PowerPoint Lectures Physics Giambattista PDF

Fisica Generale - Alan Giambattista, Betty McCarty Richardson
Chapter 1: Introduction
•Why Study Physics?

•Mathematics and Physics Speak
•Scientific Notation and Significant Figures
•Units
•Dimensional Analysis
•Problem Solving Techniques
•Approximations
•Graphs
Copyright © 2008 – The McGraw-Hill Companies s.r.l.

§1.1 Why Study Physics?
Physics is the foundation of every science (astronomy,

biology, chemistry…).
Many pieces of technology and/or medical equipment and

procedures are developed with the help of physicists.
Studying physics will help you develop good thinking skills,

problem solving skills, and give you the background needed
to differentiate between science and pseudoscience.

Gain an appreciation for the simplicity of nature.
Physics encompasses all natural phenomena.

§1.2 Physics Speak
Be aware that physicists have their own precise definitions

of some words that are different from their common English
language definitions.
Examples: speed and velocity are no longer synonyms;

acceleration is a change of speed or direction.

§1.3 Math
Galileo Wrote:
Philosophy is written in this grand book, the universe, which stands

continually open to our gaze. But the book cannot be understood unless
one first learns to comprehend the language and read the characters in
which it is written. It is written in the language of mathematics, and its
characters are triangles, circles, and other geometric figures without
which it is humanly impossible to understand a single word of it; without
these, one is wandering in a dark labyrinth.
From Opere Il Saggiatore p. 171 by Galileo Galilei (http://www-gap.dcs.st-

and.ac.uk/~history/Mathematicians/Galileo.html)
Basically, the language spoken by physicists is mathematics.

Definitions:
y  mx  b
x is multiplied by the factor m.
The terms mx and b are added together.

Example:
x
y  c
a
x is multiplied by the factor 1/a or x is divided by the factor

a. The terms x/a and c are added together.

Percentages:
Example: You put $10,000 in a CD for one year. The APY

is 3.05%. How much interest does the bank pay you at the
end of the year?
$10,000 1.0305  $10,305
The bank pays you

$305 in interest.

Example: You have $5,000 invested in stock XYZ. It loses

6.4% of its value today. How much is your investment now
worth?
$5,000  0.936  $4,680

 n 
The general rule is to multiply by 1  
 100 
where the (+) is used if the quantity is increasing and (–) is

used if the quantity is decreasing.

Proportions:
A is proportional to B. The value of A is

A B directly dependent on the value of B.
1 A is proportional to 1/B. The value of A is

A inversely dependent on the value of B.
B

Example: For items at the grocery store:
cost  weight
The more you buy, the more you pay. This is just the
relationship between cost and weight.
To change from  to = we need to know the proportionality

constant.
cost  (cost per pound)  (weight)

2
Example: The area of a circle is A  r .
2
The area is proportional to the radius squared. Ar
The proportionality constant is .

§1.4 Scientific Notation &

Significant Figures
This is a shorthand way of writing very large and/or very

small numbers.

Example: The radius of the sun is 700,000 km.
Write as 7.0105 km.
When properly written this number

will be between 1.0 and 10.0
Example: The radius of a hydrogen atom is 0.0000000000529

m. This is more easily written as 5.2910-11 m.

Significant figures:
From the “purple box” on page 5:

1. Nonzero digits are always significant.
2. Final ending zeroes written to the right of the
decimal are significant. (Example: 7.00.)
3. Zeroes that are placeholders are not significant.
(Example: 700,000 versus 700,000.0.)
4. Zeroes written between digits are significant.
(Example: 105,000; 150,000.)

Please see text example 1.2 for more information on

significant figures.
Note: be sure not to round off any of your results until you
are reporting your final answer.

§1.5 Units
Some of the standard SI unit prefixes and their respective
powers of 10.
Prefix Power of 10 Prefix Power of 10

tera (T) 1012 centi (c) 10-2
giga (G) 109 milli (m) 10-3
mega (M) 106 micro () 10-6
kilo (k) 103 nano (n) 10-9
Dimensions are basic types of quantities that can be

measured or computed. Examples are length, time, mass,
electric current, and temperature.
A unit is a standard amount of a dimensional quantity.

There is a need for a system of units. SI units will be
used throughout this class.

The quantities in this

column are based on an
agreed upon standard.

A derived unit is composed of combinations of base units.
Example: The SI unit of energy is the joule.
1 joule = 1 kg m2/sec2
Derived unit Base units

Units can be freely converted from one to another.

Examples:
12 inches = 1 foot
1 inch = 2.54 cm

Example: The density of air is 1.3 kg/m3. Change the units

to slugs/ft3.
1 slug = 14.59 kg
1 m = 3.28 feet
3
kg  1 slug  1 m  3 3
1.3 3     2. 5  10 slugs/ft
m  14.59 kg  3.28 feet 

§1.6 Dimensional Analysis
Dimensions are basic types of quantities such as length [L];

time [T]; or mass [M].
The square brackets are

referring to dimensions not
units.

Example (text problem 1.74): Use dimensional analysis to

determine how the period of a pendulum depends on mass,
the length of the pendulum, and the acceleration due to
gravity (here the units are distance/time2).
Mass of the pendulum [M]

Length of the pendulum [L]
Acceleration of gravity [L/T2]
The period of a pendulum is how long it takes to complete 1

swing; the dimensions are time [T].

[Period] = [T] =

§1.7 Problem Solving Techniques
Summary of the list on page 12:
•Read the problem thoroughly.

•Draw a picture.
•Label the picture with the given information.
•What is unknown?
•What physical principles apply?
•Are their multiple steps needed?
•Work symbolically! It is easier to catch mistakes.
•Calculate the end result. Don’t forget units!
•Check your answer for reasonableness.
§1.8 Approximations
All of the problems that we will do this semester will be an

approximation of reality. We will use models of how things
work to compute our desired results. The more effects we
include, the more correct our results will be.

Example (text problem 1.34): Estimate the number of

times a human heart beats during its lifetime.
Estimate that a typical heart beats ~60 times per minute:
 60 beats  60 minutes  24 hours  365 days  75 years 

     
 1 minute  1 hour  1day  1 year  1 lifetime 
 2.4  109 beats/lifetime

§1.9 Graphs
Experimenters vary a quantity (the independent variable) and
measure another quantity (the dependent variable).
Dependent
variable here
Independent variable here

Be sure to label the axes with both the quantity and its unit.
For example:
Position
(meters)
Time (seconds)

Example (text problem 1.39): A nurse recorded the values

shown in the table for a patient’s temperature. Plot a graph
of temperature versus time and find (a) the patient’s
temperature at noon, (b) the slope of the graph, and (c) if
you would expect the graph to follow the same trend over
the next 12 hours? Explain.
Time Decimal time Temp (°F)

The given data: 10:00 AM 10.0 100.00
10:30 AM 10.5 100.45
11:00 AM 11.0 100.90
11:30 AM 11.5 101.35
12:45 PM 12.75 102.48

103
102.5
102
temp (F)
101.5
101
100.5
100
99.5
10 11 12 13
time (hours)

(a) Reading from the graph: 101.8 F.
T2  T1 101.8 F  100.0 F
(b) slope    0.9 F/hour
t 2  t1 12.0 hr  10.0 hr
(c) No.

Summary
•Math Skills
•The SI System of Units
•Dimensional Analysis

Clicker Question for after slide 13:
If you have one circle with a radius of 5 cm and a second

circle with a radius of 3 cm, by what factor is the area of
the first circle larger than the area of the second circle?
(Use the fact that Ar2.)
A. 0.60
B. 1.67
C. 2.78
D. 8.73

Chapter 2: Force
•Forces
•Newton’s First and Third Laws
•Vector Addition
•Gravity
•Contact Forces
•Tension
•Fundamental Forces

1
§2.1 Forces
Isaac Newton was the first to discover that the laws that
govern motions on the Earth also applied to celestial bodies.
Over the next few chapters we will study how bodies interact
with one another.

2
Simply, a force is a “push” or “pull” on an object.

3
How can a force be measured? One way is with a spring

scale.
By hanging masses on a
spring we find that the
spring stretchapplied
force.
The units of force are Newtons (N).

4
Vectors versus scalars:
A vector is a quantity that has both a magnitude and a

direction. A force is an example of a vector quantity.
A scalar is just a number (no direction). The mass of an

object is an example of a scalar quantity.

5
Notation:

Vector: F or F

The magnitude of a vector: F or F or F .
The direction of vector might be “35 south of east”; “20

above the +x-axis”; or….
Scalar: m (not bold face; no arrow)

6
§2.2 Net Force
The net force is the vector sum of all the forces acting
on a body.
Fnet  F  F1  F2  F3  

7
To graphically represent a vector,

draw a directed line segment.
The length of the line can be used to represent the vector’s

length or magnitude.

8
To add vectors graphically they must be placed “tip to tail”.

The result (F1 + F2) points from the tail of the first vector to
the tip of the second vector.
F1 F2
Fnet
For collinear vectors:
F1
F2
Fnet

9
§2.3 Newton’s First Law
Newton’s 1st Law (The Law of Inertia):

If no force acts on an object, then its speed and direction of
motion do not change.
Inertia is a measure of an object’s

resistance to changes in its motion.

10
If the object is at rest, it remains at rest (speed = 0).

If the object is in motion, it continues to move in a straight
line with the same speed.
No force is required to keep a body in straight line motion

when effects such as friction are negligible.

11
An object is in translational equilibrium if the net force on

it is zero.

12
Free Body Diagrams:
•Must be drawn for problems when forces are involved.
•Must be large so that they are readable.
•Draw an idealization of the body in question (a dot, a

box,…). You will need one free body diagram for each
body in the problem that will provide useful information
for you to solve the given problem.
•Indicate only the forces acting on the body. Label the

forces appropriately. Do not include the forces that this
body exerts on any other body.

13
Free Body Diagrams (continued):
•A coordinate system is a must.
•Do not include fictitious forces. Remember that ma is itself

not a force!
•You may indicate the direction of the body’s acceleration or

direction of motion if you wish, but it must be done well off to
the side of the free body diagram.

14
§2.4 Vector Addition
Vector Addition: Place the vectors tip to tail as before. A

vector may be moved any way you please provided that you
do not change its length nor rotate it. The resultant points
from the tail of the first vector to the tip of the second (A+B).

15
Example: Vector A has a length of 5.00 meters and points

along the x-axis. Vector B has a length of 3.00 meters and
points 120 from the +x-axis. Compute A+B (=C).
B
C
120
A x

16
Example continued:
y opp
sin  
hyp
adj
B cos 
hyp
By sin opp
120 tan  
60 cos adj
Bx A x
By
sin 60   B y  B sin 60  3.00m sin 60  2.60 m
B
 Bx
cos60   Bx   Bcos60  3.00m cos60  1.50 m
B
and Ax = 5.00 m and Ay = 0.00 m

17
Example continued:
C x  Ax  Bx  5.00 m  - 1.50 m  3.50 m
The components of C:
C y  Ay  B y  0.00 m  2.60 m  2.60 m
The length of C is:

C
2 2
Cy = 2.60 m C  C  Cx  C y
  3.50 m 2  2.60 m 2
Cx = 3.50 m x
 4.36 m
Cy 2.60 m
The direction of C is: tan     0.7429
Cx 3.50 m
  tan 1 0.7429   36.6 From the +x-axis
18
§2.5 Newton’s Third Law

Newton’s 3rd Law:
When 2 bodies interact, the forces on the bodies from each
other are always equal in magnitude and opposite in
direction. Or, forces come in pairs.
Mathematically: F21  F12 .

19
Example: Consider a box resting on a table.
(a) If F1 is the force of the Earth

F1 on the box, what is the interaction
partner of this force?
The force of the box on the Earth.

20
Example continued:
F2 (b) If F2 is the force of the box on the

table, what is the interaction partner
of this force?
The force of the table on the box.

21
External forces:
Any force on a system from a body outside of the system.
F
Pulling a box
across the floor

22
Internal forces:
Force between bodies of a system.
Fext
Pulling 2 boxes across the floor

where the two boxes are attached
to each other by a rope.
23
§2.6 Gravity
Gravity is the force between two masses. Gravity is a long-
range or field force. No contact is needed between the
bodies. The force of gravity is always attractive!
GM 1M 2 r is the distance between the two masses

F
r2 M1 and M2 and G = 6.6710-11 Nm2/kg2.
F12 F21
M1 M2
F21  F12 .
r
24
 GM E 
Let M1 = mass of the Earth. F  2 M 2
 r 
Here F = the force the Earth exerts on mass M2. This is the
force known as weight, w.
 GM E  M E  5.98  10 24 kg
w   2  M 2  gM 2 .

 rE  rE  6400 km
GM E 2 Near the surface

where g  2
 9 . 8 N/kg  9 . 8 m/s
rE of the Earth

25
F is the gravitational force per unit mass.

Note that g 
m This is called the gravitational field
strength. It is often referred to as the
acceleration due to gravity.
What is the direction of g?
What is the direction of w?

26
Example: What is the weight of a 100 kg astronaut on the

surface of the Earth (force of the Earth on the astronaut)?
How about in low Earth orbit? This is an orbit about 300 km
above the surface of the Earth.
On Earth: w  mg  980 N
 GM E 
In low Earth orbit: w  mg ( ro )  m   890 N
 RE  h  
Their weight is reduced by about 10%. The

astronaut is NOT weightless!

27
§2.7 Contact Forces
Contact forces: these forces arise because of an

interaction between the atoms in the surfaces in contact.

28
Normal force: this force acts in the direction perpendicular

to the contact surface.
N Force of the
ground on
the box
w Force of the
N ramp on the
box

29
Example: Consider a box on a table. y

N
FBD for
box
x
w
Apply
Newton’s F y  N w0
2nd law So that N  w  mg
This just says the magnitude of the

normal force equals the magnitude
of the weight; they are not Newton’s
third law interaction partners.
30
Friction: a contact force parallel to the contact surfaces.
Static friction acts to prevent objects from sliding.
Kinetic friction acts to make sliding objects slow down.

31
Static Friction:
The force of static friction is modeled as f s  s N.

where s is the coefficient of static friction and N is the
normal force.

32
Kinetic Friction:
The force of kinetic friction is modeled as f k  k N .

where k is the coefficient of kinetic friction and N is the
normal force.

33
Example (text problem 2.91): A box full of books rests on a

wooden floor. The normal force the floor exerts on the box is
250 N.
(a) You push horizontally on the box with a force of 120
N, but it refuses to budge. What can you say about the
coefficient of friction between the box and the floor?
y
N
FBD for
box F
x
fs
w Apply (1) Fy  N  w  0
Newton’s
2nd Law (2) Fx  F  f s  0
34
Example continued:
F
From (2): F  f s   s N   s   0.48
N
This is the minimum value of s, so s > 0.48.
(b) If you must push horizontally on the box with 150 N force
to start it sliding, what is the coefficient of static friction?
F
Again from (2): F  f s   s N   s   0.60
N
35
Example continued:
(c) Once the box is sliding, you only have to push with a
force of 120 N to keep it sliding. What is the coefficient of
kinetic friction?
y
N
FBD for Apply (1) Fy  N  w  0
box F Newton’s
x 2nd Law (2) Fx  F  f k  0
fk
w
From 2: F  f k  k N
F 120 N
k    0.48
N 250 NCopyright © 2008 – The McGraw-Hill Companies s.r.l.
36
§2.8 Tension
This is the force transmitted through a “rope” from one end

to the other.
An ideal cord has zero mass, does not stretch, and the
tension is the same throughout the cord.

37
Example (text problem 2.73): A pulley is hung from the ceiling by a

rope. A block of mass M is suspended by another rope that
passes over the pulley and is attached to the wall. The rope
fastened to the wall makes a right angle with the wall. Neglect the
masses of the rope and the pulley. Find the tension in the rope
from which the pulley hangs and the angle . y
T
FDB for the
mass M
x
w
Apply Newton’s 2nd
Law to the mass M.
F y T w0
T  w  Mg
38
Example continued:
FBD for the pulley: Apply Newton’s 2nd Law:

y
F x  F cos   T  0
F
F y  F sin   T  0
T
 T  F cos   F sin 
x
This statement is true
only when  = 45 and
T
F  2T  2 Mg

39
§2.9 Fundamental Forces
The four fundamental forces of nature are:

•Gravity which is the force between two masses; it is the
weakest of the four.
•Strong Force which helps to bind atomic nuclei together;
it is the strongest of the four.
•Weak Force plays a role in some nuclear reactions.
•Electromagnetic is the force that acts between charged
particles.

40
Summary
•Newton’s First and Third Law’s

•Free Body Diagrams
•Adding Vectors
•Contact Forces Versus Long-Range Forces
•Different Forces (friction, gravity, normal, tension)

41
What is the net force acting on the object shown below?
15 N 15 N
x
10 N
a. 40 N
b. 0 N
c. 10 N down
d. 10 N up
42
The gravitational field strength of the Moon is about 1/6

that of Earth. If the mass and weight of an astronaut, as
measured on Earth, are m and w respectively, what will
they be on the Moon?
a. m, w
1
b. m, w
6
1
c. m, w
6
1 1
d. m, w
6 6
43
Chapter 3: Acceleration and

Newton’s Second Law of Motion
•Position & Displacement

•Speed & Velocity
•Acceleration
•Newton’s Second Law
•Relative Velocity

1
§3.1 Position & Displacement
The position (r) of an object describes its location relative to

some origin or other reference point.
The displacement is the change in an object’s position. It

depends only on the beginning and ending positions.
r  r f  ri
2
Example (text problem 3.4): Margaret walks to the store

using the following path: 0.500 miles west, 0.200 miles north,
0.300 miles east. What is her total displacement? Give the
magnitude and direction.
y Take north to be in
the +y direction and
east to be along +x.
r3
r
r2
r1 x

3
Example continued:
The displacement is r = rf – ri. The initial position is the

origin; what is rf?
The final position will be rf = r1 + r2 + r3. The components

are rfx = -r1 + r3 = -0.2 miles and rfy = +r2 = +0.2 miles.
y
Using the figure, the magnitude and
r
direction of the displacement are
ry
 r  rx2  ry2  0.283 miles
rx x
ry
tan    1 and   45 N of W.
rx Copyright © 2008 – The McGraw-Hill Companies s.r.l.
4
§3.2 Velocity
Velocity is a vector that measures how fast and in what

direction something moves.
Speed is the magnitude of the velocity. It is a scalar.

5
r  x 
Average velocity  v av   The x - component would be : v av, x  
t  t 
finish
Path of a vav is the constant speed

particle that results in the same
displacement in a given
time interval.
r
Start
distance traveled
Average speed 
time of trip
6
A particle moves along the blue path as shown. At time t1 its

position is r0 and at time t2 its position is rf.
y
The instantaneous
v0 velocity points
r vf tangent to the path.
r0 rf
r
v av  Points in the direction of r
t Copyright © 2008 – The McGraw-Hill Companies s.r.l.
7
On a graph of position versus time, the average velocity is

represented by the slope of a chord.
x (m)
x2
x1
t1 t2 t (sec)
x2  x1
Average velocity  vav , x 
t 2  t1
8
r
Instantaneous velocity  v  lim
t  0 t
This is represented by the slope of a line tangent to the curve

on the graph of an object’s position versus time.
x (m)
t (sec)
9
The area under a velocity versus time graph (between the

curve and the time axis) gives the displacement in a given
interval of time.
v(m/s)
t (sec)

10
Example: Consider Margaret’s walk to the store in the

example on slides 3 and 4. If the first leg of her walk takes 10
minutes, the second takes 8 minutes, and the third 7 minutes,
compute her average velocity and average speed during each
leg and for the overall trip.
Use the definitions:
r
Average velocity  v av 
t
distance traveled
Average speed 
time of trip

11
Example continued:
t vav Average
Leg (hours) (miles/hour) speed
(miles/hour)
1 0.167 3.00 (west) 3.00
2 0.133 1.50 (north) 1.50
3 0.117 2.56 (east) 2.56
Total 0.417 0.679 2.40

trip (45 N of W)

12
Example (text problem 3.20): Speedometer readings are

obtained and graphed as a car comes to a stop along a
straight-line path. How far does the car move between
t = 0 and t =16 seconds?
Since there is not a reversal of direction, the area

between the curve and the time axis will represent the
distance traveled. Copyright © 2008 – The McGraw-Hill Companies s.r.l.
13
Example continued:
The rectangular portion has an area of Lw = (20 m/s)(4 s)

= 80 m.
The triangular portion has an area of ½bh = ½(8 s) (20 m/s)
= 80 m.
Thus, the total area is 160 m. This is the distance traveled
by the car.

14
§3.3 Newton’s Second Law of

Motion
A nonzero acceleration changes an object’s state of motion.
v These have
Average acceleration  a av 
t interpretations
similar to vav
v
Instantaneous acceleration  a  lim and v.
t 0 t

15
A particle moves along the blue path as shown. At time t1 its

position is r0 and at time t2 its position is rf.
y
v Points in the
a av 
v0
t direction of v.
v
vf
r0 rf
The instantaneous acceleration

can point in any direction. Copyright © 2008 – The McGraw-Hill Companies s.r.l.
16
Example (text problem 3.31): If a car traveling at 28 m/s is

brought to a full stop 4.0 s after the brakes are applied, find
the average acceleration during braking.
Given: vi = +28 m/s, vf = 0 m/s, and t = 4.0 s.
v 0  28 m/s
aav    7.0 m/s 2
t 4.0 s

17
Example (text problem 3.39): At the beginning of a 3 hour trip

you are traveling due north at 192 km/hour. At the end, you
are traveling 240 km/hour at 45 west of north.
(a) Draw the initial and final velocity vectors.
y (north)
vf v0
x (east)

18
Example continued:
(b) Find v.
The components are

v x  v fx  vox  v f sin 45  0  170 km/hr
v y  v fy  voy   v f cos 45  v0  22.3 km/hr
2 2
v  v x  v y  171 km/hr
v y South of
tan    0.1312    tan 1 0.1312   7.5
v x west

19
Example continued:
(c) What is aav during the trip?
vx  170 km/hr

v a x ,av    56.7 km/hr 2
a av  t 3 hr
t v y  22.3 km/hr
a y ,av    7.43 km/hr 2
t
t 3 hr
The magnitude and direction are:
a av  a x2,av  a y2,av  57.2 km/hr 2

a y ,av
tan    0.1310    tan 1 (0.1310)  7.5 South of west
a x ,av
20
Newton’s 2nd Law:

The acceleration of a body is directly proportional to the net
force acting on the body and inversely proportional to the
body’s mass.
Fnet
Mathematically: a or Fnet  ma
m

21
An object’s mass is a measure of its inertia. The more mass,

the more force is required to obtain a given acceleration.
The net force is just the vector sum of all of the forces acting
on the body, often written as F.

22
If a = 0, then F = 0. This body can have:
Speed = 0 which is called static equilibrium, or

speed  0, but constant, which is called dynamic
equilibrium.

23
§3.4 Applying Newton’s Second Law
F  ma
Force units: 1 N = 1 kg m/s2.

24
Example: Find the tension in the cord connecting the two

blocks as shown. A force of 10.0 N is applied to the right on
block 1. Assume a frictionless surface. The masses are m1
= 3.00 kg and m2 = 1.00 kg.
block 2 block 1 F
Assume that the rope stays taut so that both blocks

have the same acceleration.

25
FBD for block 2: FBD for block 1:
y y
N1
N2
F
T T
x x
w2 w1
Apply Newton’s 2nd Law to each
block:
 Fx  T  m2 a  Fx  F  T  m1a
F y  N 2  w2  0 F y  N1  w1  0
26
Example continued:
F  T  m1a (1) These two equations contain the

unknowns: a and T.
T  m2 a (2)
To solve for T, a must be eliminated. Solve for a in (2) and

substitute in (1).
T 
F  T  m1a  m1  
 m2 
T   m1 
F  m1    T  1 
  T
 m2   m2 
F 10 N
T    2.5 N
 m1   3 kg 
1   1  
 m2   1 kg 
27
Example: A box slides across a rough surface. If the

coefficient of kinetic friction is 0.3, what is the acceleration of
the box?
y
FBD for Apply Newton’s 2nd Law:
box: N
F x   Fk  ma
Fk
x F y  N w0

28
Example continued:
(1)  Fk  ma
(2) N  w  0  N  w  mg
From (1):  Fk    k N    k mg  ma
Solving for a:
 
a    k g  0.3 9.8 m/s 2  2.94 m/s 2
29
§3.5 Relative Velocity
Example: You are traveling in a car (A) at 60 miles/hour east

on a long straight road. The car (B) next to you is traveling
at 65 miles/hour east. What is the speed of car B relative to
car A?

30
Example continued:
+x
t=0 t>0
A A rBA
rAG
B B
rBG
From the picture: rBG  rAG  rBA

rBA  rBG  rAG
Divide by t: v BA  v BG  v AG
v BA  65 miles/hr east - 60 miles/hr east
 5 miles/hour east Copyright © 2008 – The McGraw-Hill Companies s.r.l.
31
Example: You are traveling in a car (A) at 60 miles/hour

east on a long straight road. The car (B) next to you is
traveling at 65 miles/hour west. What is the speed of car B
relative to car A?

32
Example continued:
+x
t>0 t=0 t>0
A
rAG
A
rBG rBA
B B
From the picture: rBA  rBG  rAG

Divide by t: v BA  v BG  v AG
 65 miles/hr west - 60 miles/hr east
 125 miles/hr west Copyright © 2008 – The McGraw-Hill Companies s.r.l.
33
Summary
•Position
•Displacement Versus Distance
•Velocity Versus Speed
•Acceleration
•Instantaneous Values Versus Average Values
•Newton’s Second Law
•Relative Velocity

34
Additional clicker question:
A ball incident on a wall has a speed of 10 m/s toward the

wall. It rebounds with a speed of 10 m/s. What is the
direction of the ball’s acceleration while it is in contact
with the wall?
A. Toward the wall
B. Away from the wall
C. Up the wall
D. Down the wall
E. The ball is not accelerated.

35
Chapter 4: Motion with a Changing

Velocity
•Motion Along a Line

•Graphical Representation of Motion
•Free Fall
•Projectile Motion
•Apparent Weight
•Air Resistance and Terminal Velocity

1
§4.1 Motion Along a Line
For constant acceleration the kinematic equations are:

1
x  x f  xi  vix t  a x t 2
2
v x  v fx  vix  a x t
2 2
v fx  vix  2a x x
x  vav , x t
Also: vix  v fx
vav , x 
2 Copyright © 2008 – The McGraw-Hill Companies s.r.l.
2
Example: In a previous example, a box sliding across a rough

surface was found to have an acceleration of -2.94 m/s2. If
the initial speed of the box is 10.0 m/s, how long does it take
for the box to come to rest?
Know: a= -2.94 m/s2, vix=10.0 m/s, vfx= 0.0 m/s

Want: t.
v x  vix  a x t  0
vix  10.0 m/s
t     2
 3.40 sec
ax -2.94 m/s

3
Example (text problem 4.8): A train of mass 55,200 kg is

traveling along a straight, level track at 26.8 m/s. Suddenly
the engineer sees a truck stalled on the tracks 184 m ahead.
If the maximum possible braking force has magnitude
84.0 kN, can the train be stopped in time?
Know: vfx = 0 m/s, vix=26.8 m/s, x=184 m

Determine ax and compare to the train’s maximum ax.
2 2
v x  vix  2a x x  0
2
 vix
ax   1.95 m/s 2
2x

4
Example continued:
The train’s maximum acceleration is:
Fnet Fbraking
a x ,max    1.52 m/s 2
m m
The maximum acceleration is not sufficient to

stop the train before it hits the stalled truck.

5
§4.2 Visualizing Motion with

Constant Acceleration
Motion diagrams for three carts:

6
Graphs of x, vx, ax for each of the three carts

7
Example (text problem 4.13): A trolley car in New Orleans

starts from rest at the St. Charles Street stop and has a
constant acceleration of 1.20 m/s2 for 12.0 seconds.
(a) Draw a graph of vx versus t.

16
14
12
10
v (m/sec)
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
t (sec)

8
Example continued:
(b) How far has the train traveled at the end of the 12.0
seconds?
The area between the curve and the time axis represents
the distance traveled.
1
x  vt  12 sec   t
2
1
 14.4 m/s 12 s   86.4 m
2
(c) What is the speed of the train at the end of the 12.0 s?
This can be read directly from the graph, vx=14.4 m/s.

9
§4.3 Free Fall
A stone is dropped from the edge of a cliff; if air resistance

can be ignored, the FBD for the stone is:
y
Apply Newton’s Second Law

x
w F y   w  mg  ma
 a   g  9.8 N/kg
 9.8 m/s 2
The stone is in free fall; only the force of gravity acts on

the stone. Copyright © 2008 – The McGraw-Hill Companies s.r.l.
10
Example: You throw a ball into the air with speed 15.0 m/s;
how high does the ball rise?
y
viy
Given: viy=+15.0 m/s; ay=-9.8 m/s2

x
ay
To calculate the final height, we 1

need to know the time of flight. y  viy t  a y t 2
2
Time of flight from: v fy  viy  a y t

11
Example continued:
v fy  viy  a y t  0
The ball rises
until vfy= 0. viy15.0 m/s
t     2
 1.53 sec
ay - 9.8 m/s
1
The height: y  viy t  a y t 2
2
1

 15.0 m/s 1.53 s    9.8 m/s 2 1.53 s 
2
2

 11.5 m

12
Example (text problem 4.22): A penny is dropped from the

observation deck of the Empire State Building 369 m above
the ground. With what velocity does it strike the ground?
Ignore air resistance.
y
Given: viy=0 m/s, ay=-9.8 m/s2,
y=-369 m
x
ay
Unknown: vyf
369 m
2 2
Use: v fy  viy  2a y y
 2a y y
v yf  2a y y
13
Example continued:

v yf  2a y y  2  9.8 m/s 2  369 m  85.0 m/s  (downward)
How long does it take for the penny to strike the ground?
Given: viy=0 m/s, ay=-9.8 m/s2, y=-369 m

Unknown: t
1 1
y  viy t  a y t 2  a y t 2
2 2
2y
 t   8.7 sec
ay Copyright © 2008 – The McGraw-Hill Companies s.r.l.
14
§4.4 Projectile Motion
What is the motion of a struck baseball? Once it leaves

the bat (if air resistance is negligible) only the force of
gravity acts on the baseball.
The baseball has ax = 0 and ay = -g, it moves with

constant velocity along the x-axis and with nonzero,
constant acceleration along the y-axis.

15
Example: An object is projected from the origin. The initial

velocity components are vix = 7.07 m/s, and viy = 7.07 m/s.
Determine the x and y position of the object at 0.2 second
intervals for 1.4 seconds. Also plot the results.
1 1
y  viy t  a y t 2  a y t 2
2 2
x  vix t
Since the object starts from the origin, y and x

will represent the location of the object at time t.

16
Example continued:
t (sec) x (meters) y (meters)

0 0 0
0.2 1.41 1.22
0.4 2.83 2.04
0.6 4.24 2.48
0.8 5.66 2.52
1.0 7.07 2.17
1.2 8.48 1.43
1.4 9.89 0.29

17
Example continued:
This is a plot of the x position (black points) and y position

(red points) of the object as a function of time.
12
10
8
x,y (m)
0
0 0.5 1 1.5
t (sec)

18
Example continued:
This is a plot of the y position versus x position for the

object (its trajectory).
3
2.5
2
y (m)
1.5
1
0.5
0
0 2 4 6 8 10
x (m)
The object’s path is a parabola.

19
Example (text problem 4.36): An arrow is shot into the air

with  = 60° and vi = 20.0 m/s.
(a) What are vx and vy of the arrow when t=3 sec?
y
The components of the initial
velocity are:
vix  vi cos   10.0 m/s
60°
x viy  vi sin   17.3 m/s
v fx  vix  a x t  vix  10.0 m/s

At t = 3 sec:
v fy  viy  a y t  viy  gt  12.1 m/s
20
Example continued:
(b) What are the x and y components of the displacement of

the arrow during the 3.0 sec interval?
y
x
1
rx  x  vix t  a x t 2  vix t  0  30.0 m
2
1 1
ry  y  viy t  a y t  viy t  gt 2  7.80 m
2
2 2
21
Example: How far does the arrow in the previous example

land from where it is released?
1
The arrow lands when y=0. y  viy t  gt 2  0
2
2viy
Solving for t: t   3.53 sec
g
1
The distance traveled is: x  vix t  a x t 2
2
 vix t  0  35.3 m

22
§4.5 Apparent Weight
Stand on a bathroom scale.
y
FBD:
N Apply Newton’s 2nd Law:
x F y  N  w  ma y
w N  mg  ma y

23
The normal force is the force the scale exerts on you. By

Newton’s 3rd Law this is also the force (magnitude only) you
exert on the scale. A scale will read the normal force.
N  mg  a y  is what the scale reads.
When ay = 0, N = mg. The scale reads your true weight.
When ay0, N>mg or N<mg.

24
Example: A woman of mass 51 kg is standing in an elevator.

If the elevator pushes up on her feet with 408 newtons of
force, what is the acceleration of the elevator?
y
FBD for
woman: N
Apply Newton’s 2nd Law:
x
F y  N  w  ma y
w N  mg  ma y (1)

25
Example continued:
Given: N = 408 newtons, m = 51 kg, g = 9.8 m/s2

Unknown: ay
N  mg
Solving (1) for ay: ay   1.8 m/s 2
m
The elevator could be (1) traveling upward with

decreasing speed, or (2) traveling downward
with increasing speed.

26
§4.6 Air Resistance

A stone is dropped from the edge of a cliff; if air resistance
cannot be ignored, the FBD for the stone is:
y
Fd Apply Newton’s Second Law
x
w
F y  Fd  w  ma
Where Fd is the magnitude of the drag

force on the stone. This force is
directed opposite the object’s velocity

27
Assume that Fd  bv 2
b is a parameter that depends on the

size and shape of the object.
Since Fdv2, can the object be in equilibrium?
F y  Fd  w  ma
bv 2  mg  0
mg
yes, when v  vt 
b
28
Example (text problem 4.61): A paratrooper with a fully

loaded pack has a mass of 120 kg. The force due to air
resistance has a magnitude of Fd = bv2 where
b = 0.14 N s2/m2.
(a) If he/she falls with a speed of 64 m/s, what is the

force of air resistance?
2
Fd  bv  0.14 N s /m  2 2
64 m/s  2
 570 N

29
Example continued:
(b) What is the paratrooper’s acceleration?
y
FBD: Apply Newton’s Second Law and
Fd
solve for a.
x
w
F y  Fd  w  ma
Fd  mg
 5.1 m/s 2 a
m
(c) What is the paratrooper’s terminal speed?
F y  Fd  w  ma  0
bvt2  mg  0
mg
vt   92 m/s
b Copyright © 2008 – The McGraw-Hill Companies s.r.l.
30
Summary
•The Kinematic Equations

•Graphical Representations of Motion
•Applications of Newton’s Second Law & Kinematics
(free fall, projectiles, accelerated motion, air drag)
•Terminal Velocity

31
Chapter 5: Circular Motion
•Uniform Circular Motion

•Radial Acceleration
•Banked and Unbanked Curves
•Circular Orbits
•Nonuniform Circular Motion
•Tangential and Angular Acceleration
•Artificial Gravity

1
§5.1 Uniform Circular Motion

y
Consider an object moving v

in a circular path of radius r
at constant speed.
v
x
Here, v0. The direction v
of v is changing.
v
If v0, then a0. The
net force cannot be zero.
2
Conclusion: to move in a circular path, an object must have

a nonzero net force acting on it.

3
f  is the angular position.

Angular displacement:
 i
x
   f   i
Note: angles measured CW are negative and angles

measured CCW are positive.  is measured in radians.
2 radians = 360 =1 revolution

4
The average and instantaneous angular velocities are:
 
av  and   lim
t t 0 t
 is measured in rads/sec.

5
f arclength = s = r
r
 i
s  is a ratio of two lengths; it is

 
r a dimensionless ratio!
6
An object moves along a

f circular path of radius r; what
is its average speed?
r i

total distance r   

vav    r   r av
total time t  t 
Also, v  r (instantaneous values).

7
The time it takes to go one time around a closed path is

called the period (T).
total distance 2r

vav  
total time T
2
Comparing to v=r:    2f
T
f is called the frequency, the number of revolutions (or

cycles) per second.

