgroup of G.

Proof. Let nh, n0 h0 ∈ N H. Consequently,

nh · n0 h0 = nhn0 h−1 hh0 = n(n00 )hh0 ∈ N H

and

(nh)−1 = h−1 n−1 = h−1 n−1 hh−1 = n0 h−1 ∈ N H.

Hence, N H is a subgroup of G.

4. Show that the intersection of two normal subgroups of G is a normal subgroup of G.

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Proof. Let N and M be the two normal subgroups of G. We know that

g(N ∩ M )g −1 = gN g −1 ∩ gM g −1 = N ∩ M.

Hence, N ∩ M is normal in G.

5. If H is a subgroup of G and N is a normal subgroup of G, show that H ∩ N is a normal

subgroup of H.

Proof. Let g ∈ H ∩ N . Then for any h ∈ H, hgh−1 ∈ H since g ∈ H, and hgh−1 ∈ H since
g ∈ N and N is normal in G. Thus, hgh−1 ∈ H ∩ N , and H ∩ N is normal in H.

6. Show that every subgroup of abelian group is normal.

Proof. Let H be a subgroup of an abelian group G. Then for any g ∈ G, h ∈ H, ghg −1 =

gg −1 h = h ∈ H implying H is normal.

7. Is the converse of Problem 6 true? If yes, prove it, if no, give an example of a non-abelian
group all of whose subgroups are normal.

Proof. Converse of Problem 6 is False. Consider the group of quaternions, G = {±1, ±i, ±j, ±k}.
There are 4 non-trivial subgroups : {±1, ±i}, {±1, ±j}, {±1, ±k} and {±1}. These are
all normal in G, but G is not abelian since i and j does not commute.

8. Give an example of a group G, subgroup H, and an element a ∈ G such that aHa−1 ⊂ H

but aHa−1 6= H.

Proof.
Let G
be the
multiplicative
 group
 of 2 × 2 realmatrices.
 Consider the subgroup
1 1 1 n 2 0
H= = : n ∈ Z of G. Take g = ∈ G. Then
0 1 0 1 0 1
  
−1 1 2n
gHg = :n∈Z ⊂H
0 1

but gHg −1 6= H.

9. Suppose H is the only subgroup of order o(H) in the finite group G. Prove that H is a
normal subgroup of G.

Proof. Note that for all g ∈ G, gHg −1 is a subgroup of G and o(gHg −1 ) = o(H). Therefore,
gHg −1 = H for all g ∈ G and hence H is normal in G.

10. If H is a subgroup of G, let N (H) = {g ∈ G : gHg −1 = H}. Prove

a) N (H) is a subgroup of G.

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Proof. Let a, b ∈ N (H). Consequently, (ab)H(ab)−1 = a(bHb−1 )a−1 = aHa−1 = H so
that ab ∈ N (H). Also, aHa−1 = H =⇒ H = a−1 Ha so that a−1 ∈ H. Hence N (H) is a
subgroup of G.

b) H is normal in N (H).

Proof. It is trivial by the definition of N (H).

c) If H is a normal subgroup of K in G, then K ⊂ N (H) (that is, N (H) is the largest

subgroup of G in which H is normal.

Proof. Let k ∈ K. Then kHk −1 = H implying k ∈ N (H). Hence K ⊂ N (H).

d) H is normal in G if and only if N (H) = G.

Proof. It is clear that N (H) ⊂ G. So, we show that the other side of inclusion holds if H
is normal in G. But this is also trivial to check since H is normal in G, gHg −1 = H for all
g ∈ G and hence g ⊂ N (H). Thus, N (H) = G. Moreover, if N (H) = G, this itself implies
that gHg −1 = H for all g ∈ G and so that H is normal in G.

11. If N and M are normal subgroups of G, prove that N M is also a normal subgroup of
G.

Proof. Note that for all g ∈ G,

g(N M )g −1 = (gN g −1 )(gM g −1 ) = N M

so that N M is a normal subgroup of G.

