PG - M.A. - Education - 348 14 - Innovation in Education

ALAGAPPA UNIVERSITY
[Accredited with ‘A+’ Grade by NAAC (CGPA:3.64) in the Third Cycle

and Graded as Category–I University by MHRD-UGC]
(A State University Established by the Government of Tamil Nadu)
KARAIKUDI – 630 003
Directorate of Distance Education
M.A. [Education]
I - Semester
348 14
INNOVATION IN EDUCATION
Reviewer
Dr. S. Leo Stanly Associate Professor,
Department of Education,
Directorate of Distance Education,
Alagappa University, Karaikudi
Authors
Dr. Harish Kumar, Head, Amity Institute of Behavioural & Allied Sciences (AIBAS), Amity University, Uttar Pradesh
Richa Sharma, Assistant Professor, Janta Institute of Education, Sonipat
Units (1-14)
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SYLLABI-BOOK MAPPING TABLE
Innovation in Education
BLOCK 1: INNOVATION, CULTURE AND

GROWTH, EDUCATIONAL EXPERIMENTS
AND FACTORS
UNIT - I: Innovation Unit 1: Innovation
Meaning and Principles Barriers to Change (Pages 1-12)
Suggestions for the Promotion of Innovativeness in
Students Instructional Media.
UNIT - II: Emergence of School Unit 2: Emergence of School

Culture setting Culture and the School (Pages 13-28)
Characteristics of Culture Education and Culture
Social Demand for Education Leadership
Role of the Teacher
UNIT - III: Innovations from Educational Experiments Unit 3: Innovations from Educational
Educational Experiments of Rabindranath Tagore - Experiments
Froebel’s Kindergarten - Basic Education and Gandhiji (Pages 29-48)
- Bertrand Russell - Principles Underlying Self-
Learning Devices - Child Development Theory.
UNIT - IV: Factors on Innovations Unit 4: Factors of Innovations

Growth of Culture - Growth of Civilization - Factors (Pages 49-61)
Responsible for the Resistance to the Growth of
Culture - Social Effects of Innovations - Inventions -
Principle of Equality - Innovation and Educational
Goals.
BLOCK 2: NATIONAL TRENDS AND

EDUCATIONALTECHNOLOGY
UNIT - V: National Trends in Educational Innovations Unit 5: National Trends in Educational
Science Education in Developed and Innovations
Underdeveloped Countries - Role of Science and (Pages 62-79)
Culture in the Future - Role of Education - Need for
Improvement in Science Education - UNESCO -
Modification of Educational Systems.
UNIT - VI: Educational Technology Unit 6: Educational Technology

Meaning - Media and Learning - Characteristics of (Pages 80-94)
Teaching Devices - Basic Principles - Types of
Machines - Teaching Machines and Teachers -
Courseware Development - Uses of CAI System.
UNIT - VII: Programmed Instruction Unit 7: Programmed Instruction
Meaning - Principles - Types - Merits and Demerits - (Pages 95-112)
Preparing the Learning Materials for Programmed
Instruction - Role of Computer in Instruction -
Teaching Machines.
UNIT - VIII: Modernization Unit 8: Modernization

Meaning - Innovations and Educational Goals - (Pages 113-123)
Education and Modernization - Concept of
Modernization - Difference between Modernization
and Modernity - Technological Change,
Industrialization and Modernization - Characters -
Role of Education in Modernization.
BLOCK 3: FREEDOM,ALTERNATIVE SCHOOLS

AND DISTANCE EDUCATION
UNIT - IX: Freedom for Innovation Unit 9: Freedom for Innovation
Institutional Autonomy - Needs - Privileges - Effects (Pages 124-135)
- Advantages - Disadvantages - Individual Autonomy
- Teacher’s Autonomy - Autonomy for Students -
Freedom in Learning Situations - Autonomy in
Institutional Structure
UNIT - X: Alternative Schools

Dalton Plan - Winnetka Plan - Howard Plan - Plantoon Unit 10: Alternative Schools
Plan - Educational Alternatives in Public Schools - (Pages 136-146)
De-Schooling Society - Concept of
De-schooling - Arguments Advanced for De-
Schooling Society - Ivan Illich - Important Ideas -
Learning Resources - Criticism - Non Classroom
Learning.
UNIT - XI: Distance Education Unit 11: Distance Education

Introduction (Pages 147-159)
Meaning and Definition Need of Distance Education
Different Formats and Innovative Elements
Correspondence Courses
Open University
BLOCK 4: SYSTEM APPROACH, LANGUAGE

LABORATORYAND NETWORK
UNIT - XII: System Approach Unit 12: System Approach
Meaning - System and System Approach - Phases - (Pages 160-171)
Application - Developing
Instructional Model - Assessment Phase - Defining
the Problem of Instruction - Learning Characteristics
- Assessing the Situational Variables - Selection and
Designing - Selection of Instructional Method -
Media and Aids - Advantages.
UNIT - XIII: Language Laboratory Unit 13: Language Laboratory
Needs - Equipments and Set-ups in a Language (Pages 172-185)
Laboratory - Method of Providing Training -
Laboratory Operation Procedure - Special Features -
Advantages - Audio Cards - Limitations - CCTV -
Advantages - Video Cassette and Compact Disc -
Tele Lecture - Tele Conferencing - Types
UNIT - XIV: Network Unit 14: Network