8
§5.2 Centripetal Acceleration

The velocity of a particle is tangent to its path.
For an object moving in uniform circular motion, the

acceleration is radially inward. Copyright © 2008 – The McGraw-Hill Companies s.r.l.
9
The magnitude of the radial acceleration is:
v2
ar   r 2  v
r

10
Example (text problem 5.14): The rotor is an amusement

park ride where people stand against the inside of a cylinder.
Once the cylinder is spinning fast enough, the floor drops out.
(a) What force keeps the people from falling out the bottom of
the cylinder? y
fs
Draw an FBD for a person
N
with their back to the wall:
x
It is the force of static friction.

11
Example continued:
(b) If s = 0.40 and the cylinder has r = 2.5 m, what is the

minimum angular speed of the cylinder so that the people
don’t fall out?
1  Fx  N  mar  m 2 r
2  Fy  f s  w  0
From (1)
From (2): fs  w
 s N   s m 2 r   mg
g 9.8 m/s 2
    3.13 rad/s
sr 0.402.5 m 
12
Example (text problem 5.79): A coin is placed on a record

that is rotating at 33.3 rpm. If s = 0.1, how far from the
center of the record can the coin be placed without having it
slip off?
y
Draw an FBD for the coin:
N
fs
x

w
1  Fx  f s  mar  m 2
r
2  Fy  N  w  0
13
Example continued:
From (2)
From 1 : f s  m 2 r
f s   s N   s mg   m 2 r
s g
Solving for r: r  2 What is ?

rev  2 rad  1 min 

  33.3     3.5 rad/s
min  1 rev  60 sec 
 s g 0.19.8 m/s 2 
r  2  2
 0.08 m
 3.50 rad/s 
14
§5.3 Unbanked and Banked Curves
Example (text problem 5.20): A highway curve has a radius

of 122 m. At what angle should the road be banked so that
a car traveling at 26.8 m/s has no tendency to skid sideways
on the road? (Hint: No tendency to skid means the frictional
force is zero.)
Take the car’s motion

to be into the page.


15
Example continued:
y
FBD for the car: N


Apply Newton’s Second Law:

v2
1  Fx  N sin   mar  m
r
2  Fy  N cos   w  0
16
Example continued:
v2
1 N sin   m
Rewrite (1) and (2): r
2 N cos  mg
Divide (1) by (2):
2
tan  
v

26.8 m/s  2
 0.6007
gr 9.8 m/s 122 m 
2
 
  31.0

17
§5.4 Circular Orbits

Consider an object of mass m in a
r circular orbit about the Earth.
Earth
The only force on the satellite is the force
of gravity:
Gms M e v2
 F  Fg  r 2  ms ar  ms r
Gms M e v2
2
 ms
r r
Solve for the speed of the satellite:
GM e
vCopyright
 © 2008 – The McGraw-Hill Companies s.r.l. 18
r
Example: How high above the surface of the Earth does a

satellite need to be so that it has an orbit period of 24 hours?
GM e 2r
From previous slide: v Also need, v
r T
1
3
 GM e 2 
Combine these expressions and solve for r: r   2
T 
 4 
1
 11
 6.67 10 Nm /kg 5.98  10 kg
r  
2 2
2
86400 s    24
 3
2
 4 
 4.225  107 m
r  Re  h  h  r  Re  35,000 km
19
1
3
 GM e 2 
r  2
T  is Kepler’s Third Law.
 4 
1
3
 GM 2 
It can be generalized to: r  2 T 
 4 
Where M is the mass of the central body. For example, it

would be Msun if speaking of the planets in the solar system.

20
§5.5 Nonuniform Circular Motion
Here, the speed is not constant.
at
a
There is now an acceleration
ar tangent to the path of the particle.
2 2
The net acceleration of the body is a  ar  at
21
at
a
at changes the magnitude of v.
ar ar changes the direction of v.
Can write:
 F  ma
r r
 F  ma
t t

22
Example: What is the minimum speed for the car so that it

maintains contact with the loop when it is in the pictured
position?
r
FBD for the car at
the top of the loop:
y

v2
x  Fy   N  w  mar  m r
N w v2
N wm
r
23
Example continued:
v2
N wm
r
The apparent weight at the top of loop is:
 v2 
N  m  g 

 r 
 v2 
N  m  g   0
N = 0 when  r 
v  gr
This is the minimum speed needed to make it around the

loop.

24
Example continued:
Consider the car at the bottom of the loop; how does the
apparent weight compare to the true weight?
FBD for the car at the Apply Newton’s 2nd Law:

bottom of the loop:
v2
y  Fy  N  w  mac  m r
N
v2
N wm
r
 v2 
x N  m  g 

w  r 
Here, N  mg
25
§5.6 Angular Acceleration
The average and instantaneous angular acceleration

are:
 
 av  and   lim
t t  0 t
 is measured in rads/sec2.

26
The kinematic equations:
Linear Angular
v  v0  at    0  t
1 2 1 2
x  x0  v0t  at    0  0 t  t
2 2
2 2
v  v0  2ax  2  0 2  2
With vt  r and at  r

27
Example (text problem 5.66): A high speed dental drill is

rotating at 3.14104 rads/sec. Through how many degrees
does the drill rotate in 1.00 sec?
Given:  = 3.14104 rads/sec;  = 0

Want .
1 2
   0   0 t  t
2
   0  0t

   0t  3.14 10 rads/sec 1.0 sec  4

4 6
 3.14 10 rads  1.80  10 degrees
28
Example (text problem 5.81): Your car’s wheels are 65 cm in

diameter and are spinning at =101 rads/sec. How fast in
km/hour is the car traveling, assuming no slipping?
total distance 2r N 2r

v    r
total time T N T
 101 rads/sec32.5 cm 
 3.28  103 cm/sec  118 km/hr
29
§5.7 Artificial Gravity
A large rotating cylinder in

deep space (g0).

30
FBD for person at FBD for person at

the bottom position the top position
y
y
N
x
x
Apply Newton’s 2nd Law to each:

2 2
 y
F  N  ma r  m r  y
F   N   ma r   m r

31
Example (text problem 5.56): A space station is shaped like

a ring and rotates to simulate gravity. If the radius of the
space station is 120m, at what frequency must it rotate so
that it simulates Earth’s gravity?
Using the result from

the previous slide: 2
 y
F  N  ma r  m  r
N mg g
    0.28 rad/sec
mr mr r
The frequency is f =(/2) = 0.045 Hz (or 2.7 rpm).

32
Summary
•A net force MUST act on an object that has circular motion.

•Radial Acceleration ar=v2/r
•Definition of Angular Quantities (, , and )
•The Angular Kinematic Equations
•The Relationships Between Linear and Angular Quantities
vt  r and at  r
•Uniform and Nonuniform Circular Motion
33
Chapter 6: Conservation of Energy
•Work by a Constant Force

•Kinetic Energy
•Potential Energy
•Work by a Variable Force
•Springs and Hooke’s Law
•Conservation of Energy
•Power

1
§6.1 The Law of Conservation of

Energy
The total energy of the Universe is unchanged by any

physical process.
The three kinds of energy are: kinetic energy, potential

energy, and rest energy. Energy may be converted from
one form to another or transferred between bodies.

2

3
§6.2 Work by a Constant Force
Work is an energy transfer by the application of a force. For

work to be done there must be a nonzero displacement.
The unit of work and energy is the joule (J). 1 J = 1 Nm =

1 kg m2/s2.

4
It is only the force in the direction of the displacement that

does work.
An FBD for the box at left:
F y
rx rx

N
 x
w F
The work done by the force F is:
WF  Fx rx  F cos  x

5
The work done by the force N is: WN  0
The normal force is perpendicular to the displacement.
The work done by gravity (w) is: Wg  0
The force of gravity is perpendicular to the displacement.

6
The net work done on the box is:
Wnet  WF  WN  Wg
 F cos  x  0  0
 F cos  x

7
In general, the work done by a force F is defined as
W  Fr cos 
where F is the magnitude of the force, r is the magnitude
of the object’s displacement, and  is the angle between F
and r (drawn tail-to-tail).

8
Example: A ball is tossed straight up. What is the work done

by the force of gravity on the ball as it rises?
y
r
FBD for
rising ball:
x
w
Wg  wy cos180
  mgy

9
Example: A box of mass m is towed up a frictionless incline at

constant speed. The applied force F is parallel to the incline.
What is the net work done on the box?
y
F
F N
x


w
Apply Newton’s
2nd Law: F
x  F  w sin   0
F
y  N  w cos   0
10
Example continued:
The magnitude of F is: F  mg sin 

If the box travels along the ramp a distance of x the
work by the force F is
WF  Fx cos 0  mgx sin 
The work by gravity is
Wg  wx cos  90   mgx sin 

11
Example continued:
The work by the normal force is:
WN  Nx cos 90  0
The net work done on the box is:
Wnet  WF  Wg  WN
 mgx sin   mgx sin   0
0
12
Example: What is the net work done on the box in the

previous example if the box is not pulled at constant speed?
F x  F  w sin   ma
 F  ma  w sin 
Proceeding as before:
Wnet  WF  Wg  WN
 ma  mgx sin    mgx sin   0
 ma x  Fnet x
13
§6.3 Kinetic Energy
1 2 is an object’s translational
K  mv
2 kinetic energy.
This is the energy an object has because of its state of

motion.
It can be shown that, in general Wnet  K .

14
Example: The extinction of the dinosaurs and the majority of

species on Earth in the Cretaceous Period (65 Myr ago) is
thought to have been caused by an asteroid striking the Earth
near the Yucatan Peninsula. The resulting ejecta caused
widespread global climate change.
If the mass of the asteroid was 1016 kg (diameter in the

range of 4-9 miles) and had a speed of 30.0 km/sec,
what was the asteroid’s kinetic energy?
1 2 1 16
K  mv  10 kg 30 103 m/s
2 2
   2
24
 4.5  10 J
This is equivalent to ~109 Megatons of TNT.
15
§6.4 Gravitational Potential Energy

Part 1
Objects have potential energy because of their location (or

configuration).
There are potential energies associated with different (but

not all!) forces. Such a force is called a conservative
force.
In general Wcons  U

16
The change in gravitational potential energy (only near the

surface of the Earth) is
U g  mgy
where y is the change in the object’s vertical position with

respect to some reference point that you are free to choose.

17
Example: What is the change in gravitational potential

energy of the box if it is placed on the table? The table is
1.0 m tall and the mass of the box is 1.0 kg.
First: Choose the reference level at the floor. U=0 here.
U g  mgy  mg  y f  yi 
 
 1.0 kg  9.8 m/s 2 1.0 m  0 m   9.8 J
18
Example continued:
Now take the reference level (U=0) to be on top of the table

so that yi = -1.0 m and yf = 0.0 m.
U g  mgy  mg  y f  yi 
 
 1 kg  9.8 m/s 2 0.0m   1.0 m   9.8 J
The results do not depend on

the location of U=0.
19
Mechanical energy is E  K U
Whenever nonconservative forces do no work, the

mechanical energy of a system is conserved. That is Ei=Ef
or K= -U.

20
Example (text problem 6.27): A cart starts from position 4 with

v = 15.0 m/s to the left. Find the speed of the cart at
positions 1, 2, and 3. Ignore friction.
E 4  E3
U 4  K4  U 3  K3
1 2 1 2
mgy4  mv4  mgy3  mv3
2 2
v3  v42  2 g  y4  y3   20.5 m/s
21
Example continued:
E4  E2 Or use
U 4  K4  U 2  K2 E3=E2
1 1
2 2
v2  v42  2 g  y4  y2   18.0 m/s
E4  E1 Or use
U 4  K 4  U 1  K1 E3=E1
1 2 1 2 E2=E1
2 2
v1  v42  2 g  y4  y1   24.8 m/s
22
Example (text problem 6.82): A roller coaster car is about to

roll down a track. Ignore friction and air resistance.
m=988 kg
40 m
20 m
y=0
(a) At what speed does the car reach the top of the loop?
Ei  E f
U i  Ki  U f  K f
1 2
mgyi  0  mgy f  mv f
2
v f  2 g  yi  y f   19.8 m/s
23
Example continued:
(b) What is the force exerted on the car by the track at the top
of the loop?
FBD for the car:

y
Apply Newton’s Second Law:
v2
 Fy   N  w  mar  m r
x
v2
N wm
N w r
v2
N  m  mg  2.9 10 4 N
r
24
Example continued:
(c) From what minimum height above the bottom of the track
can the car be released so that it does not lose contact with
the track at the top of the loop?
Using conservation of mechanical energy:
Ei  E f
1 2
mgyi  0  mgy f  mvmin
2
2
vmin
Solve for the starting height yi  y f 
2g
25
Example continued:
What is vmin? v=vmin when N=0. This means that
v2
N wm
r
2
vmin
w  mg  m
r
vmin  gr
The initial height must be

2
vmin gr
yi  y f   2r   2.5r  25.0 m
2g 2g Copyright © 2008 – The McGraw-Hill Companies s.r.l.
26
What do you do when there are nonconservative forces?

For example, if friction is present
E  E f  Ei  Wfric
The work done

by friction.

27
§6.5 Gravitational Potential Energy

Part 2
The general expression for gravitational potential energy is:
GM 1M 2
U r   
r
where U r     0

28
Example: What is the gravitational potential energy of a

body of mass m on the surface of the Earth?
GM 1M 2 GM e m
U r  Re    
r Re

29
§6.6 Work by a Variable Force
Work can be calculated by finding the area underneath a plot

of the applied force in the direction of the displacement
versus the displacement.

30
Example: What is the work done by the variable force shown

below?
Fx (N)
F3
F2
F1
x1 x2 x3 x (m)
The work done by F1 is W1  F1  x1  0 

The work done by F2 is W2  F2  x2  x1 
The work done by F3 is W3  F3  x3  x2 
The net work is then W1+W2+W3. Copyright © 2008 – The McGraw-Hill Companies s.r.l.
31
By hanging masses on a spring we find that stretch 

applied force. This is Hooke’s law.
For an ideal spring: Fx = -kx
Fx is the magnitude of the force exerted by the free end of

the spring, x is the measured stretch of the spring, and k is
the spring constant (a constant of proportionality; its units
are N/m).
A larger value of k implies a stiffer spring.

32
Example (text problem 6.48): (a) If forces of 5.0 N applied to

each end of a spring cause the spring to stretch 3.5 cm from
its relaxed length, how far does a force of 7.0 N cause the
same spring to stretch?
F1 x1
For springs Fx. This allows us to write  .
F2 x2
F2  7. 0 N 
Solving for x2: x2  x1   3.5 cm   4.9 cm.
F1  5.0 N 

33
Example continued:
(b) What is the spring constant of this spring?
F1 5.0 N
k   1.43 N/cm.
x1 3.5 cm
Or
F2 7.0 N
k   1.43 N/cm.
x2 4.9 cm

34
Example (text problem 6.46): An ideal spring has k = 20.0

N/m. What is the amount of work done (by an external
agent) to stretch the spring 0.40 m from its relaxed length?
Fx (N)
kx1
x (m)
x1=0.4 m
W  Area under curve

1 1 2 1 2
 kx1  x1   kx1  20.0 N/m 0.4 m   1.6 J
2 2 2 Copyright © 2008 – The McGraw-Hill Companies s.r.l.
35
§6.7 Elastic potential energy
The work done in stretching/compressing a spring transfers

energy to the spring.
1 2
U s  kx
2

36
Example: A box of mass 0.25 kg slides along a horizontal,

frictionless surface with a speed of 3.0 m/s. The box
encounters a spring with k = 200 N/m. How far is the spring
compressed when the box is brought to rest?
Ei  E f
1 2 1 2
0  mv  kx  0
2 2
 m
x   v  0.11 m

 k 

37
§6.8 Power
Power is the rate of energy transfer.
E
Average Power Pav 
t
Instantaneous Power P  Fv cos 
The unit of power is the watt. 1 watt = 1 J/s = 1 W.

38
Example (text problem 6.73): A race car with a mass of

500.0 kg completes a quarter-mile (402 m) race in a time of
4.2 s starting from rest. The car’s final speed is 125 m/s.
What is the engine’s average power output? Neglect friction
and air resistance.
E U  K
Pav  
t t
1 2
mv
K 2 f
   9.3  105 watts
t t

39
Summary
•Conservation of Energy
•Calculation of Work Done by a Constant or Variable
Force
•Kinetic Energy
•Potential Energy (gravitational, elastic)
•Power

40
Chapter 7: Linear Momentum
•Definition of Momentum
•Impulse
•Conservation of Momentum
•Center of Mass
•Motion of the Center of Mass
•Collisions (1d, 2d; elastic, inelastic)

1
§7.1 Momentum
Consider two interacting bodies:
F21 F12
Fnet
If we know the net force on each body then v  at  t
m
The velocity change for each mass will be different if the

masses are different.
2
Rewrite the previous result for each body as:
m1v1  F21t
m2 v 2  F12 t  F21t
Combine the two results: m1v1  m2 v 2

m1 v1 f  v1i   m2 v 2 f  v 2i 

3
The quantity (mv) is called momentum (p).

p = mv and is a vector.
The unit of momentum is kg m/s; there is no derived unit for

momentum.

4
From slide (3): m1v1  m2 v 2

p1  p 2
The change in momentum of the two bodies is “equal and

opposite”. Total momentum is conserved during the
interaction; the momentum lost by one body is gained by
the other.

5
§7.2 Impulse
Definition of impulse: p  Ft
One can also define an average impulse when the force

is variable.

6
Example (text conceptual question 7.2): A force of 30 N is

applied for 5 sec to each of two bodies of different masses.
30 N
Take m1<m2
m1 or m2
(a) Which mass has the greater momentum change?
Since the same force is applied to

p  Ft each mass for the same interval, p
is the same for both masses.

7
Example continued:
(b) Which mass has the greatest velocity change?
p Since both masses have the same p,

v  the smaller mass (mass 1) will have the
m larger change in velocity.
(c) Which mass has the greatest acceleration?
v Since av the mass with the greater

a velocity change will have the greatest
t
acceleration.
8
Example (text problem 7.9): An object of mass 3.0 kg is

allowed to fall from rest under the force of gravity for 3.4
seconds. What is the change in momentum? Ignore air
resistance.
Want p =mv.
v  at
v   gt  33.3 m/sec
 p  mv  100 kg m/s (downward)

9
Example (text problem 7.10): What average force is

necessary to bring a 50.0-kg sled from rest to 3.0 m/s in a
period of 20.0 seconds? Assume frictionless ice.
p  Fav t
p mv
 Fav  
t t
Fav 
50.0 kg 3.0 m/s 
 7.5 N The force will be
20.0 s in the direction
of motion.

10
§7.3 Conservation of Momentum

v1i
v2i m1>m2
m1 m2
A short time later the

masses collide.
m1 m2
What happens?
11
During the interaction:

y
N1 N2
x
F21 F12
w1 w2
F y  N1  w1  0 F y  N 2  w2  0
F x   F21  m1a1 F x  F12  m2 a2
There is no net
external force on
either mass. Copyright © 2008 – The McGraw-Hill Companies s.r.l.
12
The forces F12 and F21 are internal forces. This means that:
p1  p 2
p1 f  p1i  p 2 f  p 2i 
p1i  p 2i  p1 f  p 2 f
In other words, pi = pf. That is, momentum is conserved.

This statement is valid during the interaction only.

13
Example (text problem 7.18): A rifle has a mass of 4.5 kg and

it fires a bullet of 10.0 grams at a muzzle speed of 820 m/s.
What is the recoil speed of the rifle as the bullet leaves the
barrel?
As long as the rifle is horizontal, there will be no net

external force acting on the rifle-bullet system and
momentum will be conserved.
pi  p f
0  mb vb  mr vr
mb  0.01 kg 
 vr   vb   820 m/s  1.82 m/s
mr  4.5 kg 
14
§7.4 Center of Mass
The center of mass (CM) is the point representing the mean

(average) position of the matter in a body. This point need
not be located within the body.

15
The center of mass (of a two body system) is found from:
m1 x1  m2 x2
xcm 
m1  m2
This is a “weighted” average of the positions of the particles

that compose a body. (A larger mass is more important.)

16
i
mr i i
In 3-dimensions write rcm  where mtotal   mi

m i
i i
The components of rcm are:
m x i i m y i i m z i
i i
xcm  i
ycm  i zcm 
m i m i m i
i
i i

17
Example (text problem 7.27): Particle A is at the origin and has

a mass of 30.0 grams. Particle B has a mass of
10.0 grams. Where must particle B be located so that the
center of mass (marked with a red x) is located at the point
(2.0 cm, 5.0 cm)?
y
x ma xa  mb xb mb xb
xcm  
ma  mb ma  mb
ma ya  mb yb mb yb
ycm  
A x ma  mb ma  mb

18
Example continued:
10 g xb ycm 

10 g  yb  5 cm
xcm   2 cm
10 g  30g 30 g  10 g
xb  8 cm yb  20 cm

19
Example (text problem 7.30): The positions of three particles

are (4.0 m, 0.0 m), (2.0 m, 4.0 m), and (-1.0 m, -2.0 m). The
masses are 4.0 kg, 6.0 kg, and 3.0 kg respectively. What is
the location of the center of mass?
y 2
1 x

20
Example continued:
m1 x1  m2 x2  m3 x3
xcm 
m1  m2  m3

4 kg 4 m   6 kg 2 m   3 kg  1 m 
4  6  3 kg
 1.92 m
m1 y1  m2 y2  m3 y3
ycm 
m1  m2  m3

4 kg 0 m   6 kg 4 m   3 kg  2 m 
4  6  3 kg
 1.38 m
21
§7.5 Motion of the Center of Mass
For an extended body, it can be shown that p = mvcm.
From this it follows that Fext = macm.

22
Example (text problem 7.35): Body A has a mass of 3.0 kg

and vx = +14.0 m/s. Body B has a mass of 4.0 kg and has vy
= -7.0 m/s. What is the velocity of the center of mass of the
two bodies?
Consider a body made up of many different masses

each with a mass mi.
The position of each mass is ri and the displacement of

each mass is ri = vit.

23
Example continued:
 m r i
i i
For the center of mass: rcm  v cm t 

m i
i
Solving for the velocity of the center of mass:

ri
 mi t
m v i i
v cm  i  i
 i
i
m m i
i
Or in component form:
m vi
i i, x m v i
i i, y
v cm,x  v cm, y 
m i
i m i
Copyright © 2008 – iThe McGraw-Hill Companies s.r.l.
24
Example continued:
Applying the previous formulas to the example,
ma va , x  mb vb , x
vcm , x 
ma  mb

3 kg 14 m/s   4 kg 0 m/s 
 6 m/s
3  4 kg
ma va , y  mb vb , y
vcm , y 
ma  mb

3 kg 0 m/s   4 kg  7 m/s 
 4 m/s
3  4 kg
25
§§ 7.6 & 7.7 Collisions in One and

Two Dimension
When there are no external forces present, the momentum of

a system will remain unchanged. (pi = pf)
If the kinetic energy before and after an interaction is the

same, the “collision” is said to be perfectly elastic. If the
kinetic energy changes, the collision is inelastic.

26
If, after a collision, the bodies remain stuck together, the loss
of kinetic energy is a maximum. This type of collision is called
perfectly inelastic.

27
Example (text problem 7.41): In a railroad freight yard, an

empty freight car of mass m rolls along a straight level track
at 1.0 m/s and collides with an initially stationary, fully
loaded, boxcar of mass 4.0m. The two cars couple together
upon collision.
(a) What is the speed of the two cars after the collision?
pi  p f
p1i  p2i  p1 f  p2 f
m1v1  0  m1v  m2 v  m1  m2 v
 m1 
 v   v1  0.2 m/s
 m1  m2 

28
Example continued:
(b) Suppose instead that both cars are at rest after the
collision. With what speed was the loaded boxcar moving
before the collision if the empty one had v1i = 1.0 m/s.
pi  p f
p1i  p2i  p1 f  p2 f
m1v1i  m2 v2i  0  0
 m1 
 v2i   v1i  0.25 m/s
 m2 

29
Example (text problem 7.49): A projectile of 1.0 kg mass

approaches a stationary body of 5.0 kg mass at 10.0 m/s and,
after colliding, rebounds in the reverse direction along the
same line with a speed of 5.0 m/s. What is the speed of the
5.0 kg mass after the collision?
pi  p f
p1i  p2i  p1 f  p2 f
m1v1i  0  m1v1 f  m2 v2 f
m1
v2 f  v1i  v1 f 
m2
1.0 kg
 10 m/s   5.0 m/s   3.0 m/s
5.0 kg
30
Example (text problem 7.58): Body A of mass M has an

original velocity of 6.0 m/s in the +x-direction toward a
stationary body (B) of the same mass. After the collision,
body A has vx=+1.0 m/s and vy=+2.0 m/s. What is the
magnitude of body B’s velocity after the collision?
Final
Initial A
A vAi
B
B

31
Example continued:
x momentum: y momentum:
pix  p fx piy  p fy
p1ix  p2ix  p1 fx  p2 fx p1iy  p2iy  p1 fy  p2 fy
m1v1ix  0  m1v1 fx  m2 v2 fx 0  0  m1v1 fy  m2 v2 fy
Solve for v2fx: Solve for v2fy:

m1v1ix  m1v1 fx  m1v1 fy
v2 fx  v2 fy   v1 fy
m2 m2
 v1ix  v1 fx  2.00 m/s
 5.00 m/s
The mag. of v2 is v2 f  v 2 2 fy  v 2 2 fx  5.40 m/s

32
Summary
•Definition of Momentum
•Impulse
•Center of Mass
•Conservation of Momentum

33
Chapter 8: Torque and Angular

Momentum
•Rotational Kinetic Energy
•Rotational Inertia
•Torque
•Work Done by a Torque
•Equilibrium (revisited)
•Rotational Form of Newton’s 2nd Law
•Rolling Objects
•Angular Momentum

1
§8.1 Rotational KE and Inertia
For a rotating solid body:
n
1 1 1 1
K rot  m1v1  m2 v2    mn vn   mi vi2
2 2 2
2 2 2 i 1 2
For a rotating body vi=ri where ri is the distance from the

rotation axis to the mass mi.
n
1 2 1 n 2 2 1 2
K rot   mi ri     mi ri   I
i 1 2 2  i 1  2
2
n
The quantity I   mi ri 2 is called rotational inertia or
i 1 moment of inertia.
Use the above expression when the number of masses

that make up a body is small. Use the moments of inertia
in table 8.1 for extended bodies.

3
Example: (a) Find the moment of inertia of the system below.

The masses are m1 and m2 and they are separated by a
distance r. Assume the rod connecting the masses is
massless.

r1 and r2 are the distances
between mass 1 and the
r1 r2 rotation axis and mass 2
m1 m2 and the rotation axis (the
dashed, vertical line)
respectively.

4
Example continued:
Take m1 = 2.00 kg, m2 = 1.00 kg,

r1= 0.33 m , and r2 = 0.67 m.
2
I   mi ri 2  m1r12  m2 r22  0.67 kg m 2
i 1
(b) What is the moment of inertia if the axis is moved so

that is passes through m1?
2
I   mi ri 2  m2 r22  1.00 kg m 2
i 1

5
Example (text problem 8.4): What is the rotational inertia of a

solid iron disk of mass 49.0 kg with a thickness of 5.00 cm
and a radius of 20.0 cm, about an axis through its center and
perpendicular to it?
From table 8.1:
1 1 2
I  MR  49.0 kg 0.2 m   0.98 kg m 2
2
2 2

6
§8.2 Torque
A rotating (spinning) body will continue to rotate unless it

is acted upon by a torque.
hinge
Q: Where on a door do
you push to open it?
P
u
s
A: Far from the hinge.
h

7
Torque method 1:
Top view of door F

F
Hinge 
end F||
  rF
r = the distance from the rotation axis (hinge) to the point
where the force F is applied.
F is the component of the force F that is perpendicular

to the door (here it is Fsin).
8
The units of torque are Nm (not joules!).
By convention:
•When the applied force causes the object to rotate

counterclockwise (CCW) then  is positive.
•When the applied force causes the object to rotate
clockwise (CW) then  is negative.

9
Torque method 2:   r F
r is called the lever arm and F is the magnitude of the

applied force.
Lever arm is the perpendicular distance to the line of action

of the force.

10
Top view of door
r 
Hinge
end 
Line of
action of
Lever
the force
arm
r
sin   The torque is:   r F
r Same as
r  r sin   rF sin  before
11
Example (text problem 8.12): The pull cord of a lawnmower

engine is wound around a drum of radius 6.00 cm, while the
cord is pulled with a force of 75.0 N to start the engine. What
magnitude torque does the cord apply to the drum?
F=75 N
  r F
 rF
R=6.00 cm
 0.06 m 75.0 N   4.5 Nm

12
Example: Calculate the torque due to the three forces shown

about the left end of the bar (the red X). The length of the bar
is 4m and F2 acts in the middle of the bar.
F2=30 N
30
F3=20 N
10
X
45
F1=25 N

13
Example continued:
Lever arm
for F2 F2=30 N
30
F3=20 N
10
X
45
F1=25 N
Lever arm
for F3
r1  0
The lever arms are: r2  2m sin 60  1.73 m
r3  4m sin 10  0.695 m
14
Example continued:
1  0
The torques are:  2   1.73 m 30 N   51.9 Nm
 3  0.695 m 20 N   13.9 Nm
The net torque is + 65.8 Nm and is the sum of the above

results.

15
§8.3 Work done by a Torque
The work done by a torque  is W   .
where  is the angle (in radians) the object turns through.

16
Example (text problem 8.25): A flywheel of mass 182 kg has a

radius of 0.62 m (assume the flywheel is a hoop).
(a) What is the torque required to bring the flywheel from

rest to a speed of 120 rpm in an interval of 30 sec?
rev  2 rad  1 min 

 f  120     12.6 rad/sec
min  1 rev  60 sec 
  
  rF  r ma   rmr   mr  
2
 t 
2
 f  i  2
f 
 mr    mr    29.4 Nm
 t   t 
17
Example continued:
(b) How much work is done in this 30 sec period?
W     av t 
 i   f  f 
   t    t  5600 J
 2   2 

18
§8.4 Equilibrium
The conditions for equilibrium are:

F  0
τ  0

19
Example (text problem 8.36): A sign is supported by a uniform

horizontal boom of length 3.00 m and weight 80.0 N. A cable,
inclined at a 35 angle with the boom, is attached at a
distance of 2.38 m from the hinge at the wall. The weight of
the sign is 120.0 N. What is the tension in the cable and what
are the horizontal and vertical forces exerted on the boom by
the hinge?

20
Example continued:
y
Fy T
FBD for the bar:

X
Fx x
wbar
Fsb
(1)  Fx  Fx  T cos   0
Apply the conditions for
equilibrium to the bar: (2)  Fy  Fy  wbar  Fsb  T sin   0
L
(3)    wbar    Fsb L   T sin  x  0
2

21
Example continued:
L
wbar    Fsb L 
T 2
Equation (3) can be solved for T:
x sin 
 352 N
Equation (1) can be solved for Fx: Fx  T cos   288 N
Fy  wbar  Fsb  T sin 

Equation (2) can be solved for Fy:
 2.00 N

22
§8.5 Equilibrium in the Human

Body
Example (text problem 8.43): Find the force exerted by the

biceps muscle in holding a one liter milk carton with the
forearm parallel to the floor. Assume that the hand is 35.0
cm from the elbow and that the upper arm is 30.0 cm long.
The elbow is bent at a right angle and one tendon of the
biceps is attached at a position 5.00 cm from the elbow and
the other is attached 30.0 cm from the elbow. The weight of
the forearm and empty hand is 18.0 N and the center of
gravity is at a distance of 16.5 cm from the elbow.

23
Example continued:
Fb
“hinge”
(elbow
joint) Fca
w
  F x b 1  wx2  Fca x3  0
wx2  Fca x3
Fb   130 N
x1
24
§8.6 Rotational Form of Newton’s

2nd Law
  I
Compare to  F  ma

25
Example (text problem 8.57): A bicycle wheel (a hoop) of

radius 0.3 m and mass 2 kg is rotating at 4.00 rev/sec. After
50 sec the wheel comes to a stop because of friction. What is
the magnitude of the average torque due to frictional forces?
rev  2 rad 
2 i  4.00    25.1 rad/sec
  I  MR  sec  1 rev 
f  0
  f  i
   0.50 rad/s 2
t t
2
 av  MR   0.09 Nm
26
§8.7 Rolling Objects
An object that is rolling combines translational motion (its

center of mass moves) and rotational motion (points in the
body rotate around the center of mass).
For a rolling object: K tot  K T  K rot

1 2 1 2
 mvcm  I
2 2
If the object rolls without slipping then vcm = R. Copyright © 2008 – The McGraw-Hill Companies s.r.l.
27
Example: Two objects (a solid disk and a solid sphere) are

rolling down a ramp. Both objects start from rest and from
the same height. Which object reaches the bottom of the
ramp first?
The object with the largest linear velocity (v) at the

bottom of the ramp will win the race.

28
Example continued:
Apply conservation of mechanical energy:

Ei  E f
2
1 2 1 2 1 2 1 v
mgh  0  0  mv  I  mv  I  
2 2 2 2 R
1 I 
mgh   m  2 v 2
2 R 
2mgh
Solving for v: v
 I 
 m  2 
 R 
29
Example continued:
1
I disk  mR 2
2
The moments of inertia are: 2
I sphere  mR 2
5
4
For the disk: vdisk  gh
3 Since Vsphere> Vdisk the
sphere wins the race.
10
For the sphere: vsphere  gh
7
Compare these to a box sliding down the ramp. vbox  2 gh

30
How do objects in the previous example roll?

y
N
FBD:
Both the normal force and the weight act through the center
of mass so =0. This means that the object cannot rotate
when only these two forces are applied.

31
Add friction:
y   F r  Is
FBD: N  F  w sin   F  ma
x s cm
Fs
 F  N  w cos  0
y
 w Also need acm = R and
x
v 2  v02  2ax
The above system of equations can be solved for v at the

bottom of the ramp. The result is the same as when using
energy methods. (See text example 8.13.)
It is static friction that makes an object roll.

32
§8.8 Angular Momentum
p L
Fnet  lim  net  lim
t  0 t t 0 t
p  mv L  Iω
Units of p are kg m/s Units of L are kg m2/s
When no net external When no net external

forces act, the momentum torques act, the angular
of a system remains momentum of a system
constant (pi = pf) remains constant (Li = Lf).

33
Example (text problem 8.70): A turntable of mass 5.00 kg has

a radius of 0.100 m and spins with a frequency of 0.500
rev/sec. What is the angular momentum? Assume a uniform
disk.
rev  2 rad 
  0.500    3.14 rad/sec
sec  1 rev 
1 2
L  I   MR   0.079 kg m 2 /s
2 

34
Example (text problem 8.79): A skater is initially spinning at a

rate of 10.0 rad/sec with I=2.50 kg m2 when her arms are
extended. What is her angular velocity after she pulls her
arms in and reduces I to 1.60 kg m2?
He/she is on ice, so we can ignore external

torques.
Li  L f
I i i  I f  f
 Ii   2.50 kg m 2 
 f    1.60 kg m 2 10.0 rad/sec  15.6 rad/sec
i  

If   

35
§8.9 The Vector Nature of Angular

Momentum
Angular momentum is a vector. Its direction is defined with

a right-hand rule.

36
Curl the fingers of your right hand so that they curl in the
direction a point on the object moves, and your thumb will
point in the direction of the angular momentum.

37
Consider a person
holding a spinning
wheel. When viewed
from the front, the
wheel spins CCW.
Holding the wheel horizontal, they step on to a platform

that is free to rotate about a vertical axis.
38
Initially, nothing happens. They then move the wheel so

that it is over their head. As a result, the platform turns
CW (when viewed from above).
This is a result of conserving angular momentum.

39
Initially there is no angular momentum about the vertical axis.

When the wheel is moved so that it has angular momentum
about this axis, the platform must spin in the opposite
direction so that the net angular momentum stays zero.
Is angular momentum conserved about the

direction of the wheel’s initial, horizontal axis?

40
It is not. The floor exerts a torque on the system (platform +

person), thus angular momentum is not conserved here.