12. Suppose that N and M are two normal subgroups of G and that N ∩ M = (e). Show
that for any n ∈ N, m ∈ M , nm = mn.

Proof. Let n ∈ N, m ∈ M . Note that nm = (mm−1 )nm = m(m−1 nm) = mn0 for some
n0 ∈ N . We shall show that n0 is, in fact, equals n exactly. Observe that

nm(n0 )−1 = m =⇒ nmn−1 n(n0 )−1 = m

=⇒ m0 n(n0 )−1 = m (for some m0 ∈ M )
=⇒ n(n0 )−1 = (m0 )−1 m ∈ M
=⇒ n = n0 (∵ N ∩ M = (e)).

Hence, nm = mn for all n ∈ N, m ∈ M .

13. If a cyclic subgroup T of G is normal in G, then show that every subgroup of T is

normal in G.

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Proof. Since T is cyclic, T = (a) for some a ∈ G. Let H be a subgroup of T . Since H is also
cyclic, H = (ak ) for some integer k ≤ 0. Choose an element (ak )h = akh ∈ H. Then for all
g ∈ G, gag −1 ∈ T . Let gag −1 = al . Further, gakh g −1 = (gag −1 )kh = (al )kh = (ak )lh ∈ H.
This shows that H is normal in G.

14. Prove, by an example, that we can find three groups E ⊂ F ⊂ G, where E is normal
in F , F is normal in G, but E is not normal in G.

Proof. Let G = S4 , F = {id, (12)(34), (13)(24), (14)(23)}, E = ((12)(34)). F is normal in

G as for any conjugate of elements of the form (a, b)(c, d) results out with the same. And
also [F : E] = 2, E is normal in F . But E is clearly not normal in G.

15. If N is normal in G and a ∈ G is of order o(a), prove that the order, m, of N a in G/N
is a divisor of o(a).

Proof. Let k = o(a). If m - k, then k = mq + r for some integer q, r such that 0 ≤ r < m.
Note that am ∈ N and ak = e. Consequently,

ak = amq+r = (am )q · ar =⇒ ar ∈ N.

But since m is the order of N a in G/N and r < m, this is a contradiction.

16. If N is a normal subgroup in the finite group such that iG (N ) and o(N ) are relatively
prime, show that any element x ∈ G satisfying xo(N ) = e must be in N .

Proof. Since gcd(iG (N ), o(N ) = 1, iG (N )λ + o(N )µ = 1 for some integers λ, µ ∈ Z. Note

that xiG (N ) ∈ N . Consequently,

x = xiG (N )λ+o(N )µ = xiG (N )λ ∈ N.

17. Let G be defined as all formal symbols xi y j , i = 0, 1, j = 0, 1, 2, · · · , n − 1 where we

assume
0 0
xi y j = xi y j if and only if i = i0 , j = j 0
x2 = y n = e, n>2
−1
xy = y x

a) Find the form of the product (xi y j )(xk y l ) as xα y β .

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Proof. Using the fact that xy m = y −m x, we have the following:



y j+l (mod n) , i, k ≡ 0 (mod 2)
xy j+l (mod n) ,

i ≡ 1, k ≡ 0 (mod 2)
(xi y j )(xk y l ) =


xy l−j (mod n) , i ≡ 0, k ≡ 1 (mod 2)
y l−j (mod n) ,

i, k ≡ 1 (mod 2).

In an ONE-line presentation, we have:

(mod 2) ((−1)k (mod 2) j+l)
(xi y j )(xk y l ) = xi+k y (mod n)
.

b) Using this, prove that G is a non-abelian group of order 2n.

Proof. In general, if n > 2, y −1 6= y. Since xy = y −1 x, yx 6= y −1 x implying xy 6= yx.

Hence G is a non-abelian group of order 2n.

c) If n is odd, prove that the center of G is (e), while if n is even, the center of G is larger
than (e).

Proof. We make a case-by-case investigation. First, for the elements of the form xy m ,
m > 1, note that x(xy m )x−1 = xxy m x = y m x = xy −m . But since n is odd, Suppose that
xy m = xy −m . It is must then that 2m ≡ 0 (mod n), implying n is even thereby yielding
a contradiction. Now consider the elements of the form y m . Also, xy m x = y −m . Suppose
that y m = y −m , similarly above, n must be even, contradiction. Finally, we consider x.
Then y −1 xy = xy 2 . But for n > 2, y 2 6= e. Hence, xy m , y m , x(m > 1) are not in the center
of G if n > 2 is odd. Thus, Z(G) = (e).
Now suppose n > 2 is even. Then it is easy to see that y n/2 ∈ Z(G). Hence, Z(G) ) (e).