Aims of Forming Networks - LAN and WAN - Host (Pages 186-196)
and Terminal - Functioning of Network - Uses of
Network - Educational Technology for Exceptional
Children - Cybernetics - Classroom Instruction and
Communication - Instructional Medium and
Instructional Aid - Types - Methods.
CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION
BLOCK I: NNOVATION, CULTURE AND GROWTH, EDUCATIONAL
EXPERIMENTS AND FACTORS
UNIT 1 INNOVATION 1-12
1.0 Introduction
1.1 Objectives
1.2 Innovation: Meaning and Principles
1.2.1 Barriers to Change
1.2.2 Suggestions for the Promotion of Innovativeness in the Students
1.3 Instructional Media
1.4 Answers to Check Your Progress Questions
1.5 Summary
1.6 Key Words
1.7 Self Assessment Questions and Exercises
1.8 Further Readings
UNIT 2 EMERGENCE OF SCHOOL 13-28

2.0 Introduction
2.1 Objectives
2.2 Culture Setting
2.2.1 Culture and the School
2.3 Characteristics of Culture
2.3.1 Education and Culture
2.4 Social Demand for Education Leadership
2.4.1 Role of the Teacher
2.6 Summary
2.7 Key Words
UNIT 3 INNOVATIONS FROM EDUCATIONAL EXPERIMENTS 29-48
3.0 Introduction
3.1 Objectives
3.2 Educational Experiments of Rabindranath Tagore
3.3 Froebel’s Kindergarten
3.4 Basic Education and Gandhi
3.4.1 Bertrand Russell
3.5 Principles Underlying Self-Learning Devices
3.5.1 Child Development Theory
3.7 Summary
3.8 Key Words
UNIT 4 FACTORS OF INNOVATIONS 49-61

4.0 Introduction
4.1 Objectives
4.2 Growth of Culture and Civilization
4.2.1 Factors Responsible for the Resistance to the Growth of Culture
4.3 Social Effects of Innovation
4.3.1 Inventions
4.3.2 Principle of Equality
4.4 Innovation and Educational Goals
4.6 Summary
4.7 Key Words
BLOCK II: NATIONAL TRENDS AND EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY

UNIT 5 NATIONAL TRENDS IN EDUCATIONAL INNOVATIONS 62-79
5.0 Introduction
5.1 Objectives
5.2 Science Education in Developed and Underdeveloped Countries
5.3 Role of Science and Culture in the Future
5.3.1 Role of Education and the Need for Improvement in Science Education
5.4 UNESCO: The Modification of Educational System
5.6 Summary
5.7 Key Words
UNIT 6 EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY 80-94

6.0 Introduction
6.1 Objectives
6.2 Educational Technology: Meaning
6.3 Characteristics of Teaching Devices
6.3.1 Media and Learning
6.4 Types of Machines
6.4.1 Computer Assisted Instruction and its Uses
6.4.2 Innovation and Educational Goals
6.6 Summary
6.7 Key Words
UNIT 7 PROGRAMMED INSTRUCTION 95-112

7.0 Introduction
7.1 Objectives
7.2 Programmed Instruction: Meaning
7.2.1 Programmed Instruction: Principles
7.3 Types of Programmed Instructions
7.3.1 Programmed Learning: Merits and Demerits
7.4 Preparing the Learning Material for Programmed Instruction
7.4.1 Role of Computer in Instruction
7.5 Teaching Machines
7.7 Summary
7.8 Key Words
UNIT 8 MODERNIZATION 113-123

8.0 Introduction
8.1 Objectives
8.2 Meaning and Concept of Modernization
8.3 Education and Modernization
8.3.1 Difference between Modernity and Modernization
8.5 Summary
8.6 Key Words
BLOCK III: FREEDOM, ALTERNATIVE SCHOOLS AND

DISTANCE EDUCATION
UNIT 9 FREEDOM FOR INNOVATION 124-135
9.0 Introduction
9.1 Objectives
9.2 Autonomy in Institutional Structure
9.2.1 Individual/Student Autonomy
9.3 Teacher Autonomy
9.5 Summary
9.6 Key Words
UNIT 10 ALTERNATIVE SCHOOLS 136-146

10.0 Introduction
10.1 Objectives
10.2 Alternative Schools: An Introduction and Dalton Plan
10.2.1 Dalton Plan
10.2.2 Winnetka Plan
10.2.3 Howard Plan
10.2.4 Plantoon Plan
10.3 De-Schooling and Ivan Illich: Important Ideas
10.3.1 Learning Resources and Non-Classroom Learning
10.5 Summary
10.6 Key Words
UNIT 11 DISTANCE EDUCATION 147-159