41
Summary
•Rotational Kinetic Energy

•Moment of Inertia
•Torque (two methods)
•Conditions for Equilibrium
•Newton’s 2nd Law in Rotational Form
•Angular Momentum
•Conservation of Angular Momentum

42
Chapter 9: Fluids
•Introduction to Fluids
•Pressure
•Pascal’s Principle
•Gravity and Fluid Pressure
•Measurement of Pressure
•Archimedes’ Principle
•Continuity Equation
•Bernoulli’s Equation
•Viscosity and Viscous Drag
•Surface Tension
1
§9.1 Fluids
A liquid will flow to take the shape of the container that holds
it. A gas will completely fill its container.
Fluids are easily deformable by external forces.
A liquid is incompressible. Its volume is fixed and is

impossible to change.

2
§9.2 Pressure
Pressure arises from the collisions between the particles of

a fluid with another object (container walls for example).
There is a momentum
change (impulse) that is
away from the container
walls. There must be a
force exerted on the
particle by the wall.

3
By Newton’s 3rd Law, there is a force on the wall due to

the particle.
F
Pressure is defined as P  .
A
The units of pressure are N/m2 and are called Pascals (Pa).
Note: 1 atmosphere (atm) = 101.3 kPa

4
Example (text problem 9.1): Someone steps on your toe,

exerting a force of 500 N on an area of 1.0 cm2. What is the
average pressure on that area in atmospheres?
2
 1m  2 4 2
1.0 cm    1.0 10 m
 100 cm 
F 500 N
Pav  
A 1.0 10 -4 m 2
6 2  1 Pa  1 atm 
 5.0 10 N/m  2  5 
 1 N/m  1.013 10 Pa 
 49 atm

5
§9.3 Pascal’s Principle
A change in pressure at any point in a confined fluid is

transmitted everywhere throughout the fluid. (This is useful
in making a hydraulic lift.)

6
The applied force is

transmitted to the piston
of cross-sectional area Apply a force F1 here
A2 here. to a piston of cross-
sectional area A1.

7
Mathematically,
P at point 1  P at point 2
F1 F
 2
A1 A 2
 A2 
F2    F1
 A1 

8
Example: Assume that a force of 500 N (about 110 lbs) is

applied to the smaller piston in the previous figure. For each
case, compute the force on the larger piston if the ratio of the
piston areas (A2/A1) are 1, 10, and 100.
Using Pascal’s Principle:
A2 A1 F2
1 500 N
10 5000 N
100 50,000 N

9
The work done pressing the smaller piston (#1) equals the
work done by the larger piston (#2).
F1d1  F2 d 2

10
Example: In the previous example, for the case A2/A1 = 10,

it was found that F2/F1 = 10. If the larger piston needs to
rise by 1 m, how far must the smaller piston be depressed?
Using the result on the previous slide,
F2
d1  d 2  10 m
F1

11
§9.4 Gravity’s Effect on Fluid

Pressure
FBD for the fluid cylinder
P1A
A cylinder
of fluid
w
P2A

12
Apply Newton’s 2nd Law

to the fluid cylinder:
F  P A PA w  0
2 1
P2 A  P1 A  Ad g  0
P2  P1  gd  0
 P2  P1  gd
or P2  P1  gd
If P1 (the pressure at the top of the cylinder) is known, then

the above expression can be used to find the variation of
pressure with depth in a fluid.

13
If the top of the fluid column is placed at the surface of the

fluid, then P1=Patm if the container is open.
P  Patm  gd

14
Example (text problem 9.15): At the surface of a freshwater

lake, the pressure is 105 kPa. (a) What is the pressure
increase in going 35.0 m below the surface?
P  P  Patm  gd
 1000 kg/m 9.8 m/s 35 m 
3 2
 343 kPa  3.4 atm

15
Example: The surface pressure on the planet Venus is 95

atm. How far below the surface of the ocean on Earth do
you need to be to experience the same pressure? The
density of seawater is 1025 kg/m3.
95 atm  1 atm  gd
gd  94 atm  9.5 106 N/m 2
1025 kg/m 9.8 m/s d  9.5 10
3 2 6
N/m 2
d  950 m

16
§9.5 Measuring Pressure
A manometer
is a U-shaped Both ends of the
tube that is tube are open to
partially filled the atmosphere.
with liquid.

17
A container of gas is connected to one end of the U-tube
If there is a pressure difference between the gas and the

atmosphere, a force will be exerted on the fluid in the U-tube.
This changes the equilibrium position of the fluid in the tube.
18
From the figure: At point C Pc  Patm
Also PB  PB'
The pressure at point B is the pressure of the gas.
PB  PB '  PC  gd
PB  PC  PB  Patm  gd
Pgauge  gd
19
A Barometer
The atmosphere pushes on the container of mercury which

forces mercury up the closed, inverted tube. The distance
d is called the barometric pressure.
20
From the figure PA  PB  Patm

and PA  gd
Atmospheric pressure is equivalent to a column of mercury

76.0 cm tall.

21
Example (text problem 9.22): An IV is connected to a

patient’s vein. The blood pressure in the vein has a gauge
pressure of 12 mm of mercury. At least how far above the
vein must the IV bag be placed in order for fluid to flow into
the vein? Assume that the density of the IV fluid is the same
as blood.
Blood: Pgauge   Hg gh1 The pressure is equivalent

to raising a column of
h1  12 mm mercury 12 mm tall.
IV: Pgauge   blood gh2

22
Example continued:
At a minimum, the gauge pressures must be equal. When

h2 is large enough, fluid will flow from high pressure to low
pressure.
Pgauge   Hg gh1   blood gh2

 Hg gh1
h2 
 blood g
  Hg   13,600 kg/m 3 
  h1   3 
12 mm 
  blood   1060 kg/m 
 154 mm
23
§9.6 Archimedes’ Principle

F1
An FBD for an object

floating submerged in
a fluid.
w
F2
The total force on the block due to the fluid is called the
buoyant force.
FB  F2  F1
where F2  F1
24
The magnitude of the buoyant force is:
FB  F2  F1
 P2 A  P1 A
 P2  P1 A
From before: P2  P1  gd
The result is FB  gdA  gV

25
Archimedes’ Principle: A fluid exerts an upward buoyant

force on a submerged object equal in magnitude to the
weight of the volume of fluid displaced by the object.
FB  gV

26
Example (text problem 9.30): A flat-bottomed barge loaded

with coal has a mass of 3.0105 kg. The barge is 20.0 m long
and 10.0 m wide. It floats in fresh water. What is the depth of
the barge below the waterline?
FB
F  F B w0 FBD
for the
FB  w
barge
mw g   wVw g  mb g
w
 wVw  mb
 w  Ad   mb
mb 3.0 105 kg
d   1 .5 m

 w A 1000 kg/m 20.0 m *10.0 m 
3

27
Example (text problem 9.34): A piece of metal is released

under water. The volume of the metal is 50.0 cm3 and its
specific gravity is 5.0. What is its initial acceleration? (Note:
when v=0, there is no drag force.)
FB F  F B  w  ma
FBD
for the The buoyant force is the
metal weight of the fluid displaced
w by the object
FB   waterVg
FB ρ waterVg  ρ waterV 
Solve for a: a  g   g  g  1
m ρ objectVobject ρ V 
 object object  Copyright © 2008 – The McGraw-Hill Companies s.r.l.
28
Example continued:
Since the object is completely submerged V=Vobject.


specific gravity 
 water
where water = 1000 kg/m3 is the
density of water at 4 °C.
 object
Given specific gravity   5.0
 water
 ρ waterV   1   1 
ag  
1  g  1  g   1  7.8 m/s 2
ρ V   S .G.   5.0 
 object object 
29
§9.7 Fluid Flow
A moving fluid will exert forces parallel to the surface over

which it moves, unlike a static fluid. This gives rise to a
viscous force that impedes the forward motion of the fluid.
A steady flow is one where the velocity at a given point in

a fluid is constant.
V1 = V2 =
constant constant
v1v2 Copyright © 2008 – The McGraw-Hill Companies s.r.l.
30
Steady flow is laminar; the fluid flows in layers. The path

that the fluid in these layers takes is called a streamline.
Streamlines do not cross.
An ideal fluid is incompressible, undergoes laminar flow,

and has no viscosity.

31
The continuity equation—Conservation of mass.
The amount of mass that flows though the cross-sectional

area A1 is the same as the mass that flows through cross-
sectional area A2.

32
m is the mass flow rate (units kg/s)

 Av
t
V
 Av is the volume flow rate (units m3/s)
t
The continuity equation is 1 A1v1   2 A2 v2
If the fluid is incompressible, then 1= 2.

33
Example (text problem 9.41): A garden hose of inner radius

1.0 cm carries water at 2.0 m/s. The nozzle at the end has
radius 0.2 cm. How fast does the water move through the
constriction?
A1v1  A2 v2
 A1   r12 
v2   v1   2 v1
 A2   r2 
2
 1.0 cm 
  2.0 m/s   50 m/s
 0.2 cm 

34
§9.8 Bernoulli’s Equation
Bernoulli’s equation is a statement of energy conservation.

35
1 2 1 2
P1  gy1  v1  P2  gy2  v2
2 2
Work per Potential
unit volume energy Kinetic
done by the per unit energy Points 1 and 2
fluid volume per unit must be on the
volume same streamline
36
Example (text problem 9.50): A nozzle is connected to a

horizontal hose. The nozzle shoots out water moving at 25.0
m/s. What is the gauge pressure of the water in the hose?
Neglect viscosity and assume that the diameter of the nozzle
is much smaller than the inner diameter of the hose.
Let point 1 be inside the hose and point 2 be outside

the nozzle.
1 2 1 2
P1  gy1  v1  P2  gy2  v2
2 2
The hose is horizontal
so y1=y2. Also P2 =Patm.

37
Example continued:
1 2 1 2
Substituting: P1  v1  Patm  v2
2 2
1 2 1 2
P1  Patm  v2  v1
2 2
v2 = 25m/s and v1 is unknown. Use the continuity equation.
  d2 2 
   2
 A2    2   d2 
v1   v2   v    v2
2  2
 A1     d1    d1 
 2 
   
Since d2<<d1 it is true that v1<<v2.

38
Example continued:
1 2 1 2
P1  Patm  v2  v1
2 2
1 1 2
2
2
2

  v2  v1  v2
2
1
 
 1000 kg/m 3 25.0 m/s 
2
2
 3.1 105 Pa

39
§9.9 Viscosity
A real fluid has viscosity (fluid friction). This implies a

pressure difference needs to be maintained across the ends
of a pipe for fluid to flow.

40
Viscosity also causes the existence of a velocity gradient

across a pipe. A fluid flows more rapidly in the center of
the pipe and more slowly closer to the walls of the pipe.
The volume flow rate for laminar flow of a viscous fluid is

given by Poiseuille’s Law.
V  P L 4
 r
t 8 
where  is the viscosity

41
Example (text problem 9.55): A hypodermic syringe attached

to a needle has an internal radius of 0.300 mm and a length
of 3.00 cm. The needle is filled with a solution of viscosity
2.0010-3 Pa sec; it is injected into a vein at a gauge
pressure of 16.0 mm Hg.
(a) What must the pressure of the fluid in the syringe be

in order to inject the solution at a rate of 0.150 mL/sec?
Solve Poiseuille’s Law for the pressure difference:
P  4 

8L V 8 2.00 10 2 Pa sec 3.00 cm  
 0.15 cm 3
r t 
 0.3 10 cm1 4
  s
 2830 Pa Copyright © 2008 – The McGraw-Hill Companies s.r.l.
42
Example continued:
This pressure difference is between the fluid in the

syringe and the fluid in the vein; it is the given gauge
pressure.
P  Ps  Pv
Ps  Pv  P
 2130 Pa  2830 Pa  4960 Pa

43
Example continued:
(b) What force must be applied to the plunger, which

has an area of 1.00 cm2?
The result of (a) gives the force per unit area on the
plunger so the force is just F = PA = 0.496 N.

44
§9.10 Viscous Drag
The viscous drag force on a sphere is given by Stokes’ law.
FD  6rv

45
Example (text problem 9.64): A sphere of radius 1.0 cm is

dropped into a glass cylinder filled with a viscous liquid.
The mass of the sphere is 12.0 g and the density of the
liquid is 1200 kg/m3. The sphere reaches a terminal speed
of 0.15 m/s. What is the viscosity of the liquid?
y
FBD for FB FD
sphere Apply Newton’s Second Law
x
to the sphere
w F  F D  FB  w  ma

46
Example continued:
When v = vterminal, a = 0 and
FD  FB  w  0
6rvt  ml g  ms g  0
6rvt   lVl g  ms g  0
6rvt   lVs g  ms g  0
Solving for  ms g   lVs g
  2.4 Pa sec
6rvt

47
§9.11 Surface Tension
The surface of a fluid acts like a a stretched membrane

(imagine standing on a trampoline). There is a force
along the surface of the fluid.
The surface tension is a force per unit length.

48
Example (text problem 9.70): Assume a water strider has a

roughly circular foot of radius 0.02 mm. The water strider has
6 legs.
(a) What is the maximum possible upward force on the

foot due to the surface tension of the water?
The water strider will be able to walk on water if

the net upward force exerted by the water equals
the weight of the insect. The upward force is
supplied by the water’s surface tension.
 2  2 6
F  PA   r  9 10 N
 r 

49
Example continued:
(b) What is the maximum mass of this water strider so

that it can keep from breaking through the water
surface?
To be in equilibrium, each leg must support one-

sixth the weight of the insect.
1 6F
F w or m   5 10 6 kg
6 g

50
Summary
•Pressure and its Variation with Depth

•Pascal’s Principle
•Archimedes Principle
•Continuity Equation (conservation of mass)
•Bernoulli’s Equation (conservation of energy)
•Viscosity and Viscous Drag
•Surface Tension

51
Chapter 10: Elasticity and

Oscillations
•Elastic Deformations
•Hooke’s Law
•Stress and Strain
•Shear Deformations
•Volume Deformations
•Simple Harmonic Motion
•The Pendulum
•Damped Oscillations, Forced Oscillations, and Resonance

1
§10.1 Elastic Deformation of Solids
A deformation is the change in size or shape of an object.
An elastic object is one that returns to its original size and

shape after contact forces have been removed. If the forces
acting on the object are too large, the object can be
permanently distorted.

2
§10.2 Hooke’s Law
F F
Apply a force to both ends of a long wire. These forces will

stretch the wire from length L to L+L.

3
Define:
L The fractional
strain  change in length
L
F Force per unit cross-

stress  sectional area
A

4
Hooke’s Law (Fx) can be written in terms of stress and

strain (stress  strain).
F L
Y
A L
YA
The spring constant k is now k 
L
Y is called Young’s modulus and is a measure of an

object’s stiffness. Hooke’s Law holds for an object
to a point called the proportional limit.

5
Example (text problem 10.1): A steel beam is placed

vertically in the basement of a building to keep the floor
above from sagging. The load on the beam is 5.8104 N and
the length of the beam is 2.5 m, and the cross-sectional area
of the beam is 7.510-3 m2. Find the vertical compression of
the beam.
F L
Force of Y
ceiling
A L
on beam  F  L 
L    
 A  Y 
Force of
floor on
For steel Y=200109 Pa.
beam
4
 F  L   5.8 10 N  2.5 m  4
L       3

2  9 2   1 . 0  10 m
 A  Y   7.5 10 m  200  10 Copyright
N/m© 2008– The McGraw-Hill Companies s.r.l.
6
Example (text problem 10.6): A 0.50 m long guitar string, of

cross- sectional area 1.010-6 m2, has a Young’s modulus of
2.0109 Pa. By how much must you stretch a guitar string to
obtain a tension of 20.0 N?
F L
Y
A L
 F  L   20.0 N  0 .5 m 
L       6 2  9 2 
 A  Y   1.0  10 m  2.0  10 N/m 
 5.0 10 3 m  5.0 mm

7
§10.3 Beyond Hooke’s Law
If the stress on an object exceeds the elastic limit, then the

object will not return to its original length.
An object will fracture if the stress exceeds the breaking

point. The ratio of maximum load to the original cross-
sectional area is called tensile strength.

8
The ultimate strength of a material is the maximum stress

that it can withstand before breaking.

9
Example (text problem 10.10): An acrobat of mass 55 kg is

going to hang by her teeth from a steel wire and she does
not want the wire to stretch beyond its elastic limit. The
elastic limit for the wire is 2.5108 Pa. What is the minimum
diameter the wire should have to support her?
F
Want stress   elastic limit
A
F mg
A 
elastic limit elastic limit
2
D mg
  
2 elastic limit
4mg
D  1.7 10 3 m  1.7 mm
  elastic limit Copyright © 2008 – The McGraw-Hill Companies s.r.l.
10
§10.4 Shear and Volume

Deformations
A shear deformation
occurs when two forces
are applied on opposite
surfaces of an object.

11
Shear Force F
Shear Stress  
Surface Area A
Define:
displacement of surfaces x
Shear Strain  
separation of surfaces L
Hooke’s law (stressstrain) for shear deformations is
F x where S is the
S
A L shear modulus

12
Example (text problem 10.25): The upper surface of a cube of

gelatin, 5.0 cm on a side, is displaced by 0.64 cm by a
tangential force. If the shear modulus of the gelatin is 940
Pa, what is the magnitude of the tangential force?
F
F x
S
A L
F
From Hooke’s Law:

x
F  SA
L
 0.64 cm 

 940 N/m 0.0025 m  2
 2
  0.30 N 
 5.0 cm 
13
An object completely submerged in a fluid will be squeezed

on all sides.
F
volume stress  pressure 
A
V
The result is a volume strain; volume strain 
V

14
For a volume deformation, Hooke’s Law is (stressstrain):
V
P   B
V
where B is called the bulk modulus. The bulk modulus is a
measure of how easy a material is to compress.

15
Example (text problem 10.24): An anchor, made of cast iron

of bulk modulus 60.0109 Pa and a volume of 0.230 m3, is
lowered over the side of a ship to the bottom of the harbor
where the pressure is greater than sea level pressure by
1.75106 Pa. Find the change in the volume of the anchor.
V
P   B
V
V  
VP

 
0.23 m 3 1.75  106 Pa 
B 60.0 109 Pa
 6.7  10 6 m 3

16
Deformations summary table
Tensile or
compressive Shear Volume
Stress Force per unit Shear force divided Pressure

cross-sectional by the area of the
area surface on which it
acts
Strain Fractional Ratio of the relative Fractional
change in displacement to the change in
length separation of the two volume
parallel surfaces
Constant of Young’s Shear modulus (S) Bulk
proportionality modulus (Y) Modulus (B)

17
§10.5 Simple Harmonic Motion
Simple harmonic motion (SHM)

occurs when the restoring force
(the force directed toward a stable
equilibrium point) is proportional to
the displacement from equilibrium.

18
The motion of a mass on a spring is an example of SHM.
Equilibrium
position y
x
x
The restoring force is F=-kx.

19
Assuming the table is frictionless:
F x
  kx  ma x
k
a x t    xt 
m
1 2 1 2
Also, E t   K t   U t   mvt   kxt 
2 2

20
At the equilibrium point x=0 so a=0 too.

When the stretch is a maximum, a will be a maximum too.
The velocity at the end points will be zero, and it is a

maximum at the equilibrium point.
21
§10.6-7 Representing Simple

Harmonic Motion
When a mass-spring system is oriented vertically, it will

exhibit SHM with the same period and frequency as a
horizontally placed system.

22
SHM
graphically

23
A simple harmonic oscillator can be described mathematically

by:
xt   A cos t
x
vt     A sin t
t
v
a t     A 2 cos t where A is the amplitude
t of the motion, the
Or by: maximum displacement
from equilibrium, A=vmax,
xt   A sin t and A2 =amax.
x
vt    A cos t
t
v
a t     A 2 sin t
t
24
2
The period of oscillation is T  .

where  is the angular frequency of the k

oscillations, k is the spring constant and 
m
m is the mass of the block.

25
Example (text problem 10.28): The period of oscillation of an

object in an ideal mass-spring system is 0.50 sec and the
amplitude is 5.0 cm. What is the speed at the equilibrium
point?
At equilibrium x=0:
1 2 1 2 1 2
E  K  U  mv  kx  mv
2 2 2
Since E=constant, at equilibrium (x = 0) the

KE must be a maximum. Here v = vmax = A.

26
Example continued:
The amplitude A is given, but  is not.
2 2
   12.6 rads/sec
T 0.50 s
and v  Aω  5.0 cm 12.6 rads/sec  62.8 cm/sec

27
Example (text problem 10.41): The diaphragm of a speaker

has a mass of 50.0 g and responds to a signal of 2.0 kHz by
moving back and forth with an amplitude of 1.810-4 m at that
frequency.
(a) What is the maximum force acting on the diaphragm?
 F  Fmax  ma max  m A  mA2f   4 2

mAf 2
 2
 2
The value is Fmax=1400 N.

28
Example continued:
(b) What is the mechanical energy of the diaphragm?
Since mechanical energy is conserved, E = KEmax = Umax.
1 2
U max  kA The value of k is unknown so use KEmax.
2
1 2
KEmax  mvmax 1 2 1 2 1 2
2 KEmax  mvmax  m A   mA2 2f 
2 2 2
The value is KEmax= 0.13 J.

29
Example (text problem 10.47): The displacement of an object

in SHM is given by:
y t   8.00 cm sin1.57 rads/sect 
What is the frequency of the oscillations?
Comparing to y(t)= A sint gives A = 8.00 cm and

 = 1.57 rads/sec. The frequency is:
 1.57 rads/sec
f    0.250 Hz
2 2

30
Example continued:
Other quantities can also be determined:
2 2
The period of the motion is T   4.00 sec
 1.57 rads/sec
xmax  A  8.00 cm
vmax  A  8.00 cm 1.57 rads/sec  12.6 cm/sec
2
amax  A 2  8.00 cm 1.57 rads/sec  19.7 cm/sec 2

31
§10.8 The Pendulum
A simple pendulum is constructed by attaching a mass to

a thin rod or a light string. We will also assume that the
amplitude of the oscillations is small.

32
A simple pendulum:
 An FBD for the

pendulum bob:
L y
m

Assume <<1 radian
x
w

33
F x   mg sin   mat
Apply Newton’s 2nd
Law to the pendulum v2
bob.  Fy  T  mg cos  m r
If we assume that <<1 rad, then sin   and cos 1 then
the angular frequency of oscillations is found to be:
g

L
L
The period of oscillations is T  2
g
34
Example (text problem 10.60): A clock has a pendulum that

performs one full swing every 1.0 sec. The object at the end
of the string weighs 10.0 N. What is the length of the
pendulum?
L
T  2
g
Solving for L: L 
gT 2

9.8 m/s 2 1.0 s 
 0.25 m
  2
2 2
4 4

35
Example (text problem 10.84): The gravitational potential

energy of a pendulum is U=mgy. Taking y=0 at the lowest
point of the swing, show that y=L(1-cos).

Lcos
L L
y  L(1  cos  )
y=0
36
A physical pendulum is any rigid object that is free to

oscillate about some fixed axis. The period of oscillation of
a physical pendulum is not necessarily the same as that of
a simple pendulum.

37
§10.9 Damped Oscillations
When dissipative forces such as friction are not negligible,

the amplitude of oscillations will decrease with time. The
oscillations are damped.

38
Graphical representations of damped oscillations:

39
§10.10 Forced Oscillations and

Resonance
A force can be applied periodically to a damped oscillator (a

forced oscillation).
When the force is applied at the natural frequency of the

system, the amplitude of the oscillations will be a maximum.
This condition is called resonance.

40
Summary
•Stress and Strain

•Hooke’s Law
•Simple Harmonic Motion
•SHM Examples: Mass-Spring System, Simple Pendulum
and Physical Pendulum
•Energy Conservation Applied to SHM

41
Chapter 11: Waves
•Energy Transport by Waves

•Longitudinal and Transverse Waves
•Transverse Waves on Strings
•Periodic Waves
•Mathematical and Graphical Descriptions of Waves
•Reflection and Refraction of Waves
•Interference and Diffraction
•Standing Waves on a String

1
§11.1 Waves and Energy Transport
A wave is a disturbance that travels outward from its source.
Waves carry energy. The energy is transported outward from

the source; matter is not.

2
When a stone is dropped into a pond, the water is

disturbed from its equilibrium positions as the wave
passes; it returns to its equilibrium position after the wave
has passed.
The water moves

up and down as the
disturbance moves
outward.

3
Intensity is a measure of the amount of energy/sec that

passes through a square meter of area perpendicular to the
wave’s direction of travel.
Power P Intensity has units

I 
4r 2
4r 2 of watts/m2 .
This is an inverse square law. The intensity drops as the

inverse square of the distance from the source. (Light
sources appear dimmer the farther away from them you are.)
4
Example: At the location of the Earth’s upper atmosphere,

the intensity of the Sun’s light is 1400 W/m2. What is the
intensity of the Sun’s light at the orbit of the planet Mercury?
Psun Psun
Ie  Im 
4res2 2
4rms
Divide one equation by the other:

Psun
2 2
2 11
I m 4rms  r   1.50  10 m 
   es    10
  6.57
Ie Psun  rms   5.85  10 m 
4res2
 I m  6.57 I e  9200 W/m 2

5
§11.2 Transverse and Longitudinal

Waves
A transverse wave is where the motions of the particles are

transverse (perpendicular) to the direction of wave travel.

6
A longitudinal wave is where the motions of the particles are

along the same direction as the wave propagation.
Compression, a Rarefaction, a region

region of high density of low density
7
Both types of waves can move through solids. Only

longitudinal waves can move through a fluid. A transverse
wave can move along the surface of a fluid.

8
§11.3 Transverse Waves on a

String
Attach a mass to a string to provide tension. The string is

then shaken at one end at a frequency f.
Attach a
vibrator
here
M
9
F
A wave traveling on this string will have a speed of v 

where F is the force applied to the string (tension) and 

is the mass/unit length of the string (linear mass density).

10
Example (text problem 11.10): When the tension in a cord is

75.0 N, the wave speed is 140 m/s. What is the linear mass
density of the cord?
F
The speed of a wave on a string is v

Solving for the linear mass density:
F 75.0 N 3
 2  2
 3 . 8  10 kg/m
v 140 m/s 

11
§11.4 Periodic Waves
A periodic wave repeats the same pattern over and over.
For periodic waves: v=f

v is the wave’s speed
f is the wave’s frequency
 Is the wave’s wavelength

12
The period T is measured by the amount of time it takes for

a point on the wave to go through one complete cycle of
oscillations. The frequency is then f = 1/T.

13
One way to determine the wavelength is by measuring the

distance between two consecutive crests.
The maximum
displacement
from equilibrium
is amplitude (A)
of a wave.

14
Example (text problem 11.13): What is the wavelength of

a wave whose speed and period are 75.0 m/s and 5.00
ms, respectively?

v  f 
T
Solving for the wavelength:
  vT  75.0 m/s 5.00  10 3 s   0.375 m

15
§11.5 Mathematical Description of

a Wave
To describe a wave, we must know the position of the

particles in the medium. This requires a function of the form
y(x,t).

16
y ( x, t )  A cost  kx 
+ is used for a wave traveling in the

–x direction, and – is used for a
wave traveling in the +x direction.
2
k is called the wave number.

t  kx  is called the phase.
Note: it would also be valid to use the sine function in the

above description. Copyright © 2008 – The McGraw-Hill Companies s.r.l.
17
The above picture is a snapshot (time is frozen). Two points

on the wave are “in phase” if:
kx2  kx1  n (n= 1, 2, 3,…)

18
Example (text problem 11.22): A wave on a string has an

equation:
y ( x, t )  4.00 mm sin 600 rad/sect  6.00 rad/m x 
(a) What is the amplitude of the wave?
A = 4.00 mm
(b) What is the wavelength?
The wave number k is 6.00 rad/m.

2 2
   1.05 m
k 6.00 rad/m
19
Example continued:
(c) What is the period?
22
T   1.05  10  2 sec
 600 rad/sec
(d) What is the wave speed?
    600 rad/sec
v  f   2f     100 m/s
 2  k 6.00 rad/m
(e) What direction is the wave traveling.
Along the +x direction. Copyright © 2008 – The McGraw-Hill Companies s.r.l.

20
§11.6 Graphing Waves
The next two slides show three “snapshots” of a traveling

wave y(x,t) = A cos (t  kx) where A = 1.0 m, k = 1 rad/m,
and  =  rad/sec.

21
Wave travels
to the left
(-x-direction) time

22
Wave travels
to the right
(+x-direction)
time

23
§11.7 The Principle of

Superposition
For small amplitudes, waves will pass through each other

and emerge unchanged.
Superposition Principle: When two or more waves overlap,

the net disturbance at any point is the sum of the individual
disturbances due to each wave.

24
Two traveling wave

pulses: left pulse
travels right; right
pulse travels left.

25
§11.8 Reflection and Refraction
At an abrupt boundary between two media, a reflection will

occur. A portion of the incident wave will be reflected
backward from the boundary.

26
When you have a wave that travels

from a “low density” medium to a
“high density” medium, the
reflected wave pulse will be
inverted.
The frequency of the reflected

wave remains the same.

27
When a wave is incident on

the boundary between two
different media, a portion of
the wave is reflected, and a
portion will be transmitted
into the second medium.

28
The frequency of the transmitted wave also remains the

same. However, both the wave’s speed and wavelength
are changed such that:
v1 v2
f  
1 2

29
The transmitted wave will also suffer a change in

propagation direction (refraction) determined by
sin 1 v1

sin  2 v2
where 1 is the angle of incidence, 2 is the angle of

refraction, and v1 and v2 represent the wave speeds in
medium 1 and medium 2 respectively. The angles are
measured from the normal.

30
Example (text problem 11.36): Light of wavelength 0.500 m

in air enters the water in a swimming pool. The speed of
light in water is 0.750 times the speed in air. What is the
wavelength of the light in water?
Since the frequency is unchanged in both media:

vair vwater
f  
air water
 vwater 
water   air
 vair 
 0.750vair 
  0.500 m  0.375m
 vair 
31
§11.9 Interference and Diffraction
Two waves are considered coherent if they have the

same frequency and maintain a fixed phase relationship.
Two waves are considered incoherent if the phase

relationship between them varies randomly.

32
When waves are in phase, their superposition gives

constructive interference.
When waves are one-half a cycle out of phase, their

superposition gives destructive interference.

33
When two waves travel

different distances to reach
the same point, the phase
difference is determined by:
d1  d 2 phase difference

 2

34
Diffraction is the spreading of a wave around an obstacle

in its path.

35
§11.10 Standing Waves
Pluck a stretched string such

that y(x,t) = A sin(t + kx)
When the wave strikes the wall, there will be a reflected

wave that travels back along the string.

36
The reflected wave will be 180° out of phase with the wave
incident on the wall. Its form is y(x,t) = -A sin (t - kx).
Apply the superposition principle to the two waves on the

string:
y ( x, t )  y1 ( x, t )  y2 ( x, t )
 Asin t  kx   sin t  kx 
 2 A cos t sin kx

37
The previous expression is the mathematical form of a

standing wave.
A A
A
N N
N N
A node (N) is a point of zero oscillation. An antinode (A) is

a point of maximum displacement. All points between nodes
oscillate up and down.

38
The nodes occur where y(x,t) = 0.
y  x, t   2 A cos t sin kx  0
The nodes are found from the locations where sin kx=0,
which happens when kx = 0, , 2,…. That is when kx = n
where n = 0,1,2,…
The antinodes occur when sin kx= 1; that is where
 3
kx  , ,
2 2
kx 
2n  1
and n  0 ,1, 2 ,
39
If the string has a length L, and both ends are fixed, then
y(x=0,t) = 0 and y(x=L, t) = 0.
y  x  0, t   sin k 0   0
y  x  L, t   sin kL  0
kL  n
2
L  n

The wavelength of 2L
a standing wave:
 where n = 1, 2, 3,…
n

40
2L These are the permitted wavelengths of standing

n 
n waves on a string; no others are allowed.
The speed of the wave is: v  n f n
v nv
The allowed frequencies are then: f n   n =1, 2, 3,…
n 2L

41
The n=1 frequency is called the fundamental frequency.
v
nv  v 
fn    n   nf1
n 2 L  2L 
All allowed frequencies (called harmonics) are integer

multiples of f1.

42
Example (text problem 11.55): A Guitar’s E-string has a length

65 cm and is stretched to a tension of 82 N. It vibrates with a
fundamental frequency of 329.63 Hz. Determine the mass
per unit length of the string.
F
For a wave on a string: v

Solving for the linear mass density:
F F F
 2   2
v 1 f1  f1 2 L 2
2

82 N 
 4.5  10  4 kg/m
329.63 Hz 2 2 * 0.65 m 2
43
Summary
•Intensity
•Wave Properties (f, , v, ampltude)
•Transverse vs. Longitudinal Waves
•Mathematical Description of a Wave
•Reflection, Refraction, Interference, and Diffraction
•Superposition of Waves
•Standing Waves on a String

44
Chapter 12: Sound
•Sound Waves
•The Speed of Sound
•Amplitude & Intensity of Sound Waves
•Standing Sound Waves
•Beats
•The Doppler Effect
•Shock Waves
•Echolocation

1
§12.1 Sound Waves
Sound waves are longitudinal. They can be represented

by either variations in pressure (gauge pressure) or by
displacements of an air element.

2
The middle of a
compression (rarefaction)
corresponds to a pressure
maximum (minimum).

3
§12.2 The Speed of Sound Waves
The speed of sound in different materials can be determined

as follows:
B B is the bulk modulus of the
In fluids v
 fluid and  its density.
Y Y is the Young’s modulus of

In thin solid rods v 
 the solid and  its density.

4
T
In ideal gases v  v0
T0
Here v0 is the speed at a temperature T0 (in kelvin) and v

is the speed at some other temperature T (also in kelvin).
For air, a useful approximation to the above expression is
v  331  0.606TC  m/s

where Tc is the air temperature in C.

5
Materials that have a high restoring force (stiffer) will have a

higher sound speed.
Materials that are denser (more inertia) will have a lower

sound speed.

6
Example (text problem 12.8): A copper alloy has a Young’s

Modulus of 1.11011 Pa and a density of 8.92 103 kg/m3.
What is the speed of sound in a thin rod made of this alloy?
Y 1.11011 Pa
v  3 3
 3500 m/s
 8.9 10 kg/m
The speed of sound in this alloy is slightly less than the

value quoted for copper (3560 m/s) in table 12.1.

7
Example (text problem 12.1): Bats emit ultrasonic sound

waves with a frequency as high as 1.0105 Hz. What is the
wavelength of such a wave in air of temperature 15.0 C?
The speed of sound in

v  331  0.606TC  m/s air of this temperature
is 340 m/s.
v 340 m/s 3
  5
 3 . 4  10 m
f 1.0 10 Hz

8
Example (text problem 12.10): A lightning flash is seen in the

sky and 8.2 seconds later the boom of thunder is heard.
The temperature of the air is 12.0 C.
(a) What is the speed of sound in air at that temperature?

is 338 m/s.
(b) How far away is the lightning strike?
d  vt  338 m/s 8.2 s   2800 m  2.8 km

9
Example continued:
The speed of light is 3.00105 km/s. How long does it

take the light signal to reach the observer?
d 2.8 km -6
t  5
 9. 3  10 sec
v 3.0 10 km/s

10
§12.3 Amplitude & Intensity of

Sound Waves
For sound waves:
2
Ip 0 p0 is the pressure amplitude and
I  s02 s0 is the displacement amplitude.
The intensity of sound waves also follow an inverse

square law.
11
Loudness of a sound is measured by the logarithm of the

intensity.
The threshold of hearing is at an intensity of 10-12 W/m2.
I
Sound intensity level is defined by   10dB log
I0
dB are decibels

12
Example (text problem 12.12): The sound level 25 m from a

loudspeaker is 71 dB. What is the rate at which sound
energy is being produced by the loudspeaker, assuming it to
be an isotropic source?
I
Given:   10dB log  71 dB
I0
Solve for I, the intensity of a sound wave:

I
log  7.1
I0
I
 10 7.1
I0
  
I  I 010 7.1  10 12 W/m 2 107.1  1.3 10 5 W/m 2
13
Example continued:
The intensity of an isotropic source is defined by:
P
I
4r 2
P  I 4r 2
2
 (1.3  10 W/m )4 25 m 
5 2
 0.10 Watts

14
Example: Two sounds have levels of 80 dB and 90 dB.

What is the difference in the sound intensities?
I I
1  10dB log  80 dB  2  10dB log  90 dB
I0 I0
 I2 I1 
Subtracting:  2  1  10 dB  10 dB log  log 
 I0 I0 
 I2 
10 dB  10 dB log 
 I1 
I2
 101
I1
I 2  10 I1
15
§12.4 Standing Sound Waves
Consider a pipe open at both ends:
The ends of the pipe are open to the atmosphere. The

open ends must be pressure nodes (and displacement
antinodes).