18. Let G be a group in which, for some integer n > 1, (ab)n = an bn for all a, b ∈ G. Show
that
a) G(n) = {xn : x ∈ G} is a normal subgroup of G.

Proof. We first show that G(n) is a subgroup of G. Let an , bn ∈ G(n) . Then an bn = (ab)n ∈
G(n) . Also, (an )−1 = (a−1 )n ∈ G(n) . Hence, G(n) is a subgroup of G. It is also normal in
G, as, for all g ∈ G, an ∈ G(n) , gan g −1 = (gag −1 )n ∈ G(n) .

b) G(n−1) = {xn−1 : x ∈ G} is a normal subgroup of G.

Proof. Note that an−1 bn−1 = (ba)n−1 . From this, we see that G(n−1) is a subgroup of G.
Normality is clear, since for any g ∈ G, gan−1 g −1 = (gag −1 )n−1 ∈ G(n−1) .

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19. Let G be as in Problem 18. Show
a) an−1 bn = bn an−1 for all a, b ∈ G.

Proof. From

(ba)n−1 = an−1 bn−1 , (ab)n−1 = bn−1 an−1 ,

we have

an−1 bn = an−1 bn−1 b = (ba)n−1 b = b(ab)n−1 = bbn−1 an−1 = bn an−1

for all a, b ∈ G.

b) (aba−1 b−1 )n(n−1) = e for all a, b ∈ G

Proof. Note that

an(n−1) bn(n−1) = (an−1 bn−1 )n = (an−1 bn b−1 )n

2
= (bn an−1 b−1 )n = bn (an )n−1 (b−1 )n
2
= bn (b−1 )n (an )n−1 = bn(n−1) an(n−1)

implying

an(n−1) bn(n−1) · (a−1 )n(n−1) (b−1 )n(n−1) = (aba−1 b−1 )n(n−1) = e.

20. Let G be a group such that (ab)p = ap bp for all a, b ∈ G, where p is a prime number.
m
Let S = {x ∈ G : xp = e for some m depending on x }. Prove
a) S is a normal subgroup of G.
n n n
Proof. We first prove that S is a subgroup of G. First, we note that (ab)p = ap bp . This
n m
can be shown easily by induction process. Suppose a, b ∈ S, where ap = e, bp = e for
some n, m ∈ Z. Then
mn mn mn n m
(ab)p = ap bp = (ap )m (bp )n = e
n n
so that ab ∈ S. Also, (a−1 )p = (ap )−1 = e. Hence, S is a subgroup of G. Normality is
n n
also clear, since for all g ∈ G, (gag −1 )p = gap g −1 = e implying gag −1 ∈ S.

b) If G = G/S and if x ∈ G is such that xp = e then x = e.

k
Proof. Note that xp = e implies xp ∈ S. Equivalently, (xp )p = e for some k ∈ Z. In fact,
k k+1
(xp )p = xp = e =⇒ x ∈ S, so that x = e.

6
  
a b
21. Let G be the set of all real 2 × 2 matrices where ad 6= 0 under matrix
0 d
 
1 b
multiplication. Let N = . Prove that
0 1
a) N is a normal subgroup of G
   
a b 1 n
Proof. Let g = ∈ G, n = ∈ N . Then
0 d 0 1
an
   1 b
  
gng −1 =
a b 1 n a − ad =
1 d ∈N
1
0 d 0 1 0 d 0 1

so that N is normal in G.

b) G/N is abelian.
     
a b p q 1 c b(p − r) + q(d − a)
Proof. Let g1 = ∈ G, g2 = n= ∈ N . Set s = c+ .
0 d 0 r 0 1 ap
Then we see that

g1 g2 n ∈ g1 g2 N, g1 g2 n = g2 g1 m ∈ g2 g1 N
 
1 s
where m = ∈ N . Similarly, we can show the opposite inclusion. Thus, G/N is an
0 1
abelian group.