16
The distance between two adjacent antinodes is ½. Each

pair of antinodes must have a node in between.
The fundamental mode (it has the fewest number of

antinodes) will have a wavelength of 2L.

17
The next standing wave pattern to satisfy the conditions at

the ends of the pipe will have one more node and one more
antinode than the previous standing wave. Its wavelength
will be L.
The general result for standing waves in a tube open at

both ends is
2L
n  where n=1, 2, 3,…
n
nv v
fn    nf1 f1 is the fundamental frequency.
n 2 L
18

19
Now consider a pipe open at one end and closed at the

other.
As before, the end of the pipe open to the atmosphere

must be a pressure node (and a displacement
antinode).
The closed end of the pipe must be a displacement
node (and a pressure antinode).

20
One end of the pipe is a pressure node, the other a

pressure antinode. The distance between a consecutive
node and antinode is one-quarter of a wavelength.
Here, the fundamental mode will have a wavelength of 4L.

21
The next standing wave to satisfy the conditions at the ends

of the pipe will have one more node and one more antinode
than the previous standing wave. Its wavelength will be
(4/3)L.
The general result for standing waves in a tube open at

one end and closed at the other is
4L
n  where n=1, 3, 5,…. n (odd values only!!)
n
nv v
fn    nf1 f1 is the fundamental frequency.
n 4 L
22

23
Example (text problem 12.22): An organ pipe that is open at

both ends has a fundamental frequency of 382 Hz at
0.0 °C. What is the fundamental frequency for this pipe at
20.0 °C?
At Tc = 0.0 °C, the speed of sound is 331 m/s.

At Tc = 20.0 °C, the speed of sound is 343 m/s.
v v
The fundamental frequency is f1  
1 2 L

24
Example continued:
The ratio of the fundamental frequencies at the two

temperatures is:
v20
f1, 20 2 L v20
   1.04
f1, 0 v0 v0
2L
f1, 20  1.04 f1, 0  396 Hz

25
Example continued:
How long is this organ pipe?
v
f1 
Using either 2L
set of v and f1. v
L  0.43 m
2 f1

26
§12.5 Beats
When two waves with nearly the same frequency are

superimposed, the result is a pulsation called beats.

27
Two waves of
different
frequency
Superposition
of the above
waves
The beat frequency is f  f1  f 2

28
If the beat frequency exceeds about 15 Hz, the ear will

perceive two different tones instead of beats.

29
§12.6 The Doppler Effect
When a moving object emits a sound, the wave crests

appear bunched up in front of the object and appear to be
more spread out behind the object. This change in wave
crest spacing is heard as a change in frequency.
The results will be similar when the observer is in motion

and the sound source is stationary and also when both the
sound source and observer are in motion.
30

31
The Doppler Effect formula
 vo  fo is the observed frequency.

1  fs is the frequency emitted by the source.
fo   v  fs
 1  vs  vo is the observer’s velocity.
  vs is the source’s velocity.
 v 
v is the speed of sound.
Note: take vs and vo to be positive when they move in the

direction of wave propagation and negative when they are
opposite to the direction of wave propagation.

32
Example (text problem 12.39): A source of sound waves of

frequency 1.0 kHz is stationary. An observer is traveling at
0.5 times the speed of sound.
(a) What is the observed frequency if the observer

moves toward the source?
fo is unknown; fs= 1.0 kHz; vo = -0.5v; vs = 0; and v is

the speed of sound.
 vo    0.5v 
1  1 
fo   v  fs   v  f  1.5 f  1.5 kHz
s
 1  vs   1 0 
   
 v   v 
33
Example continued:
(b) Repeat, but with the observer moving in the other

direction.
fo is unknown; fs= 1.0 kHz; vo = +0.5v; vs =0; and v is

the speed of sound.
 vo    0.5v 
1  1 
fo   v  fs   v  f  0.5 f  0.5 kHz
s
 1  vs   1 0 
   
 v   v 

34
§12.7 Shock Waves
If a plane were traveling at the

speed of sound , what would
the wave crests looks like?
They would be bunched up in

front of the aircraft and an
observer (to the right) would
measure =0.

35
If the source moves with a speed greater than that

of sound, then the wave crests pile up on top of
each other forming a cone-shaped shock wave.

36
§12.8 Echolocation
Sound waves can be sent out from a transmitter of some

sort; they will reflect off any objects they encounter and can
be received back at their source. The time interval between
emission and reception can be used to build up a picture of
the scene.

37
Example (text problem 12.47): A boat is using sonar to

detect the bottom of a freshwater lake. If the echo from a
sonar signal is heard 0.540 s after it is emitted, how deep is
the lake? Assume the lake’s temperature is uniform and at
25 C.
The signal travels two times the depth of the lake so

the one-way travel time is 0.270 s. From table 12.1,
the speed of sound in freshwater is 1493 m/s.
depth  vt
 1493 m/s 0.270 s   403 m

38
Example (text problem 12.49): A bat emits chirping sounds of

frequency 82.0 kHz while hunting for moths to eat. If the bat
is flying toward a moth at a speed of 4.40 m/s and the moth
is flying away from the bat at 1.20 m/s, what is the frequency
of the wave reflected from the moth as observed by the bat?
Assume T = 10.0 C.

is 337 m/s.

39
Example continued:
The flying bat emits sound of f =82.0 kHz that is

received by a moving moth. The frequency observed
by the moth is:
 vo    1.2 m/s 
1   1 
fo   v  fs   337 m/s 82.0 kHz   82.8 kHz
 1  vs   1   4.4 m/s 
   
 v   337 m/s 

40
Example continued:
Some of the sound received by the moth will be reflected

back toward the bat. The moth becomes the sound
source (f = 82.8 kHz) and the bat is now the observer.
 vo    4.4 m/s 
1  1 
fo   v  fs   337 m/s 82.8 kHz   83.6 kHz
 1  vs   1   1.2 m/s 
   
 v   337 m/s 

41
Summary
•Sound is a longitudinal wave.
•The speed of sound depends on material properties
such as “stiffness”, density, and temperature.
•Sound Intensity Level
•Standing Waves in Pipes (both ends open & one end
open/one end closed)
•The Doppler Effect
•Shock Waves
•Echolocation
42
Chapter 13: Temperature and Ideal

Gas
•What is Temperature?
•Temperature Scales
•Thermal Expansion
•Molecular Picture of a Gas
•The Ideal Gas Law
•Kinetic Theory of Ideal Gases
•Chemical Reaction Rates
•Collisions Between Molecules

1
§13.1 Temperature
Heat is the flow of energy due to a temperature difference.

Heat always flows from objects at high temperature to
objects at low temperature.
When two objects have the same temperature, they are in

thermal equilibrium.

2
The Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics:
If two objects are each in thermal equilibrium with a

third object, then the two objects are in thermal
equilibrium with each other.

3
§13.2 Temperature Scales
Absolute or Fahrenheit Celsius

Kelvin scale scale scale
Water boils* 373.15 K 212 F 100 C
Water freezes* 273.15 K 32 F 0 C
Absolute zero 0K -459.67 F -273.15C
(*) Values given at 1 atmosphere of pressure.

4
The temperature scales are related by:
Fahrenheit/
Celsius TF  1.8 F/C TC  32F
Absolute/
Celsius T  TC  273.15

5
Example (text problem 13.3): (a) At what temperature (if

any) does the numerical value of Celsius degrees equal the
numerical value of Fahrenheit degrees?
TF  1.8TC  32  TC
TC  40 C
(b) At what temperature (if any) does the numerical value

of Kelvin equal the numerical value of Fahrenheit
degrees?
TF  1.8TC  32
 1.8T  273  32
 1.8TF  273  32
TF  574 F Copyright © 2008 – The McGraw-Hill Companies s.r.l.
6
§13.3 Thermal Expansion of Solids

and Liquids
Most objects expand when their temperature increases.

7
An object’s length after its temperature has changed is
 is the coefficient of
L  1  T L0 thermal expansion
where T=T-T0 and L0 is the length of the object at a

temperature T0.

8
Example (text problem 13.84): An iron bridge girder

(Y = 2.01011 N/m2) is constrained between two rock faces
whose spacing doesn’t change. At 20.0 C the girder is
relaxed. How large a stress develops in the iron if the sun
heats the girder to 40.0 C?
F L
Using Hooke’s Law: Y
A L
 Y T 
 
 2.0 1011 N/m 2 12  10 6 K -1 20 K  
 4.8  107 N/m 2

9
How does the area of an object change when its temperature

changes?
The blue square has an area of L02.
With a temperature change T each

L0
side of the square will have a length
L0+L change of L = TL0.

10
The fractional change in area is:
new area  A  L0  TL0 L0  TL0 

 L20  2TL20   2 T 2 L20
 L20  2TL20
 A0 1  2T 
A
 2T
A0

11
The fractional change in volume due to a temperature

change is:
V
  T For solids =3
V0

12
§13.4 Molecular Picture of a Gas
The number density of particles is N/V where N is the total

number of particles contained in a volume V.
If a sample contains a single element, the number of

particles in the sample is N = M/m. N is the total mass of
the sample (M) divided by the mass per particle (m).
13
One mole of a substance contains the same number of

particles as there are atoms in 12 grams of 12C. The number
of atoms in 12 grams of 12C is Avogadro’s number.
N A  6.022 10 23 mol-1

14
A carbon-12 atom by definition has a mass of exactly 12

atomic mass units (12 u).
 12 g  1 mole  1 kg 
  23  
 12 mole  6.022  10  1000 g 
 1.66  10 - 27 kg
This is the conversion factor between the atomic mass unit

and kg (1 u = 1.6610-27 kg). NA and the mole are defined
so that a 1 gram sample of a substance with an atomic
mass of 1 u contains exactly NA particles.

15
Example (text problem 13.39): Air at room temperature and

atmospheric pressure has a mass density of 1.2 kg/m3. The
average molecular mass of air is 29.0 u. How many air
molecules are there in 1.0 cm3 of air?
total mass of air in 1.0 cm 3

number of particles 
average mass per air molecule
The total mass of air in the given volume is:
3 3
 1.2 kg  1.0 cm  1 m 
m  V   3 
  
 m  1  100 cm 
 1.2 10 6 kg
16
Example continued:
total mass of air in 1.0 cm 3

number of particles 
average mass per air molecule
1.2 10 6 kg


29.0 u/particle 1.66 1027 kg/u 
 2.5 1019 particles

17
§13.5 Absolute Temperature and

the Ideal Gas Law
Experiments done on dilute gases (a gas where interactions

between molecules can be ignored) show that:
For constant pressure V T Charles’ Law
For constant volume P T Gay-Lussac’s Law

18
For constant 1
temperature
P Boyle’s Law
V
For constant pressure Avogadro’s

and temperature
VN Law

19
Putting all of these statements together gives the ideal gas

law (microscopic form):
k = 1.3810-23 J/K is
PV  NkT Boltzmann’s constant
The ideal gas law can also be written as (macroscopic

form):
R = NAk= 8.31 J/K/mole is the
PV  nRT universal gas constant and n is
the number of moles.

20
Example (text problem 13.41): A cylinder in a car engine

takes Vi = 4.5010-2 m3 of air into the chamber at 30 C and
at atmospheric pressure. The piston then compresses the
air to one-ninth of the original volume and to 20.0 times the
original pressure. What is the new temperature of the air?
Here, Vf = Vi/9, Pf = 20.0Pi, and Ti = 30 C = 303 K.
PiVi  NkTi The ideal gas law holds

for each set of parameters
(before compression and
Pf V f  NkT f after compression).

21
Example continued:
Pf V f NkT f Tf
Take the ratio:  
PiVi NkTi Ti
 Pf  V f 
The final temperature is T f    Ti
 Pi  Vi 
 Vi 
 20.0 Pi  9 
   303 K   673 K
 Pi  Vi 
 
The final temperature is 673 K = 400 C.

22
§13.6 Kinetic Theory of the Ideal

Gas
An ideal gas is a dilute gas where the particles act as point

particles with no interactions except for elastic collisions.

23
Gas particles have random motions. Each time a particle

collides with the walls of its container there is a force exerted
on the wall. The force per unit area on the wall is equal to
the pressure in the gas.
The pressure will depend on:

•The number of gas particles
•Frequency of collisions with the walls
•Amount of momentum transferred during each collision

24
The pressure in the gas is

2N
P K tr
3V
Where <Ktr> is the average translational kinetic energy of
the gas particles; it depends on the temperature of the gas.
3
K tr  kT
2

25
The average kinetic energy also depends on the rms speed

of the gas
1 2 1 2
K tr  m v  mvrms
2 2
where the rms speed is

3 1 2
K tr  kT  mvrms
2 2
3kT
vrms 
m

26
The distribution of speeds in a gas is given by the Maxwell-

Boltzmann Distribution.

27
Example (text problem 13.60): What is the temperature of

an ideal gas whose molecules have an average
translational kinetic energy of 3.2010-20 J?
3
K tr  kT
2
2 K tr
T  1550 K
3k

28
Example (text problem 13.70): What are the rms speeds of

helium atoms, and nitrogen, hydrogen, and oxygen
molecules at 25 C?
3kT
vrms  On the Kelvin scale T = 25 C = 298 K.
m
Element Mass (kg) rms speed (m/s)

He 6.6410-27 1360
H2 3.32 10-27 1930
N2 4.64 10-26 515
O2 5.32 10-26 482

29
§13.7 Temperature and Reaction

Rates
For a chemical reaction to proceed, the reactants must

have a minimum amount of kinetic energy called activation
energy (Ea).

30
3
If Ea  kT
2
then only molecules in the high speed tail of Maxwell-

Boltzmann distribution can react. When this is the situation,
the reaction rates are an exponential function of T.
Ea
 
 kT 
reaction rates  e

31
Example (text problem 13.76): The reaction rate for the

hydrolysis of benzoyl-l-arginine amide by trypsin at 10.0 C
is 1.878 times faster than at 5.0 C. Assuming that the
reaction rate is exponential, what is the activation energy?
Ea
 
 kT 1 
r1  e where T1 = 10.0 C = 283 K and T2
 
Ea  = 5 C = 278 K; and r1 = 2.878 r2.
 kT 2 
r2  e
r1  Ea Ea 
The ratio of the reaction rates is  exp   
r2  kT1 kT2 
32
Example continued:
Solving for the activation energy gives:
 r1 
k ln 
 r2 
Ea 
1 1
  
 T2 T1 


1.38  10  23

J/K ln1.878
 1.37  10 19 J
 1 1 
  
 278 K 283 K 

33
§13.8 Collisions Between Gas

Molecules
On average, a gas particle will be able to travel a distance
1

2d 2  N / V 
before colliding with another particle. This is the mean free

path. The quantity d2 is the cross-sectional area of the
particle.
34
After a collision, the molecules involved will have their

direction of travel changed. Successive collisions
produce a random walk trajectory.

35
Substances will move from areas of high concentration to

areas of lower concentration. This process is called
diffusion.
In a time t, the rms displacement in one direction is:
D is the diffusion constant

xrms  2 Dt (see table 13.3).

36
Example (text problem 13.81): Estimate the time it takes a

sucrose molecule to move 5.00 mm in one direction by
diffusion in water. Assume there is no current in the water.
xrms  2 Dt
Solve for t t
x

2
5.00 10 m
rms  3
 25000 s
 2
10 2
2D 2 5.0 10 m /s  

37
Summary
•Definition of Temperature
•Temperature Scales (Celsius, Fahrenheit, Absolute)
•Thermal Expansion
•Origin of Pressure in a Gas
•Ideal Gas Law
•Exponential Reaction Rates
•Mean Free Path

38
Chapter 14: Heat
•Internal Energy
•Heat
•Heat Capacity
•Specific Heat
•Phase Transitions
•Thermal Conduction
•Thermal Convection
•Thermal Radiation

1
§14.1 Internal Energy
The internal energy of a system is the sum total of all the

energy of all the molecules in the system. It does not
include macroscopic kinetic energy nor energy due to
external interactions (potential energy).

2
Internal energy includes:
•Translational and rotational kinetic energy of the

particles due to their individual motions.
•Vibrational kinetic and potential energy
•Potential energy due to interactions between particles in
the system.
•Chemical and nuclear energy (binding energies)

3
Internal energy does not include:
•The kinetic energy of the molecules due to translations,

rotations, and vibrations of the whole or large fraction of
the system.
•Potential energy due to the interactions of the molecules
of the system with bodies outside of the system (external
interactions).

4
Example (text problem 14.5): A child of mass 15 kg climbs to

the top of a slide that is 1.7 m above a horizontal run that
extends for 0.5 m at the base of the slide. After sliding
down, the child comes to rest just before reaching the very
end of the horizontal portion of the slide. How much internal
energy was generated during this process?
U = mgh
KE = 0
1.7 m
U=0
KE = 0

5
Example continued:
The change in mechanical energy of the child is

E= Ef – Ei = -mgh = -250 J. This is the increase in
internal energy and is distributed between the child, the
slide, and the air.

6
§14.2 Heat
Heat is energy in transit between two systems at different

temperatures. Heat flows from the system at high
temperature to the system at low temperature.

7
An experiment by Joule showed that the quantity of work

done on a system or the same quantity of heat flowing into
a system causes the same increase in the system’s internal
energy.
Heat is measured in joules or calories. 1 cal = 4.186 J

(the mechanical equivalent of heat); 1 Calorie (used on
food packaging) = 1 kcal.

8
§14.3 Heat Capacity and Specific

Heat
For many substances, under normal circumstances TQ.

Or Q = CT where C is the heat capacity.
The specific heat capacity, or just specific heat, of a

substance is the heat capacity per unit mass.
C Q
c  or Q  mcT
m mT Copyright © 2008 – The McGraw-Hill Companies s.r.l.
9
Example (text problem 14.12): If 125.6 kJ of heat are

supplied to 5.00102 g of water at 22 C, what is the final
temperature of the water?
Q  mcT  mcTf  Ti 
Q
Tf  Ti 
mc
125.6 kJ
 22C   82C
0.5 kg 4.186 kJ/kg C

10
Example (text problem 14.19): A 0.400 kg aluminum

teakettle contains 2.00 kg of water at 15.0 C. How much
heat is required to raise the temperature of the water (and
kettle) to 100 C?
The heat needed to raise the temperature of the water to

Tf is
Qw  mw cw Tw  2 kg 4.186 kJ/kg C 85 C   712 kJ.
The heat needed to raise the temperature of the aluminum

to Tf is
QAl  mAlcAl TAl  0.4 kg 0.900 kJ/kg C 85 C   30.6 kJ.
Then Qtotal= Qw + QAl = 732 kJ.

11
§14.4 Specific Heat of Ideal Gases
The average kinetic energy of a molecule in an ideal gas is

3
K tr  kT .
2
And the total kinetic energy of the gas is
3 3
K tr  NkT  nRT .
2 2

12
Define the molar specific heat at constant volume; this

is the heat capacity per mole.
Q
CV 
nT
Heat is allowed to flow into a gas, but the gas is not

allowed to expand. If the gas is ideal and monatomic, the
heat goes into increasing the average kinetic energy of
the particles.

13
3
The added heat is K tr  Q  nRT .
2
3
nRT
Q 2 3
CV    R  12.5 J/K/mol
nT nT 2
5
If the gas is diatomic: CV  R  20.8 J/K/mol
2

14
Internal energy will be distributed equally among all possible

degrees of freedom (equipartition of energy). Each degree
of freedom contributes ½kT of energy per molecule and ½R
to the molar specific heat at constant volume.
Rotational motions of a 2-atom molecule:

15
Example (text problem 14.28): A container of nitrogen gas

(N2) at 23 C contains 425 L at a pressure of 3.5 atm. If
26.6 kJ of heat are added to the container, what will be the
new temperature of the gas?
For a diatomic gas, Q  nCV T .
PiVi
The number of moles n is given by the ideal gas law n  .
RTi

16
Example continued:
The change in temperature is
 Q  RTi 
T    
 CV  P iVi 
 26.6 103 J  R296 K 
  
 2 .5 R  3 .5 atm  1 . 013  105
N/m 2
/atm 425 L 10 3
m 3
/L  
 21 K
The final temperature of the gas is Tf = Ti + T = 317 K

= 44 C.

17
§14.5 Phase Transitions
A phase transition occurs whenever a substance changes

from one phase (solid, liquid, or gas) to another.

18
Latent heat is the amount of heat per unit mass required

to change the phase of a substance.
The latent heat of fusion (Lf) is the heat per unit

mass needed to produce the solid-liquid phase
transition.
The latent heat of vaporization (Lv) is the heat

per unit mass needed to produce the liquid-gas
phase transition.

19
Example (text problem 14.37): A 75 g cube of ice at

-10.0 C is placed in 0.500 kg of water at 50.0 C in an
insulating container so that no heat is lost to the
environment. Will the ice melt completely? What will be
the final temperature of this system?
The heat required to completely melt the ice is

Qice  mice cice Tice  mice Lf
 0.075 kg 2.1 kJ/kg C 10C   0.075 kg 333.7 kJ/kg 
 27 kJ
The heat required to cool the water to the freezing point is

Qw  mw cw Tw
 0.5 kg 4.186 kJ/kg C 50C 
 105 kJ Copyright © 2008 – The McGraw-Hill Companies s.r.l.
20
Example continued:
Since Qice < Qwater the ice will completely melt.
To find the final temperature of the system, note that no

heat is lost to the environment; the heat lost by the water is
gained by the ice.
0  Qice  Qw
0  mice cice T  mice Lf  mice cw Tf  Tice,i   mw cw Tf  Tw,i 
0  mice cice T  mice Lf  mice  mw cwTf  mw cwTi
0  27 kJ  mice  mw cwTf  105 kJ
Tf  32.4 C
21
Example (text problem 14.43): Compute the heat of fusion of

a substance from these data: 31.15 kJ will change 0.500 kg
of the solid at 21 C to liquid at 327 C, the melting point.
The specific heat of the solid is 0.129 kJ/kg K.
Q  mcT  mLf
Q  mcT
Lf   22.8 kJ/kg
m

22
On a phase diagram, the

triple point is the set of
P and T where all three
phases can coexist in
equilibrium.
Sublimation is the process by which a solid phase

transitions into a gas (and gas  solid).
23
The critical point marks the end of the vapor pressure

curve. A path around this point (i.e. the path does not cross
the curve) does not result in a phase transition. Past the
critical point it is not possible to distinguish between the
liquid and gas phases.

24
§14.6 Thermal Conduction
Through direct contact, heat can be conducted from regions

of high temperature to regions of low temperature. Energy
is transferred by collisions between neighboring atoms or
molecules.

25
T
The rate of energy transfer by conduction is P  A
d
where  is the thermal conductivity, A is the cross-

sectional area, and T/d is the temperature gradient.

26
d
Also T  P  PR
A
where R is the thermal resistance.
This is convenient when heat is conducted through multiple

layers because
n
Ttotal  P  Ri .
i 1

27
Example (text problem 14.50): A metal rod with a diameter

of 2.30 cm and a length of 1.10 m has one end immersed in
ice at 0 C and the other end in boiling water at 100 C. If
the ice melts at a rate of 1.32 grams every 175 s, what is
the thermal conductivity of the metal? Assume no heat loss
to the surrounding air.
Qc T
Heat is conducted to the ice at a rate of P   A .
t d
The heat conducted to the ice in a time period t is
T
Qc  A t .
d
The heat needed to melt a given mass of ice is Q  mice Lf .

28
Example continued:
Since all the heat conducted by the rod is absorbed by

the ice,
T
A t  mice Lf
d

mice Lf

0.00132 kg 1.10 m  333.7 103 J/kg  
A
T
t
2

 1.15 10 m 100 K 175 s 
2

d
 66.6 W/m K.

29
Example (text problem 14.55): For a temperature difference

of 20 C, one slab of material conducts 10.0 W/m2; another
of the same shape conducts 20.0 W/m2. What is the rate of
heat flow per m2 of surface when the slabs are placed side
by side with a total temperature difference of 20 C?
For each slab, the thermal resistance per square meter is
T 20.0 K 2
R1    2 . 00 K/W/m
P1 10.0 W/m 2
A
T 20.0 K 2
R2   2
 1 . 00 K/W/m .
P2 20.0 W/m
A

30
Example continued:
When the materials oneplaced in series, the rate of heat

flow is
T T
P 2
  6.67 W/m 2 .
R1  R2
R
i 1
i

31
§14.7 Thermal Convection
Convection is the movement of heat by fluid currents.

Material is transported from one place to another.

32
The rate of energy transport by convection is P  hAT
where h is the coefficient of convection, A is a surface

area, and T
 is the temperature difference between the
surface and convecting fluid.

33
§14.8 Thermal Radiation
All bodies emit electromagnetic (EM) radiation. The perfect

absorber and emitter of EM radiation is called a blackbody.

34
The rate of energy emission by a blackbody is (Stefan’s

Law)
P  AT 4
where A is the surface area of the emitting body, T is its

temperature, and  = 5.67010-8 W/m2 K4 is the Stefan-
Boltzmann constant.

35
Since an ideal blackbody does not exist, Stefan’s law is

written as
P  eAT 4
where e is the emissivity; e = 0 for a perfect reflector of
EM radiation and e = 1 for perfect blackbody.

36
A spectrum shows the

amount of radiation emitted
at a particular wavelength.
For a blackbody, the peak of
the spectrum is determined
only by its temperature.
3
Wien’s law maxT  2.898 10 m K.

37
The net energy gained or lost by a blackbody at a

temperature T is

P  eAT 4  eATs4  eA T 4  Ts4 
where Ts is the temperature of the surroundings.

38
Example (text problem 14.69): A sphere with a diameter of

80 cm is held at a temperature of 250 C and is radiating
energy. If the intensity of the radiation detected at a
distance of 2.0 m from the sphere’s center is 102 W/m2,
what is the emissivity of the sphere?
The power emitted by a point source is P  4d 2 I .
P 4d 2 I
The emissivity is e  4

AT 4R 2T 4

102 W/m 2 2.0 m 2  

0.40 m 2 5.67 10 8 W/m 2 K 4 523 K 4 
 0.60.
39
Summary
•Definition of Internal Energy

•Heat Capacity
•Specific Heat
•Phase Transitions
•Latent Heat
•Phase Diagrams
•Energy Transport by Conduction, Convection, and Radiation

40
Chapter 15: Thermodynamics
•The First Law of Thermodynamics

•Thermodynamic Processes (isobaric, isochoric, isothermal, adiabatic)
•Reversible and Irreversible Processes
•Heat Engines
•Refrigerators and Heat Pumps
•The Carnot Cycle
•Entropy (The Second Law of Thermodynamics)
•The Third Law of Thermodynamics

1
§15.1 The First Law of

Thermodynamics
The first law of thermodynamics says the change in

internal energy of a system is equal to the heat flow into the
system plus the work done on the system.
U  Q  W

2

3
§15.2 Thermodynamic Processes
A state variable describes the state of a system at time t,

but it does not reveal how the system was put into that
state. Examples of state variables: pressure, temperature,
volume, number of moles, and internal energy.

4
A PV diagram can be used to represent the state changes

of a system, provided the system is always near
equilibrium.
The area under a PV curve

gives the magnitude of the
work done on a system.
W>0 for compression and
W<0 for expansion.

5
To go from the state (Vi, Pi) by the path (a) to the state (Vf,
Pf) requires a different amount of work then by path (b). To
return to the initial point (1) requires the work to be nonzero.
The work done on a system depends on the path taken in

the PV diagram. The work done on a system during a
closed cycle can be nonzero.
6
An isothermal process
implies that both P and
V of the gas change
(PVT).


7

8
§15.3 Thermodynamic Processes

for an Ideal Gas
No work is done on a system

when its volume remains
constant (isochoric process).
For an ideal gas (provided the
number of moles remains
constant), the change in internal
energy is
Q  U  nCV T .

9
For a constant pressure (isobaric) process, the change in

internal energy is
U  Q  W
where W   PV   nRT and Q  nC P T .
CP is the molar specific heat at constant

pressure. For an ideal gas CP = CV+R.

10
For a constant temperature (isothermal) process, U = 0

and the work done on an ideal gas is
 Vi 
W  nRT ln .
 Vf 

11
Example (text problem 15.7): An ideal monatomic gas is

taken through a cycle in the PV diagram. (a) If there are
0.0200 mol of this gas, what are the temperature and
pressure at point C?
From the graph:

Pc = 98.0 kPa
Using the ideal gas law
PcVc
Tc   1180 K.
nR

12
Example continued:
(b) What is the change in internal energy of the gas as

it is taken from point A to B?
This is an isochoric process so W = 0 and U = Q.
 3  PBVB PAVA 
U  Q  nCV T  n R   
 2  nR nR 
3
 PBVB  PAVA 
2
3
 V PB  PA   200 J
2
13
Example continued:
(c) How much work is done by this gas per cycle?
The work done per cycle is the area between the

curves on the PV diagram. Here W=½VP = 66 J.
(d) What is the total change in internal energy of this

gas in one cycle?
 3  Pf Vf PiVi 
U  nCV T  n R   
 2  nR nR 
3 The cycle ends where
 Pf Vf  PiVi   0 it began (T = 0).
2
14
Example (text problem 15.11): An ideal gas is in contact with

a heat reservoir so that it remains at constant temperature of
300.0 K. The gas is compressed from a volume of 24.0 L to
a volume of 14.0 L. During the process, the mechanical
device pushing the piston to compress the gas is found to
expend 5.00 kJ of energy. How much heat flows between
the heat reservoir and the gas, and in what direction does the
heat flow occur?
This is an isothermal process, so U = Q + W = 0 (for

an ideal gas) and W = -Q = -5.00 kJ. Heat flows from
the gas to the reservoir.

15
§15.4 Reversible and Irreversible

Processes
A process is reversible if it does not violate any law of

physics when it is run backwards in time. For example an
ice cube placed on a countertop in a warm room will melt.
The reverse process cannot occur: an ice cube will not
form out of the puddle of water on the countertop in a warm
room.

16
A collision between two billiard balls is reversible.

Momentum is conserved if time is run forward; momentum
is still conserved if time runs backwards.

17
Any process that involves dissipation of energy is not

reversible.
Any process that involves heat transfer from a hotter object

to a colder object is not reversible.
The second law of thermodynamics (Clausius Statement):

Heat never flows spontaneously from a colder body to a
hotter body.

18
§15.5 Heat Engines
A heat engine is a device designed to convert disordered

energy into ordered energy. The net work done by an
engine during one cycle is equal to the net heat flow into
the engine during the cycle (U= 0).
W net  Qnet

19
The efficiency of an engine is defined as
net work done by the engine Wnet

e  .
heat input Qin
Note: Qnet = Qin - Qout

20
§15.6 Refrigerators and Heat

Pumps
In a heat engine, heat flows from hot to cold, with work as

the output. In a heat pump, heat flows from cold to hot, with
work as the input.

21
The efficiency of a heat engine can be rewritten as
net work output Wnet

e 
heat input QH
QH  QC QC
  1 .
QH QH

22
Example (text problem 15.15): (a) How much heat does an

engine with efficiency of 33.3 % absorb in order to deliver
1.00 kJ of work?
Wnet 1.00 kJ
QH    3.00 kJ
e 0.333
(b) How much heat is exhausted by the engine?
QC
e  1
QH
QC  1  e  QH  2.00 kJ
23
§15.7 Reversible Engines and Heat

Pumps
A reversible engine can be used as an engine (heat input

from a hot reservoir and exhausted to a cold reservoir) or
as a heat pump (heat is taken from cold reservoir and
exhausted to a hot reservoir).

24
From the second law of thermodynamics, no engine can

have an efficiency greater than that of an ideal reversible
engine that uses the same two reservoirs. The efficiency of
this ideal reversible engine is
TC
er  1  .
TH

25
§15.8 Details of the Carnot Cycle
The ideal engine of the previous section is known as a

Carnot engine.

26
The Carnot cycle has four steps:
1. Isothermal expansion: takes in heat from hot reservoir;

keeping the gas temperature at TH.
2. Adiabatic expansion: the gas does work without heat
flow into the gas; gas temperature decreases to TC.
3. Isothermal compression: Heat QC is exhausted; gas
temperature remains at TC.
4. Adiabatic compression: raises the temperature back to
TH.

27
The Carnot cycle

illustrated

28
Example (text problem 15.28): An engine operates

between temperatures 650 K and 350 K at 65.0% of its
maximum efficiency. (a) What is the efficiency of this
engine?
The maximum possible efficiency is
TC 350 K
er  1   1  0.462.
TH 650K
The engine operates at e = 0.65er = 0.30 or 30% efficiency.

29
Example continued:
(b) If 6.3103 J is exhausted to the low temperature reservoir,

how much work does the engine do?
The heats exchanged at the reservoirs are related to each

other through
QC  1  e  QH .
Wnet  QH  QC
QC  e 
  QC    QC  2.7 kJ
1  e 1 e 
30
§15.9 Entropy
Heat flows from objects of high temperature to objects at

low temperature because this process increases the
disorder of the system. Entropy is a measure of a system’s
disorder. Entropy is a state variable.

31
If an amount of heat Q flows into a system at constant

temperature, then the change in entropy is
Q
S  .
T
Every irreversible process increases the total entropy of the

universe. Reversible processes do not increase the total
entropy of the universe.

32
The second law of thermodynamics (Entropy Statement):

The entropy of the universe never decreases.

33
Example (text problem 15.50): An ice cube at 0.0 C is

slowly melting. What is the change in the ice cube’s entropy
for each 1.00 g of ice that melts?
To melt ice requires Q = mLf joules of heat. To melt one

gram of ice requires 333.7 J of energy.
The entropy change is
Q 333.7 J
S    1.22 J/K.
T 273 K

34
§15.10 Statistical Interpretation of

Entropy
A microstate specifies the state of each constituent particle

in a thermodynamic system. A macrostate is determined
by the values of the thermodynamic state variables.

35
number of microstates corresponding to the macrostate

probability of a macrostate 
total number of microstates for all possible macrostates

36
The number of microstates for a given macrostate is related

to the entropy.
where  is the number

S  k ln  of microstates.

37
Example (text problem 15.61): For a system composed of

two identical dice, let the macrostate be defined as the sum
of the numbers showing on the top faces. What is the
maximum entropy of this system in units of Boltzmann’s
constant?

38
Example continued:
Sum Possible microstates

2 (1,1)
3 (1,2); (2,1)
4 (1,3); (2,2); (3,1)
5 (1,4); (2,3); (3,2); (4,1)
6 (1,5); (2,4), (3,3); (4,2); (5,1)
7 (1,6); (2,5); (3,4), (4,3); (5,2); (6,1)
8 (2,6); (3,5); (4,4) (5,3); (6,2)
9 (3,6); (4,5); (5,4) (6,3)
10 (4,6); (5,5); (6,4)
11 (5,6); (6,5)
12 (6,6)
39
Example continued:
The maximum entropy corresponds to a sum of 7 on

the dice. For this macrostate, Ω = 6 with an entropy of
S  k ln   k ln 6  1.79k .

40
§15.11 The Third Law of

Thermodynamics
It is impossible to cool a system to absolute zero.

41
Summary
•The Three Laws of Thermodynamics

•Thermodynamic Processes
•Reversible and Irreversible Processes
•Heat Engines and Heat Pumps
•Efficiency of an Engine
•Entropy

42
Chapter 16: Electric Forces and

Fields
•Electric Charge
•Conductors & Insulators
•Coulomb’s Law
•Electric Field
•Motion of a Point Charge in a Uniform E-field
•Conductors in Electrostatic Equilibrium
•Gauss’s Law

1
§16.1 Electric Charge
There are two kinds of electric charge: positive and negative.
A body is electrically neutral if the sum of all the charges in a

body is zero.
Charge is a conserved quantity.

2
The elementary unit of charge is e = 1.60210-19 C.
The charge on the electron is -1e.

The charge on the proton is +1e.
The charge on the neutron is 0e.
Experiments show that likes charges will repel each other

and unlike charges will attract each other and that the force
decreases with increasing distance between charges.

3
- - +
+ + +
This body is electrically neutral. -
+ -
-
An object can become polarized if the charges within it can

be separated.
- +
By holding a - +
charged rod near +
+ + + + + -
the body, it can +
- +
be polarized. -

4
§16.2 Conductors and Insulators
A conductor is made of material that allows electric charge to

move through it easily.
An insulator is made of material that does not allow electric

charge to move through it easily.

5
§16.3 Coulomb’s Law

The magnitude of the force k q1 q2
between two point charges is: F
r2
where q1 and q2 are the charges and r is the separation
between the two charges.
9 2 2
k  8.99 10 Nm /C
1
where k  and  0  8.85 10 12 C 2 /Nm 2
4 0
and 0 is called the permittivity of free space.
6
The electric force is directed between the centers of the two

point charges.
F12 F21
q1 q2 Attractive force
between q1 and q2.
r
q1 q2
Repulsive force F12 F21
between q1 and q2.
r
The electric force is an example of a long-range or field
force, just like the force of gravity.
7
Example: What is the net force on the charge q1 due to the

other two charges? q1 = +1.2 C, q2 = -0.60 C, and q3 =
+0.20 C.
F21

F31
The net force on q1 is Fnet = F21 + F31

8
Example continued:
The magnitudes of the forces are:
F21 
k q1 q2

9 10 9

Nm 2 /C 2 (1.2  10 6 C)(0.60  10 6 C)
r212 (1.2 m) 2  (0.5 m) 2
 3.8 10 3 N
F31 
k q1 q3

9  10 9

Nm 2 /C 2 (1.2 10 6 C)(0.20  10 6 C)
r312 (1.2 m) 2
 1.5  10 3 N
9
Example continued:
The components of the net force are:
Fnet , x  F31, x  F21, x  F31  F21 cos   5.0  10 3 N

Fnet , y  F31, y  F21, y  0  F21 sin   1.4  10 3 N
1. 2 m
cos    0.92
1.3 m
Where from the figure
0. 5 m
sin    0.38
1.3 m

10
Example continued:
The magnitude of the net force is:
Fnet  Fnet2 , x  Fnet2 , y  5.2 10 3 N
The direction of the net force is:

Fnet , y
tan    0.28
Fnet , x
  16

11
Example (text problem 16.13): What is the ratio of the electric

force and gravitational force between a proton and an
electron separated by 5.310-11 m (the radius of a Hydrogen
atom)?
k q1 q2 q1  q2  e
Fe 
r2 m1  m p  1.67  10  27 kg
Gm1m2
Fg  m2  me  9.1110 31 kg
r2
Fe k q1 q2 ke 2
The ratio is:    2.3 1039
Fg Gm1m2 Gme m p

12
§16.4 The Electric Field
Recall : Fg  mg Where g is the strength

of the gravitational field.
Similarly for electric forces

Fe  qE we can define the strength
of the electric field E.

13
For a point charge of charge Q, the Fe k Q

magnitude of the force per unit charge E  2
at a distance r (the electric field) is: q r
The electric field at a point in space is found by adding all of

the electric fields present.
E net   Ei Be careful! The electric

i field is a vector!

14
Example: Find the electric field at the point P.
P
x
q1 = +e q2 = -2e x = 2m
x = 0m x = 1m
E is a vector. What is its direction?
Place a positive test charge at the point of interest. The

direction of the electric field at the location of the test
charge is the same as the direction of the force on the
test charge.
15
Example continued:
P
x
q1 = +e q2 = -2e
Locate the
positive test
charge here.
P
x
q1 = +e q2 = -2e
Direction of E due
Direction of E due to charge 1
to charge 2
16
Example continued:
The net electric field at point P is: E net  E1  E 2
The magnitude of the electric field is: Enet  E1  E2

17
Example continued:
E1 
k q1

9 10 9

Nm 2 / C 2 (1.6 10 19 C)
 3.6  10 10
N/C
r2 (2 m) 2
E2 
k q2

9 10 9

Nm 2 / C 2 (2 *1.6 10 19 C)
 2. 9  10 9
N/C
r2 (1 m) 2
9
Enet  E1  E2  2.5  10 N/C
The net E-field is

directed to the left> Copyright © 2008 – The McGraw-Hill Companies s.r.l.
18
Electric field lines
Electric field lines are a useful way to indicate what the

magnitude and direction of an electric field is in space.
Rules:
1. The direction of the E-field is tangent to the field lines at
every point in space.
2. The field is strong where there are many field lines and
weak where there are few lines.
3. The field lines start on + charges and end on – charges.
4. Field lines do not cross.
19
Pictorial representation of the rules on the previous slide:

20
§16.5 Motion of a Point Charge in a

Uniform E-Field
A region of space with a uniform

electric field containing a particle
of charge q (q>0) and mass m.

21
FBD for the y

charge q
Fe
x
Apply Newton’s 2nd Law and

solve for the acceleration.
F x  Fe  ma
Fe  qE  ma
q
a E
m
One could now use the kinematic equations to solve for
distance traveled in a time interval, the velocity at the end of
a time interval, etc. Copyright © 2008 – The McGraw-Hill Companies s.r.l.
22
Example: What electric field strength is needed to keep an

electron suspended in the air?
FBD for the Fe

electron:
To get an upward force on the electron, the electric field

must be directed toward the Earth.

23
Example continued:
Apply Newton’s 2nd Law: Fy  Fe  w  0

Fe  w
qE  eE  mg
mg
E  5.6  10 11 N/C
e

24
Example (text problem 16.44): A horizontal beam of electrons

moving 4.0107 m/s is deflected vertically by the vertical
electric field between two oppositely charged parallel plates.
The magnitude of the field is 2.00104 N/C.
(a) What is the direction of the field between the plates?
From the top plate to the bottom plate

25
Example continued:
(b) What is the charge per unit area on the plates?
Q  This is the electric field

E 
0 A 0 between two charged plates.
Note that E here is independent of the distance from

the plates!
  E 0  2.00 10 4 N/C 8.85 10 12 C 2 /Nm 2 

 1.77  10 7 C/m 2

26
Example continued:
(c) What is the vertical deflection d of the electrons as they
leave the plates? y
Fe
FBD for an electron
in the beam:
x
w
Apply Newton’s 2nd Law and solve for the acceleration:
F y  Fe  w  ma y
Fe  w Fe qE
ay 
m

m
g 
m
 g  3.52 1015  9.8 m/s  
27
Example continued:
What is the vertical position of the electron after it travels a

horizontal distance of 2.0 cm?
1 02 Time interval to
x  x0  vox t  a x t
2 travel 2.00 cm
horizontally
x  x0 0.02 m 10
t  7
 5 .0  10 sec
v0 x 4.0 10 m/s
0
1 2
y  y0  voy t  a y t Deflection of an
2 electron in the
1 2 beam
y  y0  d  a y t  4.4 10  4 m
2
28
§16.6 Conductors in Electrostatic

Equilibrium
Conductors are easily polarized. These materials have free

electrons that are free to move around inside the material.
Any charges that are placed on a conductor will arrange

themselves in a stable distribution. This stable situation is
called electrostatic equilibrium.

29
When a conductor is in electrostatic equilibrium, the E-field

inside it is zero.
Any net charge must reside on the surface of a conductor

in electrostatic equilibrium.

30
Just outside the surface of a conductor in electrostatic

equilibrium the electric field must be perpendicular to the
surface.
If this were not true, then any surface

charge would have a net force acting
on it, and the conductor would not be
in electrostatic equilibrium.

31
Any excess charge on the

surface of a conductor will
accumulate where the
surface is highly curved
(i.e. a sharp point).

32
§16.7 Gauss’s Law
Enclose a point
charge +Q with an
+Q
imaginary sphere.
Here, E-Field lines exit the sphere.

33
Look at a small patch

of the surface of the
imaginary sphere.
With a positive charge

inside the sphere you
would see electric field
lines leaving the surface.

34
number of field lines

Recall that E 
A
so that the number of field lines  EA
It is only the component of the electric field that is

perpendicular to the surface that exits the surface.
E

Surface

35
Define a quantity called flux, which is related to the number

of field lines that cross a surface:
flux   e  E A  E cos  A
E

This picture defines
the value of .
Flux > 0 when field lines exit the surface and flux < 0
when field lines enter the surface.

36
Example (text problem 16.58): Find the electric flux through

each side of a cube of edge length a in a uniform electric field
of magnitude E.
A cube has six sides: The field lines enter one face and exit
through another. What is the flux through each of the other
four faces?

37
Example continued:
There is zero electric flux though the other four faces.

The electric field lines never enter/exit any of them.
The flux through the left face is –EA.

The flux through the right face is +EA.
The net flux through the cube is zero.

38
Since Eq, the flux through a surface can also be written as
Qinside
e  This is Gauss’s Law.
0
The flux through a surface depends on the amount of

charge inside the surface. Based on this, the cube in
the previous example contained no net charge.

39
Summary
•Properties of Conductors/Insulators
•Charge Polarization
•Coulomb’s Law
•The Electric Field
•Motion of a Point Charge in an Electric Field
•Gauss’s Law

40
Chapter 17: Electric Potential
•Electric Potential Energy

•Electric Potential
•How are the E-field and Electric Potential related?
•Motion of Point Charges in an E-field
•Capacitors
•Dielectrics

1
§17.1 Electric Potential Energy
Electric potential energy (Ue) is energy stored in the electric

field.
•Ue depends only on the location, not upon the path taken
to get there (conservative force).
•Ue = 0 at some reference point.
•For two point particles take Ue = 0 at r = .
kq1q2
Ue 
•For the electric force r Copyright © 2008 – The McGraw-Hill Companies s.r.l.
2
Example: A proton and an electron, initially separated by a

distance r, are brought closer together. How does the
potential energy of this system of charges charge?
ke 2
For these two charges U e  
r
Bringing the charges closer together decreases r:.
U e  U ef  U ei  0
This is like a mass falling near the surface of the Earth;

positive work is done by the field.
3
Example continued
How will the electric potential energy change if both

particles have positive (or negative) charges?
When q1 and q2 have the same algebraic sign then

 e > 0.
U
This means that work must be done by an external

agent to bring the charges closer together.

4
What is the potential energy of a system (arrangement) of

point charges? To calculate:
Begin by placing the first charge at a place in space

far from any other charges. No work is required to
do this.
Next, bring in the remaining charges one at a time

until the desired configuration is finished.

5
Example: What is the potential energy of three point charges

arranged as a right triangle? (See text Example 17.2)
q2 q2
r23 r12
r12 r23
q1 q3 q1 q3
r13 r13
kq1q2 kq1q3 kq2 q3 kq1q2 kq1q3 kq2 q3

Ue  0    Ue  0   
r12 r13 r23 r12 r13 r23
Are these the same? Copyright © 2008 – The McGraw-Hill Companies s.r.l.
6
§17.2 Electric Potential
Electric potential is the electric potential energy per unit

charge.
Ue
V
qtest
Electric potential (or just potential) is a measurable scalar

quantity. Its unit is the volt (1 V = 1 J/C).

7
U e kQ
For a point charge of charge Q: V 
qtest r
When a charge q moves through a potential difference

of V, its potential energy change is Ue = q V.

8
Example: A charge Q = +1 nC is placed somewhere in space

far from other charges. Take ra = rb = rc = rd = 1.0 m and re =
rf = rg = 2.0 m.
f
b
c
Q
e a

9
Example continued:
(a) Compare the potential at points d and g.
Since Q>0 the potential at point d is greater than at

point g, it is closer to the charge Q.
(b) Compare the potential at points a and b.
The potential at point a is the same as at point b;

both are at the same distance from the charge Q.
10
Example continued:
(c) Place a charge of +0.50 nC at point e. What will the

change in potential (V) be if this charge is moved to point
a?
Ve  
 
kQ 9.0  109 Nm 2 /C 2 1.0 nC 
 4.5 Volts
re 2m
Va  
 
kQ 9.0  109 Nm 2 /C 2 1.0 nC 
 9.0 Volts
ra 1m
V = Vf – Vi = Va-Ve = +4.5 Volts

11
Example continued:
(d) What is the change in potential energy (U) of the

+0.50 nC charge ?
Ue =qV = (+0.50 nC)(+4.5 Volts)= +2.3 nJ

12
Example continued:
(e) How would the results of the previous questions change

if instead of a +1.0 nC charge there is a -1.0 nC charge in its
place?
(a)The potential at point d is less than the potential at

point g.
(b) Unchanged
(c) -4.5 V
(d) -2.3 nJ

13
§17.3 The Relationship between E

and V
f
b
The circles are c
called equipotentials e a
Q
(surfaces of equal +9 V
potential).
+4.5 V
d

14
The electric field will point in the direction of maximum

potential decrease and will also be perpendicular to the
equipotential surfaces.
f
b
c
Q +9 V +4.5 V
e a

15
Equipotentials
and field lines
for a dipole.

16
Uniform E-field
V1 V2 V3 V4
Equipotential surfaces
Ue Where d is the distance

V   Ed
q over which V occurs.
17
If the electric field inside a conductor is zero, what is the

value of the potential?
If E=0, then V=0. The potential is constant!
What is the value of V inside the conductor? It will be

the value of V on the surface of the conductor.

18
§17.4 Moving Charges
When only electric forces act on a charge, its total

mechanical energy will be conserved.
Ei  E f

19
Example (text problem 17.31): Point P is at a potential of

500.0 kV and point S is at a potential of 200.0 kV. The space
between these points is evacuated. When a charge of +2e
moves from P to S, by how much does its kinetic energy
change?
Ei  E f
Ki  U i  K f  U f
K f  K i  U i  U f  U f  U i 
 U   qV   q Vs  V p 
  2e 200.0  500.0 kV
14
 9.6  10 J
20
Example (text problem 17.32): An electron is accelerated from

rest through a potential difference. If the electron reaches a
speed of 7.26106 m/s, what is the potential difference?
Ei  E f
Ki  U i  K f  U f
0
K f  U   qV
1 2
mv f   qV
2
V  
mv f
2

9.1110 31 kg 7.26 106 m/s   2
2q 2  1.60 10 19 C  

 150 Volts Note: the electron moves
from low V to high V.
21
§17.5 Capacitors
A capacitor is a device that stores electric potential energy
by storing separated positive and negative charges. Work
must be done to separate the charges.
+ + + + + + +
Parallel plate
capacitor
- - - - - - -

22
For a parallel plate capacitor:
EQ
E  V
 Q  V
Written as an equality: Q = CV, where the proportionality

constant C is called the capacitance.

23
What is the capacitance for a parallel plate capacitor?
 Q
V  Ed  d  d
0 0 A
0 A
Q  V  CV
d
0 A
where C  .
d
Note: C depends only on constants and geometrical factors.

The unit of capacitance is the farad (F). 1 F = 1 C2/J = 1 C/V

24
Example (text problem 17.42): A parallel plate capacitor

has a capacitance of 1.20 nF. There is a charge of
magnitude 0.800 C on each plate.
(a) What is the potential difference between the plates?
Q  CV
Q 0.800 C
V    667 Volts
C 1.20 nF

25
Example continued:
(b) If the plate separation is doubled, while the charge is

kept constant, what will happen to the potential difference?
Q Qd
V  
C 0 A
V  d
If d is doubled so is the potential difference.

26
Example (text problem 17.86): A parallel plate capacitor has a

charge of 0.020 C on each plate with a potential difference
of 240 volts. The parallel plates are separated by 0.40 mm of
air.
(a) What is the capacitance of this capacitor?
Q 0.020 C
C   8.3 10 11 F  83 pF
V 240 Volts

27
Example continued:
(b) What is the area of a single plate?
0 A
C
d
A
Cd

83 pF0.40 mm 
0 8.85  10 12 C 2 / Nm 2
 0.0038 m 2  38 cm 2

28
§17.6 Dielectrics
As more and more charge is placed on capacitor plates,

there will come a point when the E-field becomes strong
enough to begin to break down the material (medium)
between the capacitor plates.

29
To increase the capacitance, a dielectric can be placed

between the capacitor plates.
C   C0
0 A
where C0 
d
and  is the dielectric constant.

30
Example (text problem 17.55): A capacitor can be made from

two sheets of aluminum foil separated by a sheet of waxed
paper. If the sheets of aluminum are 0.3 m by 0.4 m and the
waxed paper, of slightly larger dimensions, is of thickness
0.030 mm and has  = 2.5, what is the capacitance of this
capacitor?
0 A
C0 
d

 
8.85  10 12 Nm 2 /C 2 0.40 * 0.30 m 2
0.030  10 -3 m
 3.54  10 8 F

and C   C 0  2.5 3.54  10 8 F  8.85 10 8 F. 
31
§17.7 Energy Stored in a Capacitor
A capacitor will store energy equivalent to the amount of

work that it takes to separate the charges.

32
The energy stored in the electric field between the plates is:
1
U  QV
2
1 2
 C V 
}
2 These are found by
using Q=CV and
Q2
 the first relationship.
2C

33
Example (text problem 17.63): A parallel plate capacitor is

composed of two square plates, 10.0 cm on a side, separated
by an air gap of 0.75 mm.
(a) What is the charge on this capacitor when the potential

difference is 150 volts?
0 A 8
Q  CV  V  1.77 10 C
d
(b) What energy is stored in this capacitor?
1
U  QV  1.33 10 6 J
2
34
Summary
•Electric Potential Energy

•Electric Potential
•The Relationship Between E and V
•Motion of Point Charges (conservation of energy)
•Parallel Plate Capacitors (capacitance, dielectrics, energy
storage)

35
Chapter 18: Electric Current and

Circuits
•Electric current
•EMF
•Current & Drift Velocity
•Resistance & Resistivity
•Kirchhoff’s Rules
•Series & Parallel Circuit Elements
•Applications of Kichhoff’s Rules
•Power & Energy
•Ammeters & Voltmeters
•RC Circuits
1
§18.1 Electric Current
e- e- e-
e- A metal wire.
e- e- e- e-
Assume electrons
flow to the right.
q Current is a measure of the amount

Current : I  of charge that passes though an area
t
perpendicular to the flow of charge.
Current units: 1C/sec = 1 amp

2
A current will flow until there is no potential difference.
The direction of current flow in a wire is opposite the flow of

the electrons. (In the previous drawing the current is to the
left.)

3
Example: If a current of 80.0 mA exists in a metal wire, how

many electrons flow past a given cross-section of the wire
in 10.0 minutes?
q
I
t

q  It  80.0  10 3 A 600 sec   48.0 C 
q
# of electrons 
charge per electron
48.0 C

1.60  10 -19 C/electron
 3.00 10 20 electrons
4
§18.2 EMF and Circuits
An ideal battery maintains a constant potential difference.

This potential difference is called the battery’s EMF().
The work done by an ideal battery in pumping a charge q

is W=q.

5
At high potential
The circuit symbol for a

+
battery (EMF source) is -
At low potential
Batteries do work by converting chemical energy into

electrical energy. A battery dies when it can no longer
sustain its chemical reactions and so can do no more work
to move charges.

6
§18.3 Microscopic View of Current

in a Metal
Electrons in a metal might have a speed of ~106 m/s, but

since the direction of travel is random, an electron has
vdrift = 0.

7
Only when the ends of a wire are at different potentials

(E0) will there be a net flow of electrons along the wire
(vdrift  0). Typically, vdrift < 1 mm/sec.

8
Calculate the number of charges (Ne) that pass through the

shaded region in a time t:
l
N e  n( Al )
 nA(vd t )
q eN e
The current in the wire is: I    neAvd
t t
9
Example (text problem 18.19): A copper wire of cross-

sectional area 1.00 mm2 has a constant current of 2.0 A
flowing along its length. What is the drift speed of the
conduction electrons? Copper has 1.101029 electrons/m3.
I  neAvd
I 2.0 A
vd  
 
neA 1.10 10 29 m -3 1.60 10-19 C 1.00 10 6 m 2  
 1.110  4 m/sec  0.11 mm/sec

10
§18.4 Resistance and Resistivity
A material is considered ohmic if VI, where
V  IR
The proportionality constant R is called resistance and is

measured in ohms (; and 1  = 1 V/A).

11
L
The resistance of a conductor is: R
A
where  is the resistivity of the material, L is the length of

the conductor, and A is its cross sectional area.
With R a material is considered a conductor if  is “small”

and an insulator if  is “large”.

12
The resistivity of a material depends on its temperature:
   0 1   T  T0 
where 0 is the resistivity at the temperature T0, and  is

the temperature coefficient of resistivity.
A material is called a superconductor if =0.

13
Example (text problem 18.28): The resistance of a conductor

is 19.8  at 15.0 C and 25.0  at 85.0 C. What is the
temperature coefficient of resistivity?
Values of R are given at different temperatures, not

values of . But the two quantities are related.
L
R   (1)    0 1   T  T0  (2)
A
Multiply both sides of equation (2) by L/A and use
equation (1) to get:
R  R0 1   T  T0  (3)
14
Example continued:
Solve equation (3) for  and evaluate using the given

quantities:
R 25.0 
1 1
R0 19 . 8  3 -1
   3.75  10 C
T 85.0 C  15.0 C

15
§18.5 Kirchhoff’s Rules
Junction rule: The current that flows into a junction is the

same as the current that flows out. (Charge is conserved)
A junction is a place where two or more wires (or other

components) meet.
Loop rule: The sum of the voltage dropped around a closed

loop is zero. (Energy is conserved.)
16
For a resistor: If you cross a resistor in the direction of the

current flow, the voltage drops by an amount IR (write as –
IR). There is a voltage rise if you cross the other way
(write as +IR).

17
For batteries (or other sources of EMF): If you move from

the positive to the negative terminal the potential drops by 
(write as –). The potential rises if you cross in the other
direction (write as +).

18
A current will only flow around a closed loop.
A B
VAB is the
terminal
voltage.
VAB  IR  0
Applying the loop rule:
  Ir  IR  0
19
In a circuit, if the current always flows in the same direction

it is called a direct current (DC) circuit.

20
§18.6 Series and Parallel Circuits

Resistors:
The current through the two

resistors is the same. It is not
“used up” as it flows around
the circuit!
These resistors are in series.
Apply Kirchhoff’s loop rule:   IR1  IR2  0

  IR1  IR2  I ( R1  R2 )  IReq
21
The pair of resistors R1 and R2 can be replaced with a

single equivalent resistor provided that Req=R1 + R2.
In general, for resistors in series Req  R1  R2    Rn

n
  Ri .
i 1

22
Current only flows around closed loops. When the current

reaches point A it splits into two currents. R1 and R2 do not
have the same current through them, they are in parallel.
Apply Kirchhoff’s loop rule:
  I1 R1  0
  I 2 R2  0
The potential drop across

each resistor is the same.

23
Applying the junction rule at A: I =I1+I2.
From the loop rules:   I1 R1  I 2 R2
Substituting for I1 and I2 in the junction rule:
 
I 
R1 R2
I 1 1 1
  
 R1 R2 Req
24
The pair of resistors R1 and R2 can be replaced with a

single equivalent resistor provided that
1 1 1
  .
Req R1 R2
In general, for resistors in parallel

1 1 1 1
  
Req R1 R2 Rn
n
1
 .
i 1 Ri
25
Example (text problem 18.40): In the given circuit, what is

the total resistance between points A and B?
R1= 15
A
R 2=
R 3=
12  24 
1 1 1
R2 and R3 are in parallel. Replace  
with an equivalent resistor R23. R23 R2 R3
R23  8 
26
Example continued:
The circuit can now be redrawn:

R1= 15
A
The resistors R23
and R1 are in series:
R23=8 
R123  R1  R23
 23   Req
B
A
Is the equivalent
R123 circuit and the total
=23  resistance is 23 .
B
27
Capacitors:
C1 C2
For capacitors in series the charge
on the plates is the same.
Q Q
  0
Apply Kirchhoff’s loop rule: C1 C2
 1 1 1
  
Q C1 C2 Ceq

28
The pair of capacitors C1 and C2 can be replaced with a

single equivalent capacitor provided that
1 1 1
  .
Ceq C1 C2
In general, for capacitors in series

1 1 1 1
  
Ceq C1 C2 Cn
n
1
 .
i 1 Ci
29
C2
C1 Apply Kirchhoff’s loop rule:
Q1
  0
C1
 Q2
 0
C2
For capacitors in parallel the charge on the plates may be

different. Here
Qeq  Q1  Q2
 Ceq   C1   C2
30
The pair of capacitors C1 and C2 can be replaced with a

single equivalent capacitor provided that Ccq= C1 + C2.
In general, for capacitors in parallel
n
Ceq  C1  C2    Cn   Ci .
i 1

31
Example (text problem 18.49): Find the value of a single

capacitor that replaces the three in the circuit below if
C1 = C2 = C3 = 12 F.
C1
C2 and C3 are in parallel

C3 C2
C23  C2  C3
 24 F
B

32
Example continued:
The circuit can be redrawn:

C1
A
The remaining two capacitors
are in series.
1 1 1
 
C23 C123 C1 C23
1 1
 
B
12 F 24 F
C123  8 F
A
C123
Is the final, equivalent circuit.
B 33
§18.7 Circuit Analysis Using

Kirchhoff’s Rules
To solve multiloop circuit problems:
1. Assign polarity (+/-) to all EMF sources.

2. Assign currents to each branch of the circuit.
3. Apply Kirchhoff’s rules.
4. Solve for the unknowns.

34
Example (text problem 18.53): Find the three unknown

currents (the current in each resistor).
I3
+ -
2 R3
I2
R2
+ I1
-
1 R1
35
Example continued:
Loop EDCFE:  1  I1 R1  I 2 R2  0
Loop AFCBA:  2  I 2 R2  I 3 R3  0
Note: Could also use Loop AFEDCBA
Junction C: I1  I 2  I 3
Note: could also use junction F
36
Example continued:
The point is to write down three equations for the three

unknown currents.
(1) I1 R1  I 2 R2   1
(2) I 3 R3  I 2 R2   2
(3) I1  I 2  I 3

37
Example continued:
Substitute (3) into (1): R1  R2 I 2  R1I 3  1 (4)
R3 I 3  R2 I 2   2 (2)
Multiply the top equation by –R3 and the bottom equation

by +R1, add the equations together, then solve for I2.
 R3 R1  R2 I 2  R1 R3 I 3  R1 R3 I 3  R1 R2 I 2  R1 2 R3 1

R1 2 R3 1
I2 
 R3 R1  R2   R1 R2
I 2  0.123 amps
38
Example continued:
Substitute I2 = -0.123 amps in to (2):

 2  I 2 R2
I3 
R3
I 3  0.199 amps
Now substitute the known values of I2 and I3 into (3):
I1  I 2  I 3
 0.123 amps  0.199 amps
 0.076 amps
39
Example continued:
The negative sign on I2 means that instead of the current

going from right to left (from point C to point F) in the branch
with resistor 2, it really goes from left to right. It is essential
to keep the negative sign when evaluating your equations
numerically. Make the correction only when the problem is
finished.

40
§18.8 Power and Energy in Circuits
U q
The energy dissipation rate is: P  V  IV
t t
For an EMF source: P  I

2
V
For a resistor: P  IV  I 2 R 
R

41
§18.9 Measuring Currents and

Voltages
Current is measured with an ammeter. An ammeter is placed

in series with a circuit component.
A1 A1 measures the
An ammeter R1 current through R1.
has a low
internal A2 A2 measures the
resistance. R2 current through R2.
A3 A3 measures the
current drawn from
 the EMF.
42
A voltmeter is used to measure the potential drop across a

circuit element. It is placed in parallel with the component.
A voltmeter has a large internal resistance.
The voltmeter measures the

voltage drop across R1.
R1
R2

43
§18.10 RC Circuits
Switch R Close the switch at t=0 to

start the flow of current.
+- C
The capacitor is being
+
- charged.

Q
Apply Kirchhoff’s loop rule:   IR   0
C
Q
Note : I 
t
44
The current I(t) that satisfies Kirchhoff’s loop rule is:
t
I t   I 0 e 

where I0  and   RC.
R
 is the RC time constant and is a measure of the

charge (and discharge) rate of a capacitor.

45
The voltage drop  t 

across the capacitor is: VC t    1  e  
 
The voltage drop

across the resistor is:
VR t   I t R
The charge on the

capacitor is: Q C t   CVC t 
Note: Kirchhoff’s loop rule must be satisfied for all times.

46
Plots of the voltage drop across the (charging) capacitor

and current in the circuit.

47
While the capacitor is charging S2 is open. After the capacitor

is fully charged S1 is opened at the same time S2 is closed:
this removes the battery from the circuit. Current will now
flow in the right hand loop only, discharging the capacitor.
I Apply Kirchhoff’s loop rule:

S1 R
S2
+- C Q
 IR   0
C

t
The current in the circuit is I t   I 0 e 
.
t
But the voltage drop across the capacitor is now VC t    e 
.
48
The voltage drop across the discharging capacitor:

49
Example (text problem 18.83): A capacitor is charged to an

initial voltage of V0=9.0 volts. The capacitor is then
discharged through a resistor. The current is measured and
is shown in the figure.

50
Example continued:
(a) Find C, R, and the total energy dissipated in the resistor.
Use the graph to determine . I0=100 mA; the current is

I0/e = 36.8 mA at t= 13 msec.

I 0  100 mA 
R
  13 msec  RC
Since  = V0 = 9.0 volts, R = 90  and C = 144 F.
All of the energy stored in the capacitor is eventually

dissipated by the resistor.
1 2
U  CV0  5.8  10 3 J
51
Example continued:
(b) At what time is the energy in the capacitor half of the

initial value?
1 1
U (t )  CV (t ) and U (t  0)  CV02
2
2 2
1 1
Want: U (t )  U (t  0)  CV02
2 4
1 2 1 2
CV (t )  CV0
2 4
1
V (t )  V0
2
52
Example continued:
Solve for t:
t
 1
V (t )  V0 e  V0
2
t   ln 2  13 msec  ln 2  4.5 msec

53
Summary
•Current & Drift Velocity
•Resistance & Resistivity
•Ohm’s Law
•Kirchhoff’s Rules
•Series/Parallel Resistors/Capacitors
•Power
•Voltmeters & Ammeters
• RC Circuits
54
Chapter 19: Magnetic Forces and

Fields
•Magnetic Fields
•Magnetic Force on a Point Charge
•Motion of a Charged Particle in a Magnetic Field
•Crossed E and B fields
•Magnetic Forces on Current Carrying Wires
•Torque on a Current Loop
•Magnetic Field Due to a Current
•Ampère’s Law
•Magnetic Materials
1
§19.1 Magnetic Fields

All magnets have
Magnetic Dipole at least one north
pole and one south
pole.
Field lines emerge from north

poles and enter through south
poles. Copyright © 2008 – The McGraw-Hill Companies s.r.l.
2
Magnets exert forces on one another.
Opposite magnetic poles attract and like magnetic

poles repel.

3
Magnetic field lines are closed loops. There is no (known!)

source of magnetic field lines. (No magnetic monopoles)
If a magnet is broken in half you just end up with two

magnets.

4
Near the surface of

the Earth, the
magnetic field is
that of a dipole.
Note the
orientation of
the magnetic
poles!

5
Away from the Earth, the magnetic field is distorted by the

solar wind.
Evidence for magnetic pole reversals has been found on the

ocean floor. The iron bearing minerals in the rock contain a
record of the Earth’s magnetic field.

6
§19.2 Magnetic Force on a Point

Charge
The magnetic force on a point charge is:
FB  qv  B 
The unit of magnetic field (B) is the tesla (1T = 1 N/Am).

7
The magnitude of FB is: FB  qBv sin  
where vsin is the component of the velocity perpendicular

to the direction of the magnetic field.  represents the angle
between v and B.
v Draw the vectors tail-

to-tail to determine .
 B

8
The direction of FB is found from the right-hand rule.
For a general cross product: C  AB
The right-hand rule is: using your right hand, point your
fingers in the direction of A and curl them in the direction
of B. Your thumb points in the direction of C.
Note : C  A  B  B  A
9
Example (text problem 19.15): An electron moves with

speed 2.0105 m/s in a 1.2 Tesla uniform magnetic field. At
one instant, the electron is moving due west and
experiences an upward magnetic force of 3.210-14 N.
What is the direction of the magnetic field?
y
FB  qBv sin 
FB
sin    0.8323  
qBv
x
v (west) F (up)
  56
The angle can be either north
of west OR north of east.
10
§19.3 Charged Particle Moving

Perpendicular to a Uniform B-field
     
A positively charged particle
     
has a velocity v (orange
      arrow) as shown. The
      magnetic field is into the page.
     
The magnetic force, at this instant, is shown in blue. In this

region of space this positive charge will move CCW in a
circular path.
11
Applying Newton’s 2nd Law to the charge:
F  FB  mar
v2
qvB  m
r

12
Mass Spectrometer
     
B      
A charged particle is      
shot into a region of      
known magnetic field.
     
Detector
v2 V
Here, qvB  m Particles of different mass will
r
travel different distances before
or qBr  mv
striking the detector. (v, B, and
q can be controlled.)
13
Other devices that use magnetic fields to bend particle

paths are cyclotrons and synchrotrons.
Cyclotrons are used in the production of

radioactive nuclei. For medical uses see the
website of the Nuclear Energy Institute.
Synchrotrons are being tested for use in

treating tumors.

14
§19.4 Motion of a Charged Particle

in a Uniform B-field
If a charged particle has a component

of its velocity perpendicular to B, then
its path will be a circle. If it also a
component of v parallel to B, then it
will move forward as well. This
resulting path is a helix.

15
§19.5 Crossed E and B Fields
If a charged particle enters a region of space with both

electric and magnetic fields present, the force on the
particle will be
F  Fe  FB
 qE  q v  B .

16
Consider a region of space with crossed electric and

magnetic fields.
Charge       B (into page)

q>0 with
     
velocity v
     
     
     

17
The value of the charge’s speed can be adjusted so that
Fnet  Fe  FB  0.
The net force equal zero will occur when v=E/B.
This region of space (with crossed E and B

fields) is called a “velocity selector”. It can be
used as part of a mass spectrometer.

18
§19.6 Magnetic Force on a Current

Carrying Wire
The force on a current carrying

wire in an external magnetic field
is
F  I L  B 
L is a vector that points in the
direction of the current flow. Its
magnitude is the length of the wire.

19
The magnitude of F  I L  B  is
F  ILB sin 
and its direction is given by the right-hand rule.

20
Example (text problem 19.43): A 20.0 cm by 30.0 cm loop

of wire carries 1.0 A of current clockwise.
(a) Find the magnetic force on each side of the loop if the
magnetic field is 2.5 T to the left.
I= 1.0 A
Left: F out of page
Top: no force
B Right: F into page
Bottom: no force

21
Example continued:
The magnitudes of the nonzero forces are:
F  ILB sin 
 1.0 A 0.20 m 2.5 T sin 90
 0.50 N
(b) What is the net force on the loop?
Fnet  0

22
§19.7 Torque on a Current Loop
Consider a current carrying loop in a magnetic field. The

net force on this loop is zero, but the net torque is not.
Axis
Force Force
into out of
page page
B
L/2 L/2 Copyright © 2008 – The McGraw-Hill Companies s.r.l.

23
The net torque on the current loop is:
  NIAB sin 
N = number of turns of wire in the loop.
I = the current carried by the loop.
A = area of the loop.
B = the magnetic field strength.
 = the angle between A and B.

24
The direction of A is defined with a right-hand rule. Curl

the fingers of your right hand in the direction of the current
flow around a loop and your thumb will point in the direction
of A.
Because there is a torque on the current loop, it must have

both a north and south pole. A current loop is a magnetic
dipole. (Your thumb, using the above RHR, points from
south to north.)

25
§19.8 Magnetic Field due to a

Current
Moving charges (a current) create magnetic fields.

26
The magnetic field at a distance r from a long, straight wire

carrying current I is
0 I
B
2r
where 0 = 410-7 Tm/A is the permeability of free space.
The direction of the B-field lines is given by a right-hand

rule. Point the thumb of your right hand in the direction of
the current flow while wrapping your hand around the wire;
your fingers will curl in the direction of the magnetic field
lines.
27
A wire carries
current I out of
the page.
The B-field lines of

this wire are CCW.
Note: The field (B) is tangent to the field lines.

28
Example (text problem 19.62): Two parallel wires in a

horizontal plane carry currents I1 and I2 to the right. The
wires each have a length L and are separated by a
distance d.
1 I
2 I
(a) What are the magnitude and direction of the B-field of

wire 1 at the location of wire 2?
 0 I1
B1  Into the page
2d Copyright © 2008 – The McGraw-Hill Companies s.r.l.
29
Example continued:
(b) What are the magnitude and direction of the magnetic

force on wire 2 due to wire 1?
F12  I 2 LB1 sin 

 0 I1 I 2 L F12 toward top of
 I 2 LB1 
2d page (toward wire 1)
(c) What are the magnitude and direction of the B-field of

wire 2 at the location of wire 1?
0 I 2
B2  Out of the page
2d Copyright © 2008 – The McGraw-Hill Companies s.r.l.
30
Example continued:
(d) What are the magnitude and direction of the magnetic

force on wire 1 due to wire 2?
F21  I1 LB2 sin 

 0 I1 I 2 L F21 toward bottom of
 I1 LB2  page (toward wire 2)
2d
(e) Do parallel currents attract or repel? They attract.
(f) Do antiparallel currents attract or repel? They repel.

31
The magnetic field of a current loop:
The strength of the B-field at

the center of the (single) wire
loop is:
0 I
B
2R

32
The magnetic field of a solenoid:
A solenoid is a coil of wire that is wrapped in a cylindrical

shape.
The field inside a solenoid is nearly uniform (if you stay

away from the ends) and has a strength:
B   0 nI
Where n=N/L is the number of turns of wire (N) per unit
length (L) and I is the current in the wire.
33

34
§19.9 Ampère’s Law
Ampère’s Law relates the magnetic field on a path to the

net current cutting through the path.

35
Example (text problem 19.65): A number of wires carry

current into or out of the page as indicated.
(a) What is the net

current though the
interior of loop 1?

36
Example continued:
Assume currents into the page are negative and current

out of the page are positive.
Loop 1 encloses currents -3I, +14I, and -6I. The net

current is +5I or 5I out of the page.
(b) What is the net current though the interior of loop 2?
Loop 2 encloses currents -16I and +14I. The net

current is -2I or 2I into the page.
37
Define circulation: circulation   B|| l

38
Consider a wire carrying current into the page. Draw a

closed path around the wire.
Here the B-field is tangent

to the path everywhere
(hence the choice of a
circular path). The
circulation is
 B l  B2r .
||

39
Ampere’s Law is  B l   I
|| 0
where I is the net current that cuts

through the circular path.
If the wire from the previous page carries a current I then

the magnetic field at distance r from the wire is
0 I
B .
2r

40
§19.10 Magnetic Materials
Ferromagnetic materials have domains, regions in which

its atomic dipoles are aligned, giving the region a strong
dipole moment.

41
When the domains are

oriented randomly there
will be no net
magnetization of the
object.
When the domains are

aligned, the material will
have a net magnetization.

42
Summary
•Magnetic forces are felt only by moving charges

•Right-Hand Rules
•Magnetic Force on a Current Carrying Wire
•Torque on a Current Loop
•Magnetic Field of a Current Carrying Wire (straight wire,
wire loop, solenoid)
•Ampère’s Law

43
Chapter 20: Electromagnetic

Induction
•Motional EMF
•Electric Generators
•Faraday’s Law
•Lenz’s Law
•Transformers
•Eddy Currents
•Induced Electric Fields
•Mutual- and Self-Inductance
•LR Circuits

1
§20.1 Motional EMF
Consider a conductor in a B-field moving to the right.
     
     
     
V
     
     
2
An electron in the conductor

FB  q v  B 
experiences a force downward.
The electrons in the

e- bar will move toward
V the bottom of the bar.
F
This creates an electric field in the bar and results in a

potential difference between the top and bottom of the bar.

3
What if the bar were placed across conducting rails (in red)
so that there is a closed loop for the electrons to follow?
     
     
      L
V
     
     
In this circuit, the electrons flow clockwise;
the current is counterclockwise.
4
The motional EMF is   vBL

where L is the separation
between the rails.
V  vBL
The current in the rod is I  
R R R
where R is the resistance
in the “wires”.

5
The rod has a current through it. What is the direction of

the magnetic force on the rod due to the external magnetic
field?
F  I L  B 
The magnitude of the magnetic force on the rod is:
vBL vB 2 L2
F  ILB sin 90  ILB  LB 
R R
Using the right hand rule, the force on the bar is directed
to the left.
6
To maintain a constant EMF, the rod must be towed to the

right with constant speed. An external agent must do work
on the bar. (Energy conservation)

7
§20.2 Electric Generators
A coil of wire is spun in a magnetic field. This produces

an EMF and also a current; both vary with time. (AC-
alternating current)
An energy source is needed to turn the wire coil. Examples

include burning coal or natural gas to produce steam; falling
water.

8
The EMF produced by an AC generator is:
 t    0 sin t
In the United States and Canada 0 = 170 volts and f =

/2 = 60 Hz.

9
§20.3 Faraday’s Law
Moving a conductor through a B-field will generate an EMF.

Another way to generate an EMF is to place a stationary
conductor in a B-field that varies with time.

10
The magnetic flux is proportional to the number of B-field

lines that cross a given area.
The unit of magnetic flux is

 B  BA cos  the weber: 1 Wb = 1 Tm2
     
Loop of wire
with area A      
     
     
     
     
11
 B
Faraday’s Law:    N
t
An induced EMF in a “coil” of N loops is due to a changing

magnetic flux.
Ways to induce an EMF:

1. Vary the magnetic field.
2. Vary the area of the coil.
3. Change the angle between B and A.

12
Example: If the magnetic field in a region varies with time

according to the graph shown below, find the magnitude of
the induced EMF in a single loop of wire during the following
time intervals: (a) 0-2.0 ms, (b) 2.0-4.0 ms, and (c) 4.0-8.0
ms. The loop has area 0.500 m2 and the plane of the loop is
perpendicular to the B-field.
B (T)
0.50 T
t (ms)
2 4 8

13
Example continued:
Using Faraday’s Law:
  B   B 
      A 
 t   t 
This is the slope of

the given B versus
time graph.

14
Example continued:
(a) In the interval 0.0-2.0 ms,
 B  2  0.50T-0.00T 
   A   0.500 m  3

  130 V. 
 t   2.0  10 s 
(b) In the interval 2.0-4.0 ms,
 B  2  0.50T-0.50T 
   A   0.500 m  3

  0 V. 
 t   2.0  10 s 

15
Example continued:
(c) In the interval 4.0-8.0 ms,
 B   0.00T-0.50T 
   A   0.500 m
2
 
 3   63 V.
 t   4.0 10 s 

16
§20.4 Lenz’s Law
The direction of induced EMFs and currents always oppose

the change in flux that produced them.
That is, the induced I (and thus induced B) tries

to keep the total flux through the loop constant.

17
Example: Towing the bar to the right produced an induced

current that was CCW. What is the direction of the induced
magnetic field?
     
     
      L
V
     
     
The induced B is out of the page to maintain the flux
originally through the loop before the bar started to move
to the right (the area of the loop is increasing). Copyright © 2008 – The McGraw-Hill Companies s.r.l.
18
Example (text problem 20.12): A long straight wire carrying a

steady current is in the plane of a circular loop of wire. (a) If
the loop of wire is moved closer to the wire, what is the
direction of the induced current in the wire loop?
Wire loop
There is a magnetic field into the page at the location of the

loop. As the loop gets closer to the wire there is an increase
in flux. To negate this increase in flux, the induced B-field
must point out of the page. This requires a CCW current.

19
Example continued:
(b) At one instant, the induced EMF in the loop is 3.5 mV.
What is the rate of change of the magnetic flux through
the loop in that instant?
 B
   3.5 mV  3.5 10 3 Wb / s
t

20
§20.5 Transformers
Wrap an iron
core with wire. Secondary
Primary
coil
coil
Apply a varying voltage to the primary coil. This causes a

changing magnetic flux in the secondary coil.
 B  B
 1   N1  2  N2
t t
21
Since the flux through the coils is the same
 1 N1 The “turns ratio” gives


 2 N2 the ratio of the EMFs.
Depending on the turns ratio, a transformer can be used to

step-up or step-down a voltage.
The rate that power is supplied to both coils is the same
 1 I 2 N1
 
 2 I1 N 2
22
Example (text problem 20.25): A step-down transformer has a

turns ratio of 1/100. An AC voltage of amplitude 170 V is
applied to the primary. If the primary current is 1.0 mA, what
is the secondary current?
I 2 N1

I1 N 2
 N1   100 
I 2    I1   1.0 mA  0.1 A
 N2   1 

23
Example (text problem 20.27): The primary coil of a

transformer has 250 turns and the secondary coil has 1000
turns. An AC voltage is sent through the primary. The EMF
of the primary is 16.0 V. What is the EMF in the secondary?
 1 N1

 2 N2
 N2   1000 
 2    1   16.0 V  64.0 V
 N1   250 

24
§20.6 Eddy Currents
If a conductor is subjected to a changing magnetic flux, a

current will flow. (This includes sheets of metal, etc.)

25
Consider a metal plate that swings through a magnetic field.
pivot
X
An external magnetic
field into the page 
created by a magnet. 

26
As the plate swings through the region of magnetic field,

some regions of the plate are entering the B-field (increasing
flux), and other regions of the plate are leaving the B-field
(decreasing flux). There will be induced currents in the
conductor called eddy currents.
The eddy currents dissipate energy (according to I2R); this

results in the damping of the amplitude of the metal sheet.

27
§20.7 Induced Electric Fields
When a stationary conductor sits in a changing magnetic

field it is an induced electric field that causes the charges
in the conductor to move.

28

29
§20.8 Mutual- and Self-Inductance
A variable current
I1 flows in coil 1.
Coil 1 Coil 2
I1 then induces a
current in coil 2.
The flux (21) through coil 2 due to coil 1 is N 2  21  I1.

30
Writing this as an equality, N 2  21  MI1

Where M is the mutual inductance. It depends only on
constants and geometrical factors. The unit of inductance is
the Henry (1H = 1Vs/A).
 21 I1
 2  N2  M
t t
The induced EMF in the coils will be:
12 I 2
 1   N1  M
t t

31
Self-inductance occurs when a current carrying coil

induces an EMF in itself.
The definition of self-inductance (L) is N  LI .

32
Example (text problem 20.41): The current in a 0.080 Henry

solenoid increases from 20.0 mA to 160.0 mA in 7.0 s. Find
the average EMF in the solenoid during that time interval.
 I
  N  L
t t
 160 mA  20 mA 
 0.080 H  
 7.0 s 
 1.6  10 3 V

33
An inductor stores energy in its magnetic field according to:
1 2
U  LI
2
The energy density in a magnetic field is:
1
uB  B2
20

34
§20.9 LR Circuits
An inductor
and resistor
are connected
in series to a
battery.
As with an RC circuit, the current in the circuit varies

with time. Copyright © 2008 – The McGraw-Hill Companies s.r.l.
35
I
The voltage drop across an inductor is given by  L  L .
t
When an inductor is “charging” (the energy stored is

increasing) the current in the circuit is:

I (t )  I f 1  e  t / 
Where  = L/R is the time constant for the circuit and If =
b/R maximum current in the circuit.

36
Applying Kirchhoff’s loop rule to the circuit gives the EMF

in the inductor as:
 t /
 L   b  IR   b e

37
Plots of L(t) and I(t) for this LR circuit:

38
 t /
For a “discharging” inductor, I (t )  I 0 e
where I0 is the current in

the inductor when t=0.
The LR circuit time constant  plays the same role as in

an RC circuit.

39
Example: A coil has an inductance of 0.15 H and a

resistance of 33.0 . The coil is connected to a 6.0 V ideal
battery. When the current reaches one-half the maximum
value:
(a) At what rate is the magnetic energy being stored in

the inductor?
 I max  Vmax 
Power  P  IV    
 2  2 
Vmax= emf of the battery (b) b
I max   0.18 Amps
= 6.0 Volts R
 I max  Vmax 
P    0.27 Watts
 2  2  Copyright © 2008 – The McGraw-Hill Companies s.r.l.
40
Example continued:
(b) At what rate is energy being dissipated?
Energy is dissipated in the resistor at a rate
2
2  I max 
P I R  R
 2 
2
 0.18 Amps 
  33.0   0.27 Watts.
 2 

41
Example continued:
(c) What is the total power the battery supplies?
The battery must supply energy to the inductor and the

resistor. Part a and b calculate the rate at which energy
is delivered to the inductor and resistor respectively; the
battery must supply the sum of these: Pbattery = 0.54
Watts.

42
Summary
•Motional EMF
•Faraday’s Law
•Lenz’s Law
•Transformers
•Eddy Currents
•Inductance and Inductors
•LR Circuits

43
Chapter 21: Alternating Currents
•Sinusoidal Voltages and Currents

•Capacitors, Resistors, and Inductors in AC Circuits
•Series RLC Circuits
•Resonance
•AC to DC Conversion

1
§21.1 Sinusoidal Currents and

Voltage
A power supply can be set to give an EMF of form:
 (t )   0 sin t
This EMF is time dependent, has an amplitude 0, and
varies with angular frequency .

2
  2f
angular frequency in
frequency cycles/sec or Hz
in rads/sec
The current in a resistor is still given by Ohm’s Law:
 (t ) 0
I (t )   sin t  I 0 sin t
R R
The current has an amplitude of I0=0/R.

3
The instantaneous power dissipated in a resistor will be:
P  I (t )VR (t )
 I 0 sin t  0 sin t   I 0 0 sin 2 t
The power dissipated depends on t (where in the cycle the

current/voltage are).

4
What is the average power dissipated by a resistor in one

cycle?
The average value sin2t over one cycle is 1/2.
1
The average power is Pav  I 0 0 .
2

5
What are the averages of V(t) and I(t) over one cycle?
The “problem” here is that the average value of sin t over

one complete cycle is zero! This is not a useful way to
characterize the quantities V(t) and I(t).
To fix this problem we use the root mean square (rms) as

the characteristic value over one cycle.
I0 0
I rms  and  rms 
2 2
6
In terms of rms quantities, the power dissipated by a resistor

can be written as:
1 I0  0
Pav  I 0 0 
2 2 2
2
2  rms
 I rms rms  I rms R
R

7
Example (text problem 21.4): A circuit breaker trips when the

rms current exceeds 20.0 A. How many 100.0 W light bulbs
can run on this circuit without tripping the breaker? (The
voltage is 120 V rms.)
Each light bulb draws a current given by:
Pav  I rms rms

100 Watts  I rms 120 V 
I rms  0.83 Amps
If 20 amps is the maximum current, and 0.83 amps is the

current drawn per light bulb, then you can run 24 light bulbs
without tripping the breaker.
8
Example (text problem 21.10): A hair dryer has a power

rating of 1200 W at 120 V rms. Assume the hair dryer is the
only resistance in the circuit.
(a) What is the resistance of the heating element?
 2 rms
Pav 
R
2
1200 Watts 
120 V 
R
R  12 

9
Example continued:
(b) What is the rms current drawn by the hair dryer?
Pav  I rms rms

1200 Watts  I rms 120 V 
I rms  10 Amps
(c) What is the maximum instantaneous power that the

resistance must withstand?
2 1
P  I 0 0 sin t  Pmax  I 0 0 Pav  I 0 0
2
Pmax = 2Pav = 2400 Watts
10
§21.3-4 Capacitors, Resistors and

Inductors in AC circuits
For a capacitor: Q(t )  CVC (t )
Q(t )  VC (t ) 
In the circuit: I (t )   C 
t  t 
Slope of the
plot V(t) vs. t
11

12
The current in the circuit and the voltage drop across the
capacitor are 1/4 cycle out of phase. Here the current leads
the voltage by 1/4 cycle.
Here it is true that VCI. The equality is Vc = IXC where XC

is called capacitive reactance. (Think Ohm’s Law!)
1 Reactance has
XC  units of ohms.
C

13
For a resistor in an AC circuit, V (t )  I (t ) R.
The voltage and current will be in phase with each other.

14
For an inductor in an AC circuit:
 I (t ) 
VL  L 
 t  Slope of an
I(t) vs. t plot
Also, VL = IXL where the inductive reactance is:
X L  L

15
The current in the circuit and the voltage drop across the
inductor are 1/4 cycle out of phase. Here the current lags
the voltage by 1/4 cycle.
16
Plot of I(t), V(t), and P(t) for a capacitor.
The average power over one cycle is zero.

An ideal capacitor dissipates no energy. Copyright © 2008 – The McGraw-Hill Companies s.r.l.
17
A similar result is found for inductors; no energy is dissipated

by an ideal inductor.

18
§21.5 Series RLC Circuits

19
Applying Kirchhoff’s loop rule:
 (t )  VL (t )  VR (t )  VC (t )  0
 (t )   0 sin t   
   
 VL sin  t    VR sin t   VC sin  t  
 2  2

20
To find the amplitude (0) and phase () of the total voltage
we add VL, VR, and VC together by using phasors.
y
2
 0  V  VL  VC 
R
2
2 2
VL  IR   IX L  IX C 
0 2
 I R  X L  X C 
2
X
 IZ
VR
VC
Z is called impedance.

21
y
The phase angle between the
current in the circuit and the input
voltage is:
VL
0 VL  VC X L  X C
tan   
 VR R
VR X VR R
VC cos   
0 Z
>0 when XL> XC and the voltage leads the current

(shown above).
<0 when XL< XC and the voltage lags the current.
22
Example (text problem 21.79): In an RLC circuit these three

elements are connected in series: a resistor of 20.0 , a 35.0
mH inductor, and a 50.0 F capacitor. The AC source has an
rms voltage of 100.0 V and an angular frequency of 1.0103
rad/sec. Find…
(a) The reactances of the capacitor and the inductor.
X L  L  35.0 
1
XC   20.0 
C
(b) The impedance.
2
Z  R   X L  X C   25.0 
2

23
Example continued:
(c) The rms current:
 rms  I rms Z
 rms 100.0 V
I rms    4.00 Amps
Z 25.0 
(d) The current amplitude:
I0
I rms 
2
I 0  2 I rms  5.66 Amps
24
Example continued:
(e) The phase angle:
X L  X C 35  20
tan     0.75
R 20
  tan 1 0.75  0.644 rads (Or 37°)
(f) The rms voltages across each circuit element:
Vrms, R  I rms R  80.0 V

Vrms, L  I rms X L  140 V
Vrms,C  I rms X C  80.0 V
25
Example continued:
(g) Does the current lead or lag the voltage?
Since XL>XC,  is a positive angle. The voltage leads

the current.
(h) Draw a phasor diagram.

y
VL
rms

VR X
VC Copyright © 2008 – The McGraw-Hill Companies s.r.l.
26
The power dissipated by a resistor is:
Pav  I rms rms, R  I rms rms cos 
where cos is called the power factor (compare to slide 7;

Why is there a difference?).

27
§21.6 Resonance in RLC Circuits
A plot of I vs.
 for a series
RLC circuit
has a peak at
 = 0.

28
The peak occurs at the resonant frequency for the circuit.
 
I 
Z R2  X L  X C 
2
The current will be a maximum when Z is a minimum. This

occurs when XL = XC (or when Z=R).
X L  XC
1
0 L 
0 C
1 This is the resonance
0 
LC frequency for the circuit.
29
XL  XC
tan   0
At resonance: R
R
cos    1
R
The phase angle is 0; the voltage and the current are in

phase. The current in the circuit is a maximum as is the
power dissipated by the resistor.

30
§21.7 Converting AC to DC; Filters
A diode is a circuit element that allows current to pass

through in one direction, but not the other.

31
The plot shows the voltage drop across the

resistor. During half a cycle, it is zero.
Putting a capacitor in the circuit “smoothes” out VR,

producing a nearly constant voltage drop (a DC voltage).

32
A capacitor may be used as a filter.
Low-pass filter. When

XC << R ( is large) the
output voltage will be
small compared to the
input voltage.
When XC >> R ( is small), the output voltage will be

comparable to the input voltage.
This circuit will allow low frequency signals to pass through

while filtering out high frequency signals.
33
A high-pass filter. This will allow high frequency signals

to pass through while filtering out low frequency signals.

34
Summary
•Difference Between Instantaneous, Average, and rms

Values
• Power Dissipation by R, L, and C
•Reactance for R, L, and C
•Impedance and Phase Angle
•Resonance in an RLC Circuit
•Diodes
•High- and Low-Pass Filters
35
Chapter 22: Electromagnetic

Waves
•Production of EM waves
•Maxwell’s Equations
•Antennae
•The EM Spectrum
•Speed of EM Waves
•Energy Transport
•Polarization
•Doppler Effect

1
§22.1 Production of EM Waves
A stationary charge produces an electric field.

A charge moving at constant speed produces electric
and magnetic fields.

2
A charge that is accelerated will produce variable electric

and magnetic fields. These are electromagnetic waves.
If the charge oscillates with a frequency f, then the

resulting EM wave will have a frequency f. If the charge
ceases to oscillate, then the EM wave is a pulse (a finite-
sized wave).

3
§22.2 Maxwell’s Equations
Gauss’s Law
Gauss’s Law for magnetism
Faraday’s Law
Ampère-Maxwell Law

4
Gauss’s Law:
Electric fields (not induced) must begin on + charges and

end on – charges.
Gauss’s Law for magnetism:
There are no magnetic monopoles (a magnet must have at

least one north and one south pole).

5
Faraday’s Law:
A changing magnetic field creates an electric field.
Ampère-Maxwell Law
A current or a changing electric field creates a magnetic

field.

6
When Maxwell’s equations are combined, the solutions are

electric and magnetic fields that vary with position and time.
These are EM waves.
An electric field only wave cannot exist, nor can a magnetic

field only wave.

7
§22.3 Antennae
An electric field parallel to an antenna (electric dipole)

will “shake” electrons and produce an AC current.
8
An EM wave also has a

magnetic component. A
magnetic dipole antenna
can be oriented so that the
B-field passes into and out
of the plane of a loop,
inducing a current in the
loop.
The B-field of an EM wave is perpendicular to its E-field

and also the direction of travel.
9
Example (text problem 22.5): A dipole radio antenna has its

rod-shaped antenna oriented vertically. At a point due south
of the transmitter, what is the orientation of the emitted
wave’s B-field?
N
Looking down from
above the Electric W E
Dipole antenna
South of the transmitter, the E-field is directed into/out of

the page. The B-field is perpendicular to this direction and
also to the direction of travel (South). The B-field must be
east-west.
10
§22.4 The EM Spectrum
EM waves of any frequency can exist.

11
The EM Spectrum:
Energy increases with increasing frequency.

12
§22.5 Speed of Light
Maxwell was able to derive the speed of EM waves in

vacuum. EM waves do not need a medium to travel through.
1
c
 0 0
1

8.85 10 12

C 2 /Nm 2 4 10 7 Tm/A 
 3.00 108 m/s

13
In 1675 Ole Römer presented a calculation of the speed of

light. He used the time between eclipses of Jupiter’s
Gallilean Satellites to show that the speed of light was finite
and that its value was 2.25108 m/s.
Fizeau’s experiment of 1849 measured the value to be

about 3108 m/s. (done before Maxwell’s work)

14
When light travels though a material medium, its speed is

reduced.
c
v
n
where v is the speed of light in the medium and n is the

refractive index of the medium.
When a wave passes from one medium to another the

frequency stays the same, but the wavelength is changed.

15
A dispersive medium is one in which the index of refraction

depends on the wavelength of light.

16
§22.6 Properties of EM Waves
All EM waves in vacuum travel at the “speed of light” c.
Both the electric and magnetic fields have the same

oscillation frequency f.
The electric and magnetic fields oscillate in phase.

17
The fields are related by the relationship
E ( x, y, z , t )  cB( x, y, z , t )
EM waves are transverse. The fields oscillate in a direction

that is perpendicular to the wave’s direction of travel. The
fields are also perpendicular to each other.

18
The direction of propagation is given by E  B.
The wave carries one-half of its energy in its electric field

and one-half in its magnetic field.

19
E z  Em sin ky  t   
phase
constant
The
amplitude wave angular
number frequency
2
k   2f


The wave speed is c  f  .
k
20
Example (text problem 22.27): The electric field of an EM

wave is given by:
 
E z  Em sin  ky  t  
 6
Ex  0
Ey  0
(a) In what direction is this wave traveling?
The wave does not depend on the coordinates x or z; it

must travel parallel to the y-axis. The wave travels in the +y
direction.

21
Example continued:
(b) Write expressions for the magnetic field of this wave.
must be in the +y-direction

EB (E is in the z-direction).
Therefore, B must be along the x-axis.
Bz  0, B y  0
 
Bx  Bm sin  ky  t  
 6
Em
with Bm 
c Copyright © 2008 – The McGraw-Hill Companies s.r.l.
22
§22.7 Energy Transport by EM

Waves
Pav
The intensity of a wave is I .
A
This is a measure of how much energy strikes a surface of

area A every second for normal incidence.
The rays make a

90 angle with the
Surface surface.
23
Also,
E uavV uav Ax

I    uav c
At At At
where uav is the average energy density (energy per unit

volume) contained in the wave.
For EM waves:
2 1 2
u av   0 E rms  Brms
0
24
Example (text problem 22.35): The intensity of the sunlight

that reaches Earth’s upper atmosphere is 1400 W/m2.
(a) What is the total average power output of the Sun,

assuming it to be an isotropic source?
Pav  IA  I 4R 2  

 4 1400 W/m 1.50  10 m 2
 11
 2
 4.0  10 26 W

25
Example continued:
(b) What is the intensity of sunlight incident on Mercury, which

is 5.81010 m from the Sun?
Pav Pav
I 
A 4r 2
4.0  10 26 W


4 5.8 1010 m 
2
 9460 W/m 2

26
What if the EM waves strike at non-normal incidence?
Replace A with Acos.


Pav  IA cos 

27
§22.8 Polarization
A wave on a string is linearly polarized. The vibrations occur

in the same plane. The orientation of this plane determines
the polarization state of a wave.
For an EM wave, the direction of polarization is given by the

direction of the E-field.

28
The EM waves emitted by an antenna are polarized; the E-

field is always in the same direction.
A source of EM waves is unpolarized if the E-fields are in

random directions.

29
A polarizer will transmit linear polarized waves in the same

direction independent of the incoming wave.
It is only the
component of the
wave’s amplitude
parallel to the
transmission axis
that is transmitted.
30
If unpolarized light is incident on 1 polarizer, the intensity of

the light passing through is I= ½ I0.
If the incident wave is already polarized, then the transmitted

intensity is I=I0cos2 where  is the angle between the
incident wave’s direction of polarization and the transmission
axis of the polarizer. (Law of Malus)

31
Example (text problem 22.40): Unpolarized light passes

through two polarizers in turn with axes at 45 to each other.
What is the fraction of the incident light intensity that is
transmitted?
After passing through the first polarizer, the intensity is ½

of its initial value. The wave is now linearly polarized.
Transmission axis
Direction of
linear of 2nd polarizer.
polarization 45
I 2  I1 cos 2 
1  2 1
  I 0  cos 45  I 0
2  4
32
§22.9 The Doppler Effect

v
1
c
For EM waves, the Doppler shift formula is fo  f s
v
1
c
where fs is the frequency emitted by the source, fo is the

frequency received by the observer, v is the relative velocity
of the source and the observer, and c is the speed of light.

33
If the source and observer are approaching each other, then

v is positive, and v is negative if they are receding.
When v/c<<1, the previous expression can be approximated

as:
 v
f o  f s 1  
 c

34
Example (text problem 22.48): Light of wavelength 659.6 nm is

emitted by a star. The wavelength of this light as measured on
Earth is 661.1 nm. How fast is the star moving with respect to
the Earth? Is it moving toward Earth or away from it?
The wavelength shift is small (<<) so v<<c.
 v
f o  f s 1  
 c
v fo c / o s
 1   1   1  0.0023
c fs c / s o
v  6.8  105 m/s  680 km/s Star is receding.

35
Summary
•Maxwell’s Equations
•EM Spectrum
•Properties of EM Waves
•Energy Transport by EM Waves
•Polarization
•Doppler Effect

36
Chapter 23: Reflection and

Refraction of Light
•Huygens’s Principle
•Reflection
•Refraction
•Total Internal Reflection
•Polarization by Reflection
•Formation of Images
•Plane Mirrors
•Spherical Mirrors
•Thin Lenses
1
§23.1 Huygens’s Principle
A set of points with equal phase is called a wavefront.

2
A ray points in the direction of wave propagation and is

perpendicular to the wavefronts. Or a ray is a line in the
direction along which light energy is flowing.

3
Huygens’s principle: At some time t, consider every point

on a wavefront as a source of a new spherical wave. These
wavelets move outward at the same speed as the original
wave. At a later time t+t, each wavelet has a radius vt,
where v is the speed of propagation of the wave. The
wavefront at t+t is a surface tangent to the wavelets.

4
Geometric optics is an approximation to the behavior of

light that applies when interference and diffraction are
negligible. In order for diffraction to be negligible, the sizes
of objects must be large compared to the wavelength of
light.

5
§23.2 Reflection of Light
When light is reflected from a smooth surface the rays

incident at a given angle are reflected at the same angle.
This is specular reflection.

6
Reflection from a rough surface is called diffuse reflection.
“Smooth” and “rough” are determined based on the

wavelength of the incident rays.

7
The angle of incidence equals the angle of reflection. The

incident ray, reflected ray, and normal all lie in the same
plane. The incident ray and reflected ray are on opposite
sides of the normal.
8
§23.3 Refraction of Light
When light rays pass from one medium to another they

change direction. This is called refraction.

9
Snell’s Law
n1 sin 1  n2 sin  2
where the subscripts refer
to the two different media.
The angles are measured
from the normal.
When going from high n to low n, the ray will bend away
from the normal.
10
The incident ray, transmitted ray, and normal all lie in the
same plane.
The incident and transmitted rays are on opposite sides of

the normal.

11
Example (text problem 23.11): Sunlight strikes the surface of

a lake. A diver sees the Sun at an angle of 42.0° with
respect to the vertical. What angle do the Sun’s rays in air
make with the vertical?
incident wave
1
n1 = 1.00; air
surface
n2 = 1.33; water
42° n1 sin 1  n2 sin  2
Transmitted
1.00sin 1  1.333sin 42
wave Normal sin 1  0.8920
1  63.1
12
§23.4 Total Internal Reflection
The angle of incidence for when the angle of refraction is

90° is called the critical angle.
n1 sin 1  n2 sin  2
n1 sin  c  n2 sin 90  n2
n2
sin  c 
n1
13
If the angle of incidence is greater than or equal to the

critical angle, then no wave is transmitted into the other
medium. The wave is completely reflected from the
boundary.
Total internal reflection can only occur when the incident

medium has a larger index of refraction than the second
medium.
14
Example (text problem 23.22): Calculate the critical angle

for sapphire surrounded by air.
2=90
n2 = 1.0; air Transmitted wave
n1 = 1.77; sapphire surface
1
n1 sin 1  n2 sin  2
incident wave
Normal 1.77 sin  c  1.00sin 90
sin  c  0.565
1  34.4
15
§23.5 Polarization by Reflection
Brewster’s angle is the angle of incidence for which the

reflected light is completely polarized.
Light is totally polarized when the reflected ray and the

transmitted ray are perpendicular.
ni sin  i  nt sin  t
ni sin  B  nt sin 90   B   nt cos  B
nt
tan  B 
ni Copyright © 2008 – The McGraw-Hill Companies s.r.l.
16
Example (text problem 23.32): (a) Sunlight reflected from

the still surface of a lake is totally polarized when the
incident light is at what angle with respect to the
horizontal?
nwater 1.33
tan  B    1.33
nair 1.00
 B  53.1
The angle is measured from the normal, so 90 - 53.1
= 36.9 is the angle from the horizontal.

17
Example continued:
(b) In what direction is the reflected light polarized?
It is polarized
perpendicular
to the plane of
incidence.

18
Example continued:
(c) Is any light incident at this angle transmitted into the

water? If so, at what angle below the horizontal does the
transmitted light travel?
From Snell’s Law: n1 sin 1  n2 sin  2

1.00sin 53.1  1.333sin  2
sin  2  0.6000
 2  36.9
The angle is measured from the normal, so 90 - 36.9
= 53.1 is the angle from the horizontal.
19
§23.6 Formation of Images
An image is real if light rays from a point on the object

converge to a corresponding point on the image.
A camera lens
forms a real image.

20
The light rays

appear to come
from behind the
mirror.
An image is virtual if the light

Your eye focuses rays from a point on the object
the diverging rays are directed as if they diverged
reflected by the from a point on the image, even
mirror. though the rays do not actually
pass through the image point.
21
Example (text problem 23.35): A defect in a diamond

appears to be 2.00 mm below the surface when viewed from
directly above that surface. How far beneath the surface is
the defect.
Air
n2 =1.00
2 2
Surface
Diamond y’
1 1
n1 = 2.419
y
Actual location
of defect
22
Example continued:
The angles 1 and 2 are related by Snell’s Law:
n1 sin 1  n2 sin  2
The actual depth of the defect is y and it appears to be at a

depth of y’. These quantities are related by:
y tan  2  y tan 1

23
Example continued:
Dividing the previous two expressions gives:
n1 y cos 1  n2 y cos  2
As long as you are directly above the defect and its image,
the angles 1 and 2 are nearly 0°. Rays from only a narrow
range of angles will enter your eye. The above expression
simplifies to:
n1 y  n2 y
y n2 (general result)

y n1 Copyright © 2008 – The McGraw-Hill Companies s.r.l.
24
Example continued:
The actual depth of the defect in the diamond is then
n1  2.419 
y y   2.00 mm   4.84 mm.
n2  1.00 

25
§23.7 Plane Mirrors

A point source and its image are at the same distance from
the mirror, but on opposite sides of the mirror.
Treat an extended
object as a set of
point sources.

26
Example (text problem 23.41): Entering a darkened room,

Gustav strikes a match in an attempt to see his
surroundings. At once he sees what looks like another
match about 4 m away from him. As it turns out, a mirror
hangs on one of the walls. How far is Gustav from the wall
with the mirror?
The image seems 4 m away, but the mirror is only 2 m

away since the rays will appear to come from a point 2 m
behind the mirror.

27
§23.8 Spherical Mirrors

Center of
vertex curvature
Principal
axis
The focal
point
A convex (or diverging) mirror curves

away from the observer.
28
A ray parallel to
the principle axis
is reflected, and it
appears to have
come from point
F, the focal point
of the mirror.
For a convex mirror, the focal point is on the axis and is

located a distance 0.5R behind the mirror, where R is the
radius of curvature.
29
Drawn in green, red, and blue are the principal rays.
1. A ray parallel to the principal axis is reflected as if it came

from the focal point. (green)
2. A ray along a radius is reflected back upon itself. (red)
3. A ray directed toward the focal point is reflected parallel to
the principal axis. (blue)
30
For the pencil in the previous figure, the image is upright,

virtual, smaller than the object, and closer to the mirror
than the object.

31
A concave (or converging) mirror

curves toward the observer.
Center of
curvature vertex
Principal
axis
The focal
point

32
Drawn in green, red, and blue are the principal rays.
1. A ray parallel to the principal axis is reflected through the

focal point. (green)
2. A ray along a radius is reflected back upon itself. (red)
3. A ray along the direction from the focal point to the mirror is
reflected parallel to the principal axis. (blue)
33
image size h
The magnification is defined as m  .
object size h
An inverted image has m<0 and an upright image has

m>0.
The expression for magnification can also be written as
q where p is the object distance and

m
p q is the image distance.

34
The mirror equation:
1 1 1 where f is the focal length of the mirror.

  f<0 when the focal point is behind the
p q f
mirror.

35
Example (text problem 23.46): An object 2.00 cm high is

placed 12.0 cm in front of a convex mirror with a radius of
curvature of 8.00 cm. Where is the image formed?
1 1 1
 
p q f
where p = 12.0 cm, f = -0.5R = -4.00 cm, and q is the

unknown image distance. Solving gives q = -3.00 cm. The
image is behind the mirror.

36
§23.9 Thin Lenses
A diverging lens will bend light away from the principle axis.
A converging lens will bend light toward the principal axis.

37

38
h q
Magnification: m 
h p
1 1 1
The thin lens equation:  
p q f

39
Example (text problem 23.64): A diverging lens has a

focal length -8.00 cm.
(a) What are the image distances for objects placed at

various distances from the lens? Is the image real or
virtual? Upright or inverted? Enlarged or diminished?
Object Image Real / Upright / Enlarged/

distance distance virtual? inverted? diminished
5 cm -3.08 cm Virtual upright Diminished

40
Example continued:
(b) If the object is 4.00 cm high, what is the height of the

image?
Object Image Magnification Image height

distance distance
5 cm -3.08 cm 0.616 2.46 cm
8 cm -4.00 cm 0.500 2.00 cm
14 cm -5.09 cm 0.364 1.45 cm
16 cm -5.33 cm 0.333 1.33 cm
20 cm -5.71 cm 0.285 1.14 cm

41
Summary
•The Laws of Reflection

•The Laws of Refraction
•Condition for Total Internal Reflection
•Condition for Total Polarization of Reflected Light
•Real/virtual Images
•Mirrors (plane & spherical)
•Thin Lenses

42
Chapter 24: Optical Instruments
•Combinations of Lenses
•The Camera
•The Eye
•The Magnifier
•The Compound Microscope
•The Telescope

1
§24.1 Combinations of Lenses
With lenses in combination, the image formed by one lens

is the object for the next lens.

2
The thin lens equation still applies.
1 1 1
 
p1 q1 f1
p is the object distance, q is the
1 1 1 image distance, f is the focal
 
p2 q2 f 2 length and s is the distance
between the lenses.
p2  s  q1
It is possible to have the object for the second lens be

virtual (p2<0); here the image formed by the first lens is
beyond the second lens.
3
The magnification of a combination of lenses is just the

product of the magnifications for the individual lenses.
mtotal  m1m2  mn

4
Example (text problem 24.2): A converging and diverging

lens, separated by a distance of 30.0 cm, are used in
combination. The converging lens has f1 = 15.0 cm and the
diverging lens has an unknown focal length. An object is
placed at 20.0 cm in front of the converging lens; the final
image is virtual and is formed 12.0 cm before the diverging
lens. What is the focal length of the diverging lens?
1 1 1 Given: p1 = 20 cm; f1 = 15 cm.

 
p1 q1 f1 Find that q1 = 60 cm
p2  s  q1 Given: s = 30.0 cm. Find that

p2 = -30 cm.
1 1 1 Given: q2 = -12 cm and p2 = -30 cm.

 
p2 q2 f 2 Find that f2 = -8.6 cm.
5
§24.2 The Camera
A camera forms a real, inverted image. For far away

objects, the film must be placed one focal length from the
lens. Copyright © 2008 – The McGraw-Hill Companies s.r.l.
6
Example (text problem 24.17): A person on safari wants to

take a photograph of a hippopotamus from a distance of
75.0 m. The animal is 4.00 m long and its image is to be
1.20 cm long on the film. (a) What focal length lens should
be used?
width on film h q
m  
object width h p
h   1.2 cm 
q   p   75.0 m   22.5 cm
h  4.0 m 
1 1 1
Now use the thin lens equation  
p q f
f  22.4 cm
7
Example continued:
(b) What would be the size of the image if a lens of 50.0

mm focal length were used?
1 1 1 1 1 1
    
p q f q f p
q  50.0 mm
width on film h q
m  
object width h p
q  50.0 mm 
h   h    4.0 m   2.67 mm
p  75.0 m 
The object is 2.67 mm long (inverted). Copyright © 2008 – The McGraw-Hill Companies s.r.l.
8
§24.3 The Eye
The lens is at a fixed distance from the retina (unlike in

some cameras where this is adjustable). The lens has a
variable focal length, which is adjusted to keep the image
distance (q) constant as the object distance (p) varies.

9
The near point is the closest distance from your eye that an
object can be seen clearly. For a normal eye this distance is
25 cm.
The far point is farthest distance from your eye that an

object can be seen clearly. For a normal eye this distance
is .
Refractive power of a lens is defined as:
1 where f is the focal length of

P the lens; typical units of P are
f
diopters (1D = 1 m-1).
10
For a near sighted (myopic) person, light rays converge

before they strike the retina.
A diverging lens is placed in the light path. This creates a

virtual image closer to your eye than the actual object is.
11
For a far sighted (hyperopic) person, light rays converge after

they strike the retina.
A converging lens is placed in the light path. This creates a

virtual image farther from your eye than the actual object is.

12
Example (text problem 24.63): If Harry has a near point of

1.5 m, what focal length contact lenses does he require?
The near point refers to the closest distance an object can be

to see it clearly, in this case 1.5 m. A normal eye has a near
point of 25 cm. These corrective lenses must take an object
at 25 cm and form a virtual image at a distance of 1.5 m.
1 1 1 Given p = 25 cm; q = -1.5m.

 
p q f Here f = +30.0 cm
The refractive power 1 1

P   3.3 D (Diopter)
of these lenses is f 0.30 m
Harry is farsighted.
13
§24.4 The Magnifier
The farther an object is from your eye, the smaller it will

look.
For an object to look bigger the image of it formed on the

retina must be made bigger.

14
Using the triangles in the figure, the angular size  of an

object is:
size of object
tan    
object distance

15
 aided
The angular magnification is M .
 unaided
The largest angular size an object can have and still be

seen clearly is when it is placed at your near point.
size of object h
 unaided  
object distance N
Now the object is placed at the focal point of a converging

lens
size of object h
 aided  
object distance f Copyright © 2008 – The McGraw-Hill Companies s.r.l.
16
h
 aided f N
M  
 unaided h f
N
N is the near point for a person (typically 25 cm) and f is the

focal length of the lens used in the magnifier.

17
Example (text problem 24.34): An insect that is 5.00 mm

long is placed 10.0 cm from a converging lens with a focal
length of 12.0 cm.
(a) What is the position of the image?
1 1 1 Given: p = 10.0 cm and f = 12.0 cm.

 
p q f Find that q = -60.0 cm; on the same
side of the lens as the insect.

18
Example continued:
(b) What is the size of the image?
h q
m 
h p
q   60 cm 
h   h   5.00 mm   30.0 mm
p  10 cm 
(c) Is the image upright or inverted?
Since h’>0, the image is upright.

19
Example continued:
(d) Is the image real or virtual?
Since q<0 (the image forms on the same side of the

lens as the object), the image is virtual.
(e) What is the angular magnification if the lens is close to

the eye?
 aided N 25 cm Object is at a
M    2.5 distance of p, not
 unaided p 10 cm f from the lens.
20
§24.5 The Compound Microscope
Two converging lenses

are used to produce a
highly magnified image.
The objective lens forms an

enlarged real image here.
The eyepiece is used

to view this image.

21
The eyepiece is used as a magnifier; the image formed by

the objective is placed at the focal point of the eyepiece.
The total magnification is the product of the individual
magnifications:
 L  N 
M total  mobjmeye    
 f  f 
 obj  eye 
where L = “tube length” = q0 - f0; N = near point distance;

and fobj & feye are focal lengths of the objective and eyepiece
respectively.

22
Example (text problem 24.42): A microscope has an objective

lens of focal length 5.00 mm. The objective forms an image
16.5 cm from the lens. The focal length of the eyepiece is
2.80 cm.
(a) What is the distance between the lenses?
Using figure 24.16, the distance between the lenses

is d = feye + qo = 2.80 cm + 16.5 cm = 19.3 cm.

23
Example continued:
(b) What is the angular magnification? The near point is

25.0 cm.
 L  N 
M total  mobjmeye    
 f  f 
 qo  f obj  N 
     286
 f  f 
(c) How far from the objective should the object be placed?
1 1 1 Given: q = 16.5 cm and f = 0.5 cm.

 
p q f Find that p = 0.52 cm.
24
§24.6 The Telescope
A telescope is a combination of lenses and/or mirrors used

to collect a large amount of light and bring it to a focus.

25
A refracting telescope (or refractor) uses lens.
The barrel (or The angular

tube) length is magnification is
L  f obj  f eye .  eye f obj

M  .
 obj f eye
26
A reflecting telescope uses mirrors (and lenses).
Light path of a Cassegrain telescope:

27
Example (text problem 24.49): A refracting telescope is used

to view the moon (diameter of 3474 km & distance from Earth
384,500 km). The focal lengths of the objective and eyepiece
are +2.40 m and +16.0 cm, respectively.
(a) What should be the distance between the lenses?
L  f obj  f eye  2.56 m

28
Example continued:
(b) What is the diameter of the image produced by the

objective?
image size h q
m  
object size h p
q  2.40 m 
h   h   3474 m   2.17 cm
p  384,500 km 
(c) What is the angular magnification?
f obj 2.40 m
M    15
f eye 0.16 m
29
Summary
•Combinations of Lens
•The Camera
•The Eye
•The Magnifier
•The Compound Microscope
•The Telescope

30
Chapter 25: Interference and

Diffraction
•Constructive and Destructive Interference

•The Michelson Interferometer
•Thin Films
•Young’s Double Slit Experiment
•Gratings
•Diffraction
•Resolution of Optical Instruments

1
§25.1 Constructive and Destructive

Interference
Two waves are coherent if they maintain a fixed phase

relationship (waves from the same source). Two waves
are incoherent otherwise (waves from different sources).

2
Constructive interference occurs when two waves are in

phase. To be in phase, the points on the wave must have
=(2)m, where m is an integer.
When coherent waves are in phase, the resulting amplitude

is just the sum of the individual amplitudes. The energy
content of a wave depends on A2. Thus, IA2.

3
The resulting amplitude and intensity are:
A  A1  A2
I  I 1  I 2  2 I1 I 2
4
Destructive interference occurs when two waves are a half

cycle out of phase. To be out of phase the points on the
wave must have =(2)(m+½), where m is an integer.

5
The resulting amplitude and intensity are:
A  A1  A2
I  I1  I 2  2 I1 I 2
6
Coherent waves can become out of phase if they travel

different distances to the point of observation.
S1

d
S2 This represents the extra path length

(l) that the wave from S2 must
travel to reach point P.
l  d sin 
7
When both waves travel in the same medium the

interference conditions are:
For constructive interference l  m

where m = an integer.
 1
For destructive interference l   m  
 2
where m = an integer.

8
Example (text problem 25.1): A 60.0 kHz transmitter sends

an EM wave to a receiver 21 km away. The signal also
travels to the receiver by another path where it reflects from
a helicopter. Assume that there is a 180 phase shift when
the wave is reflected.
(a) What is the

wavelength of
this EM wave?
c 3.0 105 km/sec

  3
 5.0 km
f 60  10 Hz
9
Example continued:
(b) Will this situation give constructive interference,

destructive inference, or something in between?
The path length difference is l = 10 km = 2, a whole

number of wavelengths. Since there is also a 180 phase
shift there will be destructive interference.

10
§25.2 Michelson Interferometer
In the Michelson interferometer, a beam of coherent light is

incident on a beam splitter. Half of the light is transmitted
to mirror M1 and half is reflected to mirror M2.

11
The beams of light are reflected by the mirrors, combined

together, and observed on the screen.
If the arms are of different lengths, a phase difference

between the beams can be introduced.

12
Example (text problem 25.12): A Michelson interferometer is

adjusted so that a bright fringe appears on the screen. As
one of the mirrors is moved 25.8 m, 92 bright fringes are
counted on the screen. What is the wavelength of the light
used in the interferometer?
Moving the mirror a distance d introduces a path length

difference of 2d. The number of bright fringes (N)
corresponds to the number of wavelengths in the extra
path length.
N  2 d
2d
  0.561 m
N
13
§25.3 Thin Films
When an incident light ray reflects from a boundary with a

higher index of refraction, the reflected wave is inverted (a
180° phase shift is introduced).

14
A light ray can be reflected many times within a medium.

15
Example (text problem 25.18): A thin film of oil (n=1.50) of

thickness 0.40 m is spread over a puddle of water (n=1.33).
For which wavelength in the visible spectrum do you expect
constructive interference for reflection at normal incidence?
Water Oil Air

Consider the first two
reflected rays. r1 is
from the air-oil
boundary and r2 is from
Incident
the oil-water boundary.
wave
r1 has a 180 phase shift (noil >nair),

but r2 does not (noil<nwater).
16
Example continued:
To get constructive interference, the reflected waves must

be in phase. For this situation, this means that the wave
that travels in oil must travel an extra path equal to multiples
of half the wavelength of light in oil.
The extra path distance traveled is 2d, where d is the

thickness of the film. The condition for constructive
interference here is:
 1  1  air 
2d   m  oil   m   
 2  2  noil 
2dnoil
 air  Only the wavelengths that
 1
m   satisfy this condition will have
 2  constructive interference.
17
Example continued:
Make a table:
m air(m)
0 2.40
1 0.80
2 0.48 All of these wavelengths will show
constructive interference, but it is
3 0.34 only this one that is in the visible
portion of the spectrum.
4 0.27

18
§25.4 Young’s Double-Slit

Experiment
Place a source of coherent light

behind a mask that has two vertical
slits cut into it. The slits are L tall,
their centers are separated by d,
and their widths are a.

19
The slits become sources of

waves that, as they travel
outward, can interfere with
each other.

20
The pattern seen on the screen
There are
alternating
bright/dark
spots.
An
intensity
trace

21
The bright spots occur where there is constructive

interference:
l  d sin   m
where m is an integer
and is called the “order”.
The dark spots occur where there is destructive interference:
 1
l  d sin    m  
 2

22
Example (text problem 25.28): Show that the interference

fringes in a double-slit experiment are equally spaced on a
distant screen near the center of the interference pattern.
The condition for constructive

interference isL
l  d sin   m
m
sin  
d
From the geometry of the

problem, h
tan  
D
23
Example continued:
The screen is far away compared to the distance between

the slits (D>>d) so tan  sin  . Here,
m h
sin     and tan    
d D
m h
 
d D
mD
h
d
The distance between two adjacent minima is:
D D
h2  h1  m2  m1  
d d
24
§25.5 Gratings
A grating has a large

number of evenly spaced,
parallel slits cut into it.

25
Example (text problem 25.38): Red light with =650 nm can

be seen in three orders in a particular grating. About how
many rulings per cm does this grating have?
For each of the maxima d sin   m
d sin  0  0
d sin 1  1
d sin  2  2
d sin  3  3 Third order is observed.
d sin  4  4 This order is not

observed.
26
Example continued:
Since the m = 4 case is not observed, it must be that

sin4>1. We can then assume that 390°. This gives
d  3  1.95  10 6 m
1
and N   510,000 lines/m  5100 lines/cm.
d

27
§25.6-7 Diffraction
Using Huygens’s principle: every

point on a wave front is a source
of wavelets; light will spread out
when it passes through a narrow
slit.
Diffraction is appreciable only when

the slit width is nearly the same size
or smaller than the wavelength.

28
The
intensity
pattern on
the screen.

29
The minima occur when: a sin   m
where m = 1, 2,…

30
Example (text problem 25.49): Light from a red laser passes

through a single slit to form a diffraction pattern on a distant
screen. If the width of the slit is increased by a factor of two,
what happens to the width of the central maximum on the
screen?
The central maximum occurs between =0 and  as
determined by the location of the 1st minimum in the
diffraction pattern:
a sin   m Let m =+1 and assume
that  is small.


a
From the previous picture,  only determines the half-width
of the maximum. If a is doubled, the width of the
maximum is halved. 31 Copyright © 2008 – The McGraw-Hill Companies s.r.l.
§26.8 Resolution of Optical

Instruments
The effect of diffraction is to spread light out. When viewing

two distant objects, it is possible that their light is spread out
to where the images of each object overlap. The objects
become indistinguishable.

32
For a circular aperture, the

Rayleigh criterion is: 
a sin   1.22
where a is the aperture size of your instrument,  is

the wavelength of light used to make the observation,
and  is the angular separation between the two
observed bodies.

33
To resolve a pair of objects, the

angular separation between
a sin   1.22 them must be greater than the
value of .

34
Example (text problem 25.56): The radio telescope at

Arecibo, Puerto Rico, has a reflecting spherical bowl of 305 m
diameter. Radio signals can be received and emitted at
various frequencies at the focal point of the reflecting bowl.
At a frequency of 300 MHz, what is the angle between two
stars that can barely be resolved?
a sin   1.22
sin  
1.22

1.223 .0  10 8
m/s
300  10 Hz
 6
a 300 m
sin   4.110 3
  0.23 degrees
35
Summary
•Conditions for Constructive/Cestructive Interference

•Thin Films
•Young’s Experiment
•Gratings
•Diffraction
•Rayleigh Criterion

36
Chapter 26: Relativity
•The Postulates of Special Relativity

•Simultaneity
•Time Dilation
•Length Contraction
•Relativistic Velocity Addition
•Relativistic Momentum
•Relativistic Rest Mass Energy, Kinetic Energy, and Total Energy

1
§26.1 Postulates of Relativity
Postulate 1: The laws of physics are the same in all

inertial reference frames (the principle of relativity).
An inertial reference frame is one in which no

accelerations are observed in the absence of external
forces. (Recall Newton’s first law).

2
Scientists in the 19th century believed that light was a

vibration in an invisible medium called the ether.
The Michelson-Morley experiment found that there was no

observable change in the speed of light due to the Earth’s
motion around the Sun. The conclusion was that the ether
did not exist.

3
Postulate 2: The speed of light in vacuum is the same in

all inertial reference frames. The value is independent of
the motion of the source of light or of the observer.

4
What follows does not show that Newtonian physics is

wrong; it is just not complete. Newtonian physics breaks
down at speeds near c; this is where special relativity is
needed. All of the familiar relationships from Newtonian
physics are contained within special relativity in the limit of
low speeds. This is known as the correspondence
principle.

5
§26.2 Simultaneity and Ideal

Observers
The location of an event can be specified by four

coordinates: the three spatial coordinates (x,y,z) and a time
coordinate t. Taken together (x,y,z,t) are the four
coordinates of space-time.

6
Consider a high speed train with AC=BC & A’C’=B’C’. The

marks ACB are on a stationary train platform and the marks
A’C’B’ are on the moving train.
v A’ C’ B’
A C B
At t=0: AA’, BB’, and CC’ are lined up. At this instant two
lightning bolts strike at AA’ and BB’.
7
An observer standing at point C (on the platform) will see

both strikes simultaneously.
The observer at C’ (on the train) will see the strike at AA’ first
followed by the strike at BB’.
The observers do not agree on what

happened, but both are correct.

8
This experiment shows that events that are simultaneous in

one frame (the platform) are not simultaneous in another
frame (the train).

9
§26.3 Time Dilation

Consider a light clock. A light pulse reflects back and forth
between two mirrors. One complete trip can be considered
one “tick” on the clock.
Mirror The time interval for a round

trip by the light pulse is
L Light pulse
Mirror d 2L
t0   .
v c

10
As long as an observer is stationary with respect to the

clock, he will measure a time interval of t0 between clock
ticks. Now put the light clock on a moving train. What does
a stationary observer outside the train see?

11
The motion of the train is to the right with speed v.
The light pulse appears to have the path shown below. How
long does it take the light pulse to return to the bottom
mirror?
2
1 2
L 2 L   vt 
d 2 
t  
c c
vt
d 2L
Know t0  
v c
12
t0
Eliminating L gives t   t0 .
2
v
1  
c
v 1
Let,   and   (Lorentz Gamma factor)
c 1  2
The person outside the train will measure a longer

time interval between ticks compared to the observer
in the train.
13
The relative motion between the observers (train and

outside the train) changes the rate at which time passes.
The effect is known as time dilation.
Moving clocks run slower.
The quantity t0 is known as the proper time. This is time

interval between two events that occur in the same place.

14
Example (text problem 26.6): An unstable particle called

the pion has a mean lifetime of 25 ns in its own frame. A
beam of pions travels through the laboratory at a speed of
0.60c. (a) What is the mean lifetime of the pion as
measured in the laboratory?
Given: t0 = 25 ns and v = 0.60c (=0.60)
1 1
 2

2
 1.250
1  1  0.60
t  t0  1.250 25 ns   31 ns

15
Example continued:
(b) How far does a pion travel (as measured by laboratory

observers) during this time?
d  vt  0.6c 31 ns   5.6 m

16
§26.4 Length Contraction
To measure the length of an object, its ends must be located

simultaneously. The proper length is measured when an
object is at rest relative to you.

17
A person on a train platform will measure the length of the

platform to be L0. A moving object will pass by the platform
in a time t so L0 = vt (note: t is not the proper time).
A person riding on a train will measure the length of the

platform to be L = vt0 (this person measures the proper
time).
L0 vt t
  
L vt0 t0
L0
or L 

where L0 is the proper length.
18
The two observers measure different lengths for the platform.
Moving meter sticks are shorter.
This effect is known as length contraction and only applies

to lengths parallel to the direction of motion.

19
Example (text problem 26.15): A cosmic ray particle travels

directly over a football field from one goal line to the other, at
a speed of 0.50c. (a) If the length of the field between goal
lines is 91.5 m, what is the length measured in the rest
frame of the particle?
Given: L0 = 91.5 m and v = 0.50c (=0.50)
1 1
 2

2
 1.155
1  1  0.50
L0
91.5 m
L   79 m.
 1.155
20
Example continued:
(b) How long does it take the particle to go from one goal
line to the other according to earth observers?
L0 91.5
t    6.110 7 s
v 0.50c
(c) How long does it take in the rest frame of the particle?
L 79 m 7
t0    5.3 10 s
v 0.50c

21
Example (text problem 26.17): Two spaceships are moving

directly toward each other with a relative velocity of 0.90c. If
an astronaut measures the length of his own spaceship to
be 30.0 m, how long is the spaceship as measured by an
astronaut in the other ship?
Given: L0 = 30.0 m and v = 0.90c (=0.90)
1 1
 2

2
 2.294
1  1  0.90
L0
30.0m
L   13 m.
 2.294
22
§26.5 Velocities in Different

Reference Frames
What is the velocity of the probe as measured by Abe?

According to Galilean relativity, it is vPA= vPB+vBA.
23
Once the speeds get large enough, the relativistic velocity

transformation formula must be used.
vPB  vBA
vPA 
vPB vBA
1
c2

24
Example (text problem 26.25): The rogue starship, Galaxa,

is being chased by the battlecruiser, Millenia. The Millenia is
catching up to the Galaxa at a rate of 0.55c when the
captain of the Millenia decides it is time to fire a missile.
First the captain shines a laser range finder to determine the
distance to the Galaxa, and then he fires a missile that is
moving at a speed of 0.45c with respect to Millenia. What
speed does the Galaxa measure for (a) the laser beam and
(b) the missile as they both approach the starship?
The laser beam will be measured to have speed c.

25
Example continued:
The velocity of Millenia relative to Galaxa is vMG=0.55c.

The velocity of the missile relative to Millenia is vmG = 0.45c.
The velocity of the missile relative to Galaxa is
vmM  vMG 0.45c  0.55c

vmG    0.802c.
1
vmM vMG
1
0.45c 0.55c 
c 2
c2

26
§26.6 Relativistic Momentum
p  mv
Note: it is true that p =

Ft, but Fma.

27
Example: Show that the expression for relativistic momentum

reduces to its classical form when v<<c.
When v<<c, <<1
 1 
p  mv   mv
 1  2 
 
  1 2 1 2
 1      mv  mv   mv
  2  2
3
v 1 v
 mc   mc 
c 2 c
 mv To first order in v/c
28
Example (text problem 26.36): A body has a mass of

12.6 kg and a speed of 0.87c. (a) What is the magnitude
of the momentum?
Given: m = 12.6 kg and v = 0.87c (=0.87)
1 1
 2

2
 2.028
1  1  0.87
p  mv
 2.02812.6 kg 0.87c   6.7  10 kg m/s. 9

29
Example continued:
(b) If a constant force of 424.6 N acts in the direction

opposite to the body’s motion, how long must the force act
to bring the body to rest?
p 6.7 109 kg m/s

t  
F 424.6 N
7
 6.58 10 s  0.50 years

30
§26.7 Mass and Energy
The rest mass energy of a particle is its energy measured

in its rest frame.
E0  mc 2

31
1 eV (electron volt) is the change in energy that a charge

e (the fundamental unit of charge) experiences when
accelerated through a 1 volt potential difference.
W  qV  e 1 Volt  1 eV

32
A proton has m=1.6710-27 kg; its rest mass energy is

2
E0  mc
 938 MeV
 0.938 GeV
The mass of the proton can be written as 938 MeV/c2.

33
A quantity is conserved if its value is unchanged in a given

reference frame.
A quantity is invariant if its value is the same in all reference

frames.

34
§26.8 Relativistic Kinetic Energy
 
K    1 mc 2
Kinetic energy
E  E0  K
 mc    1mc
2 2
Total energy
2
 mc
35
Example:
Show that the expression for relativistic kinetic energy
reduces to its classical form when v<<c.
When v<<c, <<1
 1  2
KE    1mc    1mc 2
 1  2 
 
  1 2  2 1 2 2 1 2
 1       1mc   mc  mv .
  2  2 2

36
The relationship between relativistic momentum and total

energy is
2

E   pc   mc
2
.
2 2
2
 pc   K 2  2KE0
Other useful relationships are
v pc
 .
c E
37
Example (text problem 26.48): When an electron travels at

0.60c, what is its total energy in MeV?
Given: v = 0.60c (=0.60)
1 1
 2

2
 1.150
1  1  0.60
E  mc 2

 1.250  0.511 MeV/c 2 c 2  0.65 MeV. 
38
Example (text problem 26.53): An electron has a total

energy of 6.5 MeV. (a) What is its momentum (in MeV/c)?
The energy-momentum relationship is E   pc   mc 2 2

 .
2 2
Solving for p:
pc  E  mc 2
 
2 2
2 2
 6.5 MeV   0.511 MeV   6.5 MeV
p  6.5 MeV/c
39
Example continued:
(b) What is the value of  for this electron?
E 6.5 MeV
 2  12.7
mc 2 2
0.511 MeV/c c  
(c) What is the kinetic energy of this electron?
K    1mc 2

 11.7  0.511 MeV/c 2 c 2  6.0 MeV 
40
Summary
•The Postulates of Relativity
•Simultaneity
•Time Dilation (moving clocks run slower)
•Length Contraction (moving meter sticks are shorter)
•Addition of Relativistic Velocities
•Relativistic Momentum
•Rest Mass Energy
•Relativistic Kinetic Energy
41
Chapter 27: Early Quantum

Physics and the Photon
•Blackbody Radiation
•The Photoelectric Effect
•X-ray Production
•Compton Scattering
•Early Models of the Atom
•The Bohr Model for the Hydrogen Atom
•Pair Production/Annihilation

1
§27.1 Quantization
A quantity is quantized if its possible values are limited to a

discrete set.
An example from classical physics is the allowed

frequencies of standing waves on a stretched string. Only
integer multiples of the fundamental frequency produce
standing waves.
2
§27.2 Blackbody Radiation
A blackbody emits a
continuous spectrum
of radiation. The
spectrum is
determined only by
the temperature of
the blackbody.

3
To correctly explain the shape of the blackbody spectrum

Planck proposed that the energy absorbed or emitted by
oscillating charges came in discrete bundles called quanta.
The energy of the quanta are
where h=6.62610-34 J s is
E0  hf called Planck’s constant.
The quantum of EM radiation is the photon.

4
§27.3 The Photoelectric Effect
Under certain circumstances EM radiation incident on a

metal will eject electrons from the metal. This is the
photoelectric effect.

5
Experiments show:
1. Brighter light causes more electrons to be ejected, but
not with more kinetic energy.
2. The maximum KE of ejected electrons depends on the
frequency of the incident light.
3. The frequency of the incident light must exceed a certain
threshold, otherwise no electrons are ejected.
4. Electrons are ejected with no observed time delay
regardless of the intensity of the incident light.

6
The wave theory of light says EM waves carry energy. The

energy is absorbed by electrons in the metal target which
are then ejected when they accumulate enough energy to
escape. However the wave theory is unable to completely
explain the photoelectric effect. Einstein proposed a particle
theory of light.

7
Observation 1
Wave theory predicts a more intense beam of light, having

more energy, should cause more electrons to be emitted
and they should have more kinetic energy.
Particle theory predicts a more intense beam of light to have

more photons so more electrons should be emitted, but
since the energy of a photon does not change with beam
intensity, the kinetic energy of the ejected electrons should
not change.
The particle theory is consistent with observation 1.

8
Observation 2
Wave theory cannot explain the frequency dependence of

the maximum kinetic energy.
Particle theory predicts the maximum kinetic energy of the

ejected electrons to show a dependence on the frequency
of the incident light. Each electron in the metal absorbs a
whole photon: some of the energy is used to eject the
electron and the rest goes into the KE of the electron.

9
The maximum KE of an ejected electron is
KEmax  hf  
where  is called the work function and is the energy

needed to break the bond between the electron and the
metal.

10
Observation 3
Wave theory can offer no explanation.
Particle theory predicts a threshold frequency is needed.

Only the incident photons with f>fthreshold will have enough
energy to free the electron from the metal.

11
The electron is ejected from the metal when the energy

supplied by the photon exactly equals the work function.
This defines the threshold frequency.
hf threshold    0

f threshold 
h
Here it is often convenient to use h = 4.13610-15 eV s.

12
Observation 4
Wave theory predicts that if the intensity of the light is low,

then it will take some time before an electron absorbs
enough energy to be ejected from the metal.
Particle theory predicts a low intensity light beam will just

have a low number of photons, but as long as f>fthreshold an
electron that absorbs a whole photon will be ejected; no
time delay should be observed.

13
The particle theory of light is needed to explain the

photoelectric effect (and Compton scattering and pair
production). A wave theory of light is needed to explain
interference patterns. Both are correct (wave-particle
duality).

14
Example (text problem 27.1): A 200 W infrared laser emits

photons with a wavelength of 2.010-6 m while a 200 W
ultraviolet laser emits photons with a wavelength of
7.010-8 m. (a) Which has greater energy, a single infrared
photon or a single ultraviolet photon?
hc The UV photon has the greater

E  hf  energy; its wavelength is smallest.

(b) What is the energy of a single infrared photon and
the energy of a single ultraviolet photon?
hc
EUV   2.8  10 18 J  18 eV
UV
hc
EIR   9.9  10  20 J  0.62 eV
IR Copyright © 2008 – The McGraw-Hill Companies s.r.l.
15
Example continued:
(c) How many photons of each kind are emitted per

second?
energy emitted/sec
number of photons emitted per second 
energy/photon
For both lasers the energy emitted per second is 200 J.

The UV laser emits 7.01019 photons/sec and the IR
laser emits 2.0 1021 photons per second.

16
Example (text problem 27.4): The photoelectric threshold

frequency of silver is 1.041015 Hz. What is the minimum
energy required to remove an electron from silver?
KEmax  hf threshold    0
  hf threshold
 
 6.626  10 34 Js 1.04  1015 Hz 
19
 6.89  10 J  4.30 eV

17
Example (text problem 27.11): Two different monochromatic

light sources, one yellow (580 nm) and one violet (425 nm),
are used in a photoelectric effect experiment. The metal
surface has a photoelectric threshold frequency of
6.201014 Hz. (a) Are both sources able to eject
photoelectrons from the metal? Explain.
The frequency of each source is

c
f yellow   5.17 1014 Hz
yellow
c
f violet   7.06 1014 Hz.
violet
Only the violet light is above the threshold frequency.
18
Example continued:
(b) How much energy is required to eject an electron

from the metal?
KEmax  hf threshold    0
  hf threshold
 
 6.626  10 34 Js 6.20 1014 Hz 
19
 4.1110 J  2.56 eV

19
§27.4 X-ray Production
When high energy electrons impact a target x-ray photons

can be emitted as the electrons are slowed. This process is
called bremsstrahlung (German for breaking radiation).

20
There is a continuous spectrum of radiation emitted up to a

cutoff frequency.
The spikes in the

spectrum are called
characteristic x-rays.
These peaks depend
on the target material.

21
§27.5 Compton Scattering
Before Collision After Collision
y Photon
(E1, p1)

x 
Photon Free
(E0, p0) electron
at rest
Free
electron
(K, p)
22
Conserve momentum and energy during the collision:
pi  p f
x : p0  p1 cos   p cos 
y : 0  p1 sin   p sin 
Ei  E f
E0  me c 2  E1  K  me c 2
 K  E0  E1  c( p0  p1 )
E=pc for a photon Copyright © 2008 – The McGraw-Hill Companies s.r.l.

23
Manipulating the previous expressions gives
h
1  0  1  cos  
 is the me c
Compton   c 1  cos  .
shift.
h
c   2.426 pm The Compton
me c wavelength

24
Example (text problem 27.21): A photon is incident on an

electron at rest. The scattered photon has a wavelength of
2.81 pm and moves at an angle of 29.5 with respect to the
direction of the incident photon. (a) What is the wavelength
of the incident photon?
The Compton shift is   c 1 cos  

 2.43 pm 1  cos 29.5
 0.315 pm.
The incident wavelength is
0  1  
 2.81 pm  0.314 pm  2.50 pm.
25
Example continued:
(b) What is the final kinetic energy of the electron?
The final kinetic energy of the electron is equal

to the change in the photon’s energy.
K  c( p0  p1 )
 h h 1 1
 c    hc  
 0 1   0 1 
15
 8.77  10 J  55 keV
26
§27.6 Spectroscopy and Early

Models of the Atom
A hot, solid object will emit a continuous spectrum. A hot gas

will show an emission or line spectrum (dark background
with bright lines). Each element has its own unique set of
spectral lines.

27
Examples of emission spectra:
An absorption spectrum (bright background with dark lines)

is seen if a hot source is viewed though a gas.
28
Before the structure of the atom was known, an empirical

result was derived for the wavelengths of the spectral lines
of hydrogen in the visible portion of the spectrum (the
Balmer series).
1 1 1 
 R  2 
 4 n 
Where R = 1.097107, m-1 is the Rydberg constant and n

3.

29
The Thomson model of the atom

had a volume of positive charge with
the negatively charged electrons
embedded within the volume.
Scattering experiments by Rutherford led to the conclusion

that an atom had a very small nucleus of positive charge
(10-5 times the size of the atom containing nearly all of the
mass) that was surrounded by the electrons.

30
It was thought that the electrons in their orbits should radiate

(they are accelerated) causing the electron’s orbit to decay,
implying that atoms are not stable. This is obviously false.
Any model of the atom must also explain the line spectra of
the elements.

31
§27.7 The Bohr Model of the

Hydrogen Atom
The Bohr model assumes:
The electron is allowed to be in only one of a discrete

set of states called stationary states. The electron
orbits have quantized radii, energy, and angular
momentum.

32
Newtonian physics applies to an electron in a stationary

state.
The electron can transition between one stationary state

and another provided it can absorb/emit a photon of
energy equal to the energy difference between the
states. E=hf.
The stationary states have quantized angular momentum

in the amount
h
Ln  n  n; n is an integer.
2
33
The allowed radii are
n 2 2 2
rn  2
 n a0
me ke
where a0 = 52.9 pm is
the Bohr radius.

34
me k 2 e 4 E1
The energy levels are given by En   2 2
 2
2n  n
where E1=-13.6 eV is the energy of the ground state, the

lowest possible energy of the electron. When n>1 the
electron is in an excited state. The quantity n is an integer
and is the principal quantum number.

35
Energy level
diagram for
hydrogen

36
The energy of a photon emitted (absorbed) by an electron

during a transition is
hc  1 1 
E  Ei  E f   E1  2  2 
 n n 
 f i 
1 E1  1 1 
  2
 hc  n f ni 
2
E1
where   1.097 10 7 m 1  R is the Rydberg constant.
hc
When nf=2, the above result reduces to the Balmer formula.

37
The Bohr model correctly predicted the wavelengths of the

spectral lines of hydrogen in the visible. There are several
problems with the Bohr model.

38
Bohr’s model, while successful at predicting the spectrum of

hydrogen, fails at predicting the spectra of most other
elements. Only hydrogenic atoms (atoms that only have one
electron; Li2+ for example) can have their spectra computed
using the Bohr model.
n22 n 2 a0
The allowed radii are rn  2
 .
me kZe Z
me k 2 Z 2 e 4 Z 2 E1H
The energy levels are En   2 2

2n  n2
where Z is the atomic number of

the atom and E1H = -13.6 eV .
39
Example (text problem 27.34): Find the Bohr radius of

doubly ionized lithium (Li2+).
n 2 a0
What is r1? rn 
Z
12 a0 1
r1   a0  17.6 pm
3 3
The inner most energy level is closer to the

nucleus than in an H atom.

40
Example (text problem 27.35): Find the energy in eV

required to remove the remaining electron from a doubly
ionized lithium (Li2+) atom.
Z 2 E1H
En  2
n
The electron is in the ground state (n=1), so
32 E1H
E1  2  9 E1H  122 eV.
1
To remove the electron will require the electron be

given 122 eV of energy.

41
Example (text problem 27.51): A hydrogen atom has an

electron in the n=5 level. (a) If the electron returns to the
ground state, what is the minimum number of photons that
can be emitted?
One photon; the electron may transition from

the n = 5 level to the n = 1 level.
(b) What is the maximum number that might be emitted?
Four photons; the electron may cascade

from n = 5 to 4 to 3 to 2 to n = 1.

42
§27.8 Pair Annihilation and Pair

Production
A photon can interact with an atomic nucleus and change

itself into an electron-positron pair (or some particle-
antiparticle pair.) A positron is an antielectron. The nucleus
is needed to ensure that momentum is conserved.
43
The energy of the photon must be at least 2mec2. If E >

2mec2 , then the additional energy goes into the kinetic
energy of the electron-positron pair. This is pair production.
 
The inverse process is e  e  2 photons.

44
The process of pair production created protons, neutrons,

and electrons in the earliest moments after the Big Bang.
To have enough energy, the photons must be “hot” enough.

Electrons need T~1010 K and for protons/neutrons T~1013 K.
The early Universe must have been much hotter than it is
today.
Pair production creates equal amounts of matter and

antimatter. Where in the Universe is all of the antimatter?

45
Example (text problem 27.60): A muon and an antimuon,

each with mass 207 times greater than an electron, were at
rest when they annihilated and produced two photons of
equal energy. What is the wavelength of each of the
photons?
2
For an electron-positron pair 2me c  1.022 MeV.
For a muon-antimuon pair 2 m c 2


 207 2me c 2  212 MeV. 
46
Example continued:
The created photons each have 106 MeV of energy.

Their wavelengths are
hc 1240 eV nm
  6
E 106  10 eV
 1.17  10 5 nm  1.17  10 14 m.

47
Summary
•Quantization
•The Photoelectric Effect These processes
•Compton Scattering
•Pair Production/Annihilation
} are explained by
light behaving like
a particle, not as a
wave.
•Spectroscopy
•Bohr Model for Hydrogen

48
Chapter 28: Quantum Physics

•Wave-Particle Duality
•Matter Waves
•The Electron Microscope
•The Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle
•Wave Functions for a Confined Particle
•The Hydrogen Atom
•The Pauli Exclusion Principle
•Electron Energy Levels in a Solid
•The Laser
•Quantum Mechanical Tunneling
1
§28.1 The Wave-Particle Duality
Interference and diffraction experiments show that light

behaves like a wave. The photoelectric effect, the Compton
effect, and pair production demonstrate that light behaves
like a particle.

2
Consider a double slit

experiment in which only one
photon at a time leaves the
light source. After a long time,
the screen will show a typical
interference pattern (c).
Even though there is only one

photon emitted at a time, we
cannot determine which slit it
will pass through nor where it
will land on the screen.
3
The intensity pattern on the screen is representative of the

probability that a photon will land in a given location
(higher intensity = higher probability).
For an EM wave IE2, so E2 probability of a photon

striking the screen at a given location. For an EM, wave E
represents the wave function.

4
§28.2 Matter Waves
If a wave (EM radiation) can behave like a particle, might a

particle act like a wave?
The answer is yes. If a beam of electrons with appropriate

momentum is incident on a sample of material, a
diffraction pattern will be evident.

5
On the right is a diffraction pattern made by x-rays incident

on a sample. On the left is a diffraction pattern made by an
electron beam incident on the same sample.

6
Like photons, the wavelength of a matter wave is given by
h
 .
p
This is known as the de Broglie wavelength.

7
Example (text problem 28.4): What are the de Broglie

wavelengths of electrons with the following values of kinetic
energy? (a) 1.0 eV and (b) 1.0 keV.
(a) The momentum of the electron is
p  2mK
  
 2 9.11 10 31 kg 1.0 eV  1.60  10 31 J/eV 
 5.4 10  25 kg m/s
and
h 6.626 10 34 Js 9
   25
 1 . 23  10 m  1.23 nm.
p 5.4 10 kg m/s
8
Example continued:
(b) The momentum of the electron is
p  2mK
  
 2 9.11 10 31 kg 1.0 103 eV 1.60  10 31 J/eV 
 1.7 10  23 kg m/s
and
h 6.626  10 34 Js 11
   23
 3 . 88  10 m  38.8 pm.
p 1.7 10 kg m/s

9
Example (text problem 28.7): What is the de Broglie

wavelength of an electron moving with a speed of 0.6c?
1
This is a relativistic electron with   1.25.
2
v
1 2
c
Its wavelength is
h h
 
p mv
6.626 10 34 Js 12
  3 .23  10 m.

1.25 9.1110 kg 1.8 10 m/s
31 8
 
10
A beam of electrons may be used in a double slit experiment

instead of a light beam. If this is done, a typical interference
pattern will be produced on the screen indicating electrons
act like waves.
If a detector is placed to try to determine which of the two

slits the electron goes through, the interference pattern
disappears indicating the electron now behaves like a
particle.

11
§28.3 Electron Microscope
The resolution of a light microscope is limited by diffraction

effects. The smallest structure that can be resolved is
about half the wavelength of light used by the microscope.

12
An electron beam can be produced with much smaller

wavelengths than visible light, allowing for resolution of
much smaller structures.

13
Example (text problem 28.15): An image of a biological

sample is to have a resolution of 5 nm. (a) What is the
kinetic energy of a beam of electrons with a de Broglie
wavelength of 5.0 nm?
p2 h2
K 
2m 2m2
 21
 9.64  10 J  0.060 eV
(b) Through what potential difference should the electrons
be accelerated to have this wavelength?
K  U
 qV  eV
K 0.060 eV
V    0.060 Volts
e e Copyright © 2008 – The McGraw-Hill Companies s.r.l.
14
Example continued:
(c) Why not just use a light microscope with a wavelength

of 5 nm to image the sample?
An EM wave with = 5 nm would be an x-ray.

15
§28.4 The Uncertainty Principle
The uncertainty principle sets limits on how precise

measurements of a particle’s momentum and position can
be.
1
xp x  
2
h
where 
2
16
The more precise a measurement of position, the more

uncertain the measurement of momentum will be and the
more precise a measurement of momentum, the more
uncertain the measurement of the position will be.

17
The energy-time uncertainty principle is
1
Et  .
2

18
Example (text problem 28.18): An electron passes through

a slit of width 1.010-8 m. What is the uncertainty in the
electron’s momentum component in the direction
perpendicular to the slit but in the plane containing the slit?
The uncertainty in the electron’s position is half the slit

width x=0.5a (the electron must pass through the slit).
 
p x    1.1 10  26 kg m/s
2 x a

19
Example (text problem 28.19): At a baseball game, a radar

gun measures the speed of a 144 gram baseball to be
137.320.10 km/hr. (a) What is the minimum uncertainty of
the position of the baseball?
px = mvx and vx = 0.10 km/hr = 0.028 m/s.
1
xp x  mxv x  
2

x   1.3  10 32 m
2mv x

20
Example continued:
(b) If the speed of a proton is measured to the same

precision, what is the minimum uncertainty in its position?

xx 
  1.110 6 m
2m p v x

21
§28.5 Wave Functions for a

Confined Particle
A particle confined to a region of space will have quantized

energy levels.

22
Consider a particle in a box of width L that has impenetrable

walls, that is, the particle can never leave the box.
Since the particle cannot be found outside of the box, its

wave function must be zero at the walls. This is analogous
to a standing wave on a string.

23
This particle can have
2L
n  With n=1,2,3,…
n
h nh
pn   .
n 2L
p2
The kinetic energy of the particle is KE  .
2m

24
And its total energy is E  K  U

p2 n2h2
 0 2
.
2m 8mL
The energy of the particle is quantized. The ground state

(n=1) energy is
h2
E1 
8mL2
2
so that En  n E1.
25
Example (text problem 28.29): A marble of mass 10 g is

confined to a box 10 cm long and moves with a speed of 2
cm/s. (a) What is the marble’s quantum number n?
1 2 6
The total energy of the marble is En  mv  0  2.0  10 J.
2
h2
In general En  n 2 E1 E1  2
.
8mL
En 8mEn L2 28
Solving for n: n  2
 6  10 .
E1 h

26
Example continued:
(b) Why do we not observe the quantization of the marble’s

energy?
The difference in energy between the energy levels n and

n+1 is
2
En 1  En  n  1 E1  n 2 E1
 2nE1  E1
 2n  1E1  6.6 10 35 J.

27
Example continued:
The change in kinetic energy of the marble would be

1 2 1 2
K  mv f  mvi
2 2
1

 m v 2f  vi2
2

1
 mv f  vi v f  vi   mvi v f  vi . Assume vfvi.
2
To make a transition to the level n+1, the ball’s speed must

change by
K
v f  vi    3.3 1031 m/s.
mvi Copyright © 2008 – The McGraw-Hill Companies s.r.l.
28
If a container has walls of finite height, a particle in the box

will have quantized energy levels, but the number of bound
states (E < 0 ) will be finite.
In this situation the wave functions of the particle in the box

extend past the walls of the container. This means there is a
nonzero probability that the particle can “tunnel” its way
through the walls and escape the box.
29
The probability of finding a particle is proportional to the

square of its wave function.

30
§28.6 The Hydrogen Atom: Wave

Functions and Quantum Numbers
In the quantum picture of the atom the electron does not

orbit the nucleus. Quantum mechanics can be used to
determine the allowed energy levels and wave functions for
the electrons.
The wave function allows the determination of the

probability of finding the electron in a given region of space.

31
The allowed energy levels in the hydrogen atom are
mk 2 e 4 2
En   2
 n E1 where E1=-13.6 eV.
2
n is the principle quantum number.
Even though the electron does not orbit the nucleus, it

has angular momentum.
L  l l  1   Where l=0, 1, 2,…n-1
l is known as the orbital angular

momentum quantum number.
32
For a given n and l, the angular momentum about the z-axis

(an arbitrary choice) is also quantized.
Lz  ml  ml=-l, -l+1,…, -1, 0, +1,…l-1, l
ml is the orbital magnetic quantum number.

33
The spectrum of hydrogen can only be fully explained if the

electron has an intrinsic spin. It is useful to compare this to
the Earth spinning on its axis. This cannot be truly what is
happening since the surface of the electron would be
traveling faster than the speed of light.
S z  ms  ms=½ for an electron
ms is the spin magnetic quantum number.

34
Electron cloud representations of the electron probability

density for an H atom:

35
§28.7 The Pauli Exclusion Principle
The Pauli Exclusion Principle says no two electrons in an

atom can have the same set of quantum numbers. An
electron’s state is fully described by four quantum numbers
n, l ,ml, and ms.

36
In an atom:
A shell is the set of electron states with the same

quantum number n.
A subshell is a unique combination of n and l. A

subshell is labeled by its value of n and quantum
number l by using spectroscopic notation.

37
Each subshell consists of one or more orbitals specified

by the quantum numbers n, l, and ml. There are 2l+1
orbitals in each subshell.
The number of electron states in a subshell is 2(2l+1),

and the number of states in a shell is 2n2.

38
The subshells are filled by electrons in order of increasing

energy.
1s,2 s,2 p,3s,3 p,4 s,3d ,4 p,5s,4d ,5 p,6 s,4 f ,5d ,6 p,7 s
Beware! There are exceptions to this rule.

39
The electron configuration for helium

is:
specifies the number of

2
1s electrons in this orbital
Specifies n
Specifies l

40
Example (text problem 28.36): How many electron states of

the H atom have the quantum numbers n=3 and l=1? Identify
each state by listing its quantum numbers.
Here ml=-1,0,1 and since 2 electrons can be placed in

each orbital, there can be 6 electron states.
n l ml ms
3 1 -1 -½
3 1 -1 +½
3 1 0 -½
3 1 0 +½
3 1 +1 -½
3 1 +1 +½
41
Example (text problem 28.38): (a) Find the magnitude of the

angular momentum L for an electron with n=2 and l=1?
L  l l  1  11  1  2
(b) What are the allowed values of Lz?
The allowed values of ml are +1,0,-1 so that Lz can be
 1
0
 1.
42
Example continued:
Lz
(c) What are the angles between
the positive z-axis and L so that
the quantized components, Lz, 1
have allowed values?
1
2
When l=1, ml=-1,0,+1 0
3
ml  Lz
cos   
L l l  1
 1
43
Example continued:
 1 1
cos 1    1  45
2 2
0
cos  2   0   2  90
2
 1 1
cos  3     3  45  135
2 2

44
§28.8 Electron Energy Levels in a

Solid
An atom in isolation will only be able to emit photons of

energy E that correspond to the difference in energies
between the energy levels in the atom (a line spectrum).
When atoms are not in isolation, the wave functions overlap

which causes the energy levels to split. As a result, a solid
(a large collection of atoms close together) will emit a
continuous spectrum.

45

46
In a solid, because of the

large number of atoms (N)
present, each energy level
becomes a band of N
closely spaced energy
levels. Solids also show
band gaps where there
are no allowed electron
energy levels.

47
A material is a conductor if
the highest energy electron
state filled at T= 0 is in the
middle of the band (the
band is only partially filled).

48
If electrons fill their allowed states right to the top of the

band, the material is either a semiconductor or an
insulator.

49
§28.9 Lasers
Laser is an acronym for Light Amplification by Stimulated

Emission of Radiation.

50
An electron can go to a higher energy level by the

absorption of a photon.
When an electron is in an excited state, it can go into a

lower energy level by the spontaneous emission a photon.
An electron in an excited state can also go into a lower

energy level by the stimulated emission of a photon.

51

52
A photon of energy E can stimulate the emission of a

photon (by interacting with the excited electron). The
emitted photon will have the same energy, phase, and
momentum of the stimulating photon.

53
Typically the excited states of electrons have lifetimes of

about 10-8 seconds. To make a laser, the material must have
metastable states with lifetimes of about 10-3 seconds. This
allows for a population inversion in which more electrons
are in a higher energy state rather than in a lower energy
state.

54
Example (text problem 28.52): In a ruby laser, laser light of

wavelength 694.3 nm is emitted. The ruby crystal is 6.00
cm long, and the index of refraction of the ruby is 1.75.
Think of the light in the ruby crystal as a standing wave
along the length of the crystal. How many wavelengths fit
in the crystal?
The wavelength of light in the crystal is
0
694.3 nm
   396.7 nm
n 1.75
L
number of wavelengths   1.51105.

55
§28.10 Tunneling
For a wide barrier, the probability per unit time of a particle

tunneling through the barrier is
2a
Pe
where a is the width of barrier and  is a measure of the
barrier height.
2m
 2
U 0  E 

56

57
Summary
•Matter as a Wave
•The Uncertainty Principle
•What Is a Wave Function?
•The Hydrogen Atom
•The Pauli Exclusion Principle
•Quantum Mechanical Tunneling
•Electron Energy Levels in a Solid
•The Laser
•The Electron Microscope Copyright © 2008 – The McGraw-Hill Companies s.r.l.
58
Chapter 29: Nuclear Physics
•The Nucleus
•Binding Energy
•Radioactivity
•Half-life
•Biological Effects of Radiation
•Induced Nuclear Reactions
•Fission and Fusion

1
§29.1 Nuclear Structure
The atomic nucleus is composed of neutrons and protons.

These particles are called nucleons.
The atom’s atomic number (Z) gives the number of protons

in its nucleus. It is the atomic number that determines an
atom’s identity.

2
The nucleon number or mass number is A = Z+N, where

N is the number of neutrons.
Masses of atoms are sometimes give in terms of atomic

mass units. 1u = 1.66053910-27 kg.

3
Atoms of the same element with differing numbers of

neutrons are known as isotopes.
The mass quoted for an atom in the periodic table is a

weighted average over all of the natural isotopes of that
element. The weight factors are determined by using the
relative abundance on Earth of each isotope.

4
For an atomic nucleus

m A
V  A.
This implies the density of an atomic nucleus is independent
of A.
4 3
V  r  A
3
1
rA3
1
As an equality r  r0 A 3
where r0=1.210-15 m = 1.2 fm

5
Example (text problem 29.2): Calculate the mass density of

nuclear matter.
Consider a nucleus with one nucleon (A = 1).

1 15
r  r0 A  1.2 10 3
m
m
The density is  
4 3
r
3
1.66  10  27 kg
  2.3  1017 kg/m 3 .
4
3
 1.2 10 m 
15 3

6
Example (text problem 29.9): Find the radius and

107
volume of the 43 Tc nucleus.
The radius is
  1/3
r  r0 A1/3  1.2 10 15 m 107   5.70  10 15 m.
4 3
The volume is V  r  7.7  10  43 m 3 .
3

7
§29.2 Binding Energy
A nucleus is held together by the strong nuclear force.

This force only acts over distances of a few fermis.

8
The binding energy (EB) of a nucleus is the energy that

must be supplied to separate it into individual protons and
neutrons.
EB = Total energy of Z protons and N neutrons – total

energy of nucleus.

9
Total energy of Z protons and N neutrons = (mass of Z

protons and N neutrons)c2.
Total energy of nucleus= (mass of nucleus)c2.
These can be used to define the mass defect m =

(mass of Z protons and N neutrons) - (mass of nucleus)
so that
E B  mc 2 .

10

11
Nucleons also obey the Pauli Exclusion Principle such that

only two protons (neutrons) can occupy each proton
(neutron) energy level.
Like an atom, a nucleus can be put into an excited state if it

absorbs a photon of the correct energy. The nucleus can
then emit a photon to go to a lower energy state.

12

13
Example (text problem 29.14): (a) Find the binding energy

of the 16O nucleus.
m  mass of 8 H atoms  mass of 8 neutrons 

 mass of neutral 16 O atom
 81.0078250  1.0086649 u  15.9949146u
 0.1370046u
2
EB  mc  127.8 MeV
14
Example continued:
(b) What is the average binding energy per nucleon?
EB
Binding energy per nucleon 
number of nucleons
 7.986 MeV/nucleon.

15
§29.3 Radioactivity
Some nuclei are unstable and decay. These nuclei are

radioactive. A nucleus can emit an alpha ray, beta ray, or
a gamma ray during its decay.

16
During nuclear reactions:

1. Charge is conserved.
2. The total number of nucleons is constant.
3. Energy is conserved.
Define: disintegration energy = binding energy of

radioactive nucleus – total binding energy of products.
This is the rest mass energy that can be converted into
other forms of energy.

17

18
Alpha rays have been identified as helium nuclei.
The reaction for alpha decay is
A A 4 4
Z P Z 2 D 
2
Parent Daughter Alpha

nucleus nucleus particle

19
Example (text problem 29.28): Show that the spontaneous

alpha decay of 19O is not possible.
19 15 4
The reaction is
8 O C   .
6 2
The mass of the products (including electrons) is

19.01320250u.
The mass of 19O is 19.0035787u.
The mass of the products is larger than the reactant, so

this reaction cannot occur spontaneously.
20
Beta rays have been identified as either electrons (-) or

positrons (+).
The reaction for beta-minus decay is
A A 0 0
Z P Z 1 D  e  .
1 0
The reaction for beta-plus decay is
A A 0 0
Z P Z 1 D  e  .
1 0

21
The neutrino and antineutrino have no charge and are

nearly massless. They do not readily interact with matter.

22
During beta-minus decays, a neutron is converted into a

proton.
1 1 0 0
0 n  p  e 
1 1 0
During beta-plus decays, a proton is converted into a

neutron.
1 1 0 0
1 0 1 0 p n  e  

23
Example (text problem 29.29): Calculate the maximum

40
kinetic energy of the beta particle when 19 K decays via
- decay.
40 40 0 0
The reaction is
19 K  Ca  e  .
20 1 0
The maximum kinetic energy of the electron is given by the

disintegration energy.

24
Example continued:
The difference between the mass of the products and the

reactant is
m  M Ca  20me   me   M K  19me 

 M Ca  M K
 0.00140750 u.
The disintegration energy and the maximum KE of the
electron is
2
EB  m c  1.31 MeV.
25
During inverse beta decay (electron capture) a proton in

a nucleus captures an electron. The reaction is
0 1 1 0
1 e  p n   .
1 0 0

26
Gamma rays were determined to be high energy photons.
A gamma ray will be emitted when a nucleus is an excited

state when making a transition to a lower energy level. For
example,
208 * 208
81 Tl  Tl   .
81
When a nucleus has experienced alpha or beta decay, it

is not always left in the ground state.

27
§29.4 Radioactive Decay Rates

and Half-Lives
The half-life of a sample of unstable nuclei is the time it

takes for one-half of the sample to decay. The decay
process is quantum mechanical and is based on probability.

28
Each radioactive nucleus has a probability per second that it

will decay, called the decay constant.
probability of decay
decay constant   
unit time
The number of nuclei that decay in a short time interval is
N   Nt.
There are statistical fluctuations in the number of decays

that occur. These fluctuations are of order N .
29
The decay rate or activity is the number of radioactive

decays that occur in a sample per unit time.
number of decays N
R   N
unit time t
The unit of activity is the bequerel. 1 Bq = 1 decay/sec.

Another common unit is the curie. 1 Ci = 3.71010 Bq.

30
The number of nuclei remaining in a sample having N0

nuclei at t=0 is
N t   N 0 e  t / .
1
 is the mean lifetime of a nucleus.

Note: the above expression for N(t) is a way to determine

the number of remaining nuclei only. It does not tell us
which nuclei have decayed.

31
The activity at time t is Rt   R0 e t /
where R0 is the activity at t=0.

32
It is common to write the expressions for N(t) and R(t) in

terms of half-life (T1/2).
t
T1 / 2
 t
 1
T1/ 2   ln 2 N t   N 0  2 T1 / 2
  N0  
  2

33
Example (text problem 29.37): Some bones discovered in a

crypt in Guatemala are carbon dated. The 14C activity is
measured to be 0.242 Bq per gram of carbon.
Approximately how old are the bones?
Rt   R0 e  t /
Solve for t:
 Rt  
t   ln 
 R0 
T1/2  R t    5730 years   0.242 bq/gram 
 ln     ln   270 years
ln 2  R0   ln 2   0.25bq/gram 
34
§29.5 Biological Effects of

Radiation
The absorbed dose of ionizing radiation is the amount of

radiation energy absorbed per unit mass of tissue. Ionizing
radiation is radiation with enough energy to ionize an atom
or molecule.
The SI unit of absorbed dose is the Gray. 1 Gy = 1 J/kg.

Another common unit is the rad (radiation absorbed dose).
1 rad = 0.01 Gy.
35
Different radiation causes different amounts of biological

damage. The biologically equivalent dose measures the
amount of damage caused by radiation exposure.
Equivalent dose (in sieverts) = absorbed dose (in grays)* QF.

Equivalent dose (in rem) = absorbed dose (in rads)* QF.
QF is a quality factor that

is a relative measure of
biological damage (200
keV x-rays have QF = 1).

36
The sievert is the SI unit of biologically equivalent dose.

1 Sv = 100 rem.

37
Alpha, beta, and gamma radiation penetrates to different

depths in biological materials.
•Alpha rays are stopped by a few cm of air or about 0.02

mm of aluminum.
•Beta-minus can penetrate a few cm into biological tissue.
•Gamma ray absorption is based on probability so they
can penetrate to varying depths.

38
Example (text problem 29.45): An alpha particle produced in

radioactive alpha decay has a kinetic energy of typically
about 6 MeV. When an alpha particle passes through matter,
it makes ionizing collisions with molecules, giving up some of
its kinetic energy to supply the binding energy of the electron
that is removed. If a typical ionization energy for a molecule
in the body is around 20 eV, roughly how many molecules
can the alpha particle ionize before coming to rest?
total energy of alpha particle

number of ionizations 
energy lost per ionization
6 MeV
  5  105 ionizations
20 eV
39
§29.6 Induced Nuclear Reactions
An unstable nucleus decays in a spontaneous nuclear

reaction. An induced nuclear reaction only takes place
because it is caused by a collision between a nucleus and
another particle.

40
14 14
For example, n  N  C  p.
The above reaction is induced by the absorption of a
neutron. This process is called neutron activation.
A spontaneous nuclear reaction will always release energy.

In an induced nuclear reaction, some of the kinetic energy
of the reactants is converted into rest mass of the products.

41
An exoergic reaction releases energy.
An endoergic reaction is one that requires energy to make

it proceed.

42
Example (text problem 29.49): A certain nuclide absorbs a

neutron. It then emits an electron, and then breaks up into
two alpha particles. (a) Identify the original nucleus and the
two intermediate nuclei (after absorbing the neutron and
after emitting the electron).
The reactions are

a c e
1
0 n   X 1   X 2   X 3  e
b d f
0
1
e
f
 X 3     . 4
2
4
2
Since the number of nucleons is conserved e = 4 + 4 = 8.

Charge is conserved so f = 2 + 2 = 4. Identify X3 as Be.
43
Example continued:
In the second step of the first reaction c= e+0 = 8 and

d = f - 1. This gives d = 3. Identify X2 as Li.
In the first step of the reaction a + 1 = c so a = 7 and

b + 0 = d = 3. Identify X1 as Li.
The nuclei involved are
7 8 8
X 1  Li; X 2  Li; X 3  Be.
3 3 4

44
Example continued:
(b) Would any (anti)neutrino(s) be emitted? Explain.
In the second reaction (the beta decay of 8Li) will also

involve the emission of one antineutrino.

45
§29.7 Fission
Fission is when a large nucleus splits into two smaller,

more tightly bound nuclei. This process releases energy.
Fission can either occur spontaneously when the nucleus

is very large, or it can be induced. When fission occurs by
the capture of slow moving neutrons, a chain reaction can
occur.
46
§29.8 Fusion
The process of fusion takes two small nuclei to form a

larger nucleus.

47
The process of fusion is the energy production mechanism

in cores of stars. Stars on the main sequence (like the Sun)
turn hydrogen into helium in their cores. This occurs by the
proton-proton cycle and by the CNO (carbon) cycle.
Overall, this process take four protons and turn them into a
helium nucleus and energy.

48
Example (text problem 29.57): Consider the fusion reaction

between a proton and a deuteron (shown below). (a)
Identify the reaction product X.
1 2
1 H H  X 1
The product must have 3 nucleons and a charge (atomic

number) of 2. The element is He.
3
2 He

49
Example continued:
(b) The binding energy of the deuteron is about 1.1 MeV

per nucleon and the binding energy of “X” is about 2.6
MeV per nucleon. Approximately how much energy (in
MeV) is released in this fusion reaction?
The binding energies are: 0 MeV for 1H; 2.2 MeV for
2H; and 7.8 MeV for 3He.
Energy released = difference in binding energy between

the products and reactants = 7.8 MeV – 2.2 MeV = 5.6
MeV.
50
Example continued:
(c) Why is this reaction unlikely to occur at room

temperature?
At room temperature the reactants will not have

enough kinetic energy to overcome the Coulomb
repulsion between them to get close enough to fuse.

51
Summary
•The Nucleus (atomic & mass numbers)
•Binding Energy
•Radioactive Nuclei
•Alpha, Beta, and Gamma Radiation
•Half-life and Activity
•Absorbed Dose
•Spontaneous vs. Induced Nuclear Reactions
•Fission vs. Fusion
52
Chapter 30: Particle Physics
•Fundamental Particles (quarks and leptons)

•Fundamental Interactions
•Unification
•Particle Accelerators
•21st Century Particle Physics

1
§30.1 Fundamental Particles
Protons and neutrons are not fundamental particles. They

are composed of three quarks each.

2
Each quark has an antiquark that has the same mass, but
opposite charge.

3
An isolated quark has not been seen, but combinations of

quarks make up the particle groups known as mesons and
baryons. Both groups fall under the name of hadron.
A meson is a bound quark/antiquark pair.
A baryon is composed of three bound quarks.
Recent data points to the existence of a new type of baryon

called a pentaquark which is a five quark system that
contains four quarks and one antiquark or four antiquarks
and one quark.
4
The proton and neutron are baryons. A proton is made of

two up quarks and one down quark (uud) and a neutron is
two down quarks and one up quark (udd).
A free neutron decays with a half-life of 10.2 minutes, but

a neutron in a nucleus can be stable. The proton appears
to be stable with a half-life of at least 1029 years.

5

6
The electron belongs to a group of particles called leptons.

No internal structure of an electron has been observed yet.

7
The leptons and quarks are grouped into three generations.

Ordinary matter is made up of particles from the first
generation.
The muon and tau leptons are not stable, but the electron
is stable.
The three “flavors” of neutrinos are able to change from

one flavor to another (a neutrino oscillation).

8
§30.2 Fundamental Interactions
Each fundamental force in nature occurs by the exchange

of a mediator or an exchange particle.
The exchange particle can transfer momentum and energy

between particles.

9
Electromagnetic interactions are mediated by the photon.

Weak interactions are mediated by the W+, W-, and Z0.
Strong interactions are mediated by gluons.
Gravity is mediated by the graviton.
Photons, gluons, and gravitons have no charge and are

massless.

10
The strong interaction holds quarks together to form

hadrons.
Quarks have a property called color charge that determine

their strong interactions. Leptons have no color charge and
so do not “feel” the strong force.

11
There are three types of color charges (red, green, and

blue). They form colorless combinations. One each of red,
green, and blue will form a colorless baryon. For example,
one red and one antired quark can form a meson.
It is the need to have colorless quark combinations which

prevents them from being removed from a colorless group.

12
A gluon mediates a strong interaction. Quarks emit and

absorb gluons, which carry a color charge. Absorbing or
emitting a gluon changes the color of a quark.
The strong interaction keeps both quark systems and

atomic nuclei bound together.

13
The weak interaction proceeds by the exchange of the

W+, W-, and Z0. These particles have nonzero masses.
Quarks and leptons have weak charge and so feel the

weak force.

14
The weak interaction allows one flavor of quark to change

into any other flavor of quark. In beta-minus decay, a
neutron changes into a proton. This occurs when a down
quark changes into an up quark by emitting a W-, which
then decays into an electron and an electron antineutrino.

15
The quantum mechanical description of the strong, weak,

and electromagnetic forces along with the three generations
of quarks and leptons is called the standard model. The
standard model is not complete.

16
§30.3 Unification
Just after the Big Bang, it is believed that all four

fundamental forces were unified together as a single force.
As the universe expanded and cooled, the force of gravity
split off, followed by the strong force, which was followed by
the splitting of the weak and electromagnetic forces.

17
Experiments have been done to show that under certain

conditions the electromagnetic and weak forces are
unified into the electroweak force.
So far a quantum theory of gravity has not been developed.

General relativity works on large size scales, but fails on
the size scale of atoms.

18
Supersymmetry is an attempt at unifying the strong and

electroweak interactions.
It has been found that including extra dimensions is a

way to unify gravity with the other forces.

19
String theories treat the fundamental particles as vibrating

loops of energy. These “strings” vibrate in 10 or 11
dimensions. The extra dimensions are very compact and
cannot be observed directly.

20
§30.4 Particle Accelerators
A particle accelerator is used to give beams of charged

particles high kinetic energy before colliding them with
each other or with a stationary target.
The results of the collision are recorded by various

detectors for later study.

21
Two types of particle accelerators are the synchrotron and

the linear accelerator.

22
§30.5 Twenty-First Century Particle

Physics
Some open questions physicists hope to answer:
•Are there only three generations of quarks and leptons?

•Will the Higgs particle be found?
•Are quarks & leptons fundamental particles?
•Is the proton stable?

23
•Why is the force of gravity so weak in comparison to

the other three fundamental forces?
•What is dark matter?
•What is dark energy?
•What happened to all of the antimatter formed in the
early universe?
•Can gravity be unified with the other three fundamental
forces?
•Does our universe only have four dimensions? If so,
why?

24
Example (text problem 30.5): A proton of mass

0.938 GeV/c2 and an antiproton, at rest relative to an
observer, annihilate each other. What are the kinetic
energies of the two pions, each of which has mass
0.14 GeV/c2?
 
The reaction is p  p   .
Total energy is conserved:
Ei  E f
Ep1  Ep2  E 1  E 2
K p1  m p c 2
 K p2  m  
p c 2
 K 1  m c 2
 K  
2  m c 2
  

K 1  K 2  2 m p c 2  m c   1.6 GeV

2
Assuming K1 = K2 then the KE of each pion is 0.8 GeV. Copyright © 2008 – The McGraw-Hill Companies s.r.l.
25
Example (text problem 30.9): Two factors that determine the

distance over which a force can act are the mass of the exchange
particle that carries the force and the Heisenberg Uncertainty
Principle. Assume that the uncertainty in the energy of an
exchange particle is given by its rest energy and that the particle
travels at nearly the speed of light. What is the range of the weak
force carried by the Z0 particle that has a mass of 92 GeV/c2?
Compare it to the range of the weak force given in table 30.3.

Et 
2
 x  
E   
 c  2
Same
c 1240 10 9 eV m 18 value as
x    1  10 m
2E 9
4 92  10 eV   table 30.3
26
Example (text problem 30.21): A proton in Fermilab’s

Tevatron is accelerated through a potential difference of
2.5 MV during each revolution around the ring of radius
1.0 km. In order to reach an energy of 1 TeV, how many
revolutions must the proton make? How far has it
traveled?
During each revolution, the proton is given kinetic energy
of qV= 2.5 MeV.
total energy
number of revolutions 
energy gain per revolution
1 TeV
  4  105
2.5 MeV
27
Example continued:
The distance traveled is
d  circumference of ring * number of revolutions

 2.5  10 6 km.

28
Summary
•Fundamental Particles (quarks & leptons)

•Fundamental Interactions (strong, weak, EM, gravity)
•Exchange Particles
•Unification
•Particle Accelerators

29

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Fisica Generale - Alan Giambattista, Betty McCarty Richardson

•Why Study Physics?

Copyright © 2008 – The McGraw-Hill Companies s.r.l.

§1.1 Why Study Physics?

Physics is the foundation of every science (astronomy,

Many pieces of technology and/or medical equipment and

Studying physics will help you develop good thinking skills,

Copyright © 2008 – The McGraw-Hill Companies s.r.l.

Gain an appreciation for the simplicity of nature.

Physics encompasses all natural phenomena.

Copyright © 2008 – The McGraw-Hill Companies s.r.l.

§1.2 Physics Speak

Be aware that physicists have their own precise definitions

Examples: speed and velocity are no longer synonyms;

Copyright © 2008 – The McGraw-Hill Companies s.r.l.

Philosophy is written in this grand book, the universe, which stands

From Opere Il Saggiatore p. 171 by Galileo Galilei (http://www-gap.dcs.st-

Basically, the language spoken by physicists is mathematics.

Copyright © 2008 – The McGraw-Hill Companies s.r.l.

x is multiplied by the factor 1/a or x is divided by the factor

Copyright © 2008 – The McGraw-Hill Companies s.r.l.

Example: You put $10,000 in a CD for one year. The APY

$10,000 1.0305  $10,305

The bank pays you

Copyright © 2008 – The McGraw-Hill Companies s.r.l.

Example: You have $5,000 invested in stock XYZ. It loses

$5,000  0.936  $4,680

Copyright © 2008 – The McGraw-Hill Companies s.r.l.

where the (+) is used if the quantity is increasing and (–) is

Copyright © 2008 – The McGraw-Hill Companies s.r.l.

A is proportional to B. The value of A is

1 A is proportional to 1/B. The value of A is

Copyright © 2008 – The McGraw-Hill Companies s.r.l.

Example: For items at the grocery store:

To change from  to = we need to know the proportionality

cost  (cost per pound)  (weight)

Copyright © 2008 – The McGraw-Hill Companies s.r.l.

§1.4 Scientific Notation &

This is a shorthand way of writing very large and/or very

Copyright © 2008 – The McGraw-Hill Companies s.r.l.

Example: The radius of the sun is 700,000 km.

Write as 7.0105 km.

When properly written this number

Example: The radius of a hydrogen atom is 0.0000000000529

Copyright © 2008 – The McGraw-Hill Companies s.r.l.

From the “purple box” on page 5:

Copyright © 2008 – The McGraw-Hill Companies s.r.l.

Please see text example 1.2 for more information on

Copyright © 2008 – The McGraw-Hill Companies s.r.l.

Prefix Power of 10 Prefix Power of 10

Dimensions are basic types of quantities that can be

A unit is a standard amount of a dimensional quantity.

Copyright © 2008 – The McGraw-Hill Companies s.r.l.

The quantities in this

Copyright © 2008 – The McGraw-Hill Companies s.r.l.

A derived unit is composed of combinations of base units.

Example: The SI unit of energy is the joule.

Derived unit Base units

Units can be freely converted from one to another.