11.0 Introduction
11.1 Objectives
11.2 Distance Education: An Introduction
11.2.1 Teacher Trainees Beliefs
11.2.2 Types of Distance Education
11.3 Distance/Correspondence Education and its Need
11.3.1 Different Formats and Innovative Elements
11.5 Summary
11.6 Key Words
BLOCK IV: SYSTEM APPROACH, LANGUAGE LABORATORY

AND NETWORK
UNIT 12 SYSTEM APPROACH 160-171
12.0 Introduction
12.1 Objectives
12.2 Instructional Design and its Functions: Developing the Model
12.2.1 System Approach
12.2.2 Phases or Steps of System Analysis
12.3 Criteria for Evaluating System Analysis Project
12.3.1 Application of System Analysis in Education
12.5 Summary
12.6 Key Words
UNIT 13 LANGUAGE LABORATORY 172-185

13.0 Introduction
13.1 Objectives
13.2 Language Laboratory and its Need
13.2.1 Need and Equipment in Language Laboratory
13.3 Method of Providing Training and Language Operation Procedures
13.3.1 Advantages of the Language Laboratory
13.4 Audio Cards, CCTVs, Compact Disc, Tele-Lecture and Tele-Conferencing
13.6 Summary
13.7 Key Words
UNIT 14 NETWORK 186-196
14.0 Introduction
14.1 Objectives
14.2 Network: An Introduction
14.2.1 Aims of Forming Networks: LAN And WAN
14.3 Educational Technology for Exceptional Children
14.3.1 Importance of Educational Technology for Exceptional Children
14.3.2 Instructional Medium and Instructional Aids Types Methods
14.3.3 The Effective Use of Teaching Aids
14.5 Summary
14.6 Key Words
Introduction
INTRODUCTION
Education is a very important and integral part of society that governs the social
NOTES functioning. It deeply connects with the wants and ambitions of every society. This
is the reason that education cannot remain unaffected by any social change that
takes place around us. Hence, any advancement in technology has a direct or
indirect impact on the methodology of education in the current scenario.
In general, there is active participation and involvement of radio, television,
computers, machines, films, and now the Internet and multimedia, in providing
education and educational material to students. These are all parts of the innovation
process in education. This is referred to as educational technology. The significance
of educational technology has increased due to its capability to achieve desired
goals related to making education universal, preparing teachers and upgrading
curricula in every phase of education.
Educational Technology (ET) is the efficient organization of any learning
system adopting or adapting itself to methods, processes, and products to serve
identified educational goals. This involves systematic identification of the goals of
education, recognition of the diversity of learners’ needs, the contexts in which
learning will take place, and the range of provisions needed for each of these. The
challenge is to design appropriate systems that will provide for and enable
appropriate teaching-learning systems that could realise the identified goals. The
key to meeting this challenge is an appreciation of the role of educational technology
as an agent of change in the classroom, which includes not only the teacher and the
teaching-learning process but also systemic issues like reach, equity, and quality.
This book, Innovation in Education is divided into fourteen units that
follow the self-instruction mode with each unit beginning with an Introduction to
the unit, followed by an outline of the Objectives. The detailed content is then
presented in a simple but structured manner interspersed with Check Your Progress
Questions to test the student’s understanding of the topic. A Summary along with
a list of Key Words and a set of Self-Assessment Questions and Exercises is also
provided at the end of each unit for recapitulation.
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Innovation
BLOCK - I
INNOVATION, CULTURE AND GROWTH,
EDUCATIONAL EXPERIMENTS AND FACTORS
NOTES
UNIT 1 INNOVATION
Structure
1.0 Introduction
1.1 Objectives
1.2 Innovation: Meaning and Principles
1.2.2 Suggestions for the Promotion of Innovativeness in the Students
1.3 Instructional Media
1.5 Summary
1.6 Key Words
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Innovation can be defined as the process which makes changes into something
which is already established. The change can be radical or incremental. Innovation
is necessary in the field of education so that it can prepare the students to suit the
ever changing demands of the world. It prepares the students to adjust in a
competitive world.
It is important that education must be provided in an unconventional way
and it is only through innovation that it can be achieved. Innovation must be
introduced in such a way that education becomes easier to access, is cost effective
and yield great results.
In this unit, the meaning and importance of innovation has been analysed.
The unit will also discuss the barriers related to innovation and the introduction of
instructional media approaches in the field of education. The unit will also highlight
the types of teaching aids and steps involved in the instructional media approach.
1.1 OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit, you will be able to:

 Discuss the meaning of innovation
 Analyse the barriers related to innovation
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Innovation  Explain the role of instructional media approach
 Interpret the procedure of instructional media approach
 Discuss the forms of teaching aids
NOTES
1.2 INNOVATION: MEANING AND PRINCIPLES
Education is a social institution which serves the needs of the country by educating
the future generations of the society. It should be comprehensive and sustainable
and must suit according to the ever changing world. It thus, becomes imperative
that teachers must change their practice of teaching with time so that they can
adapt themselves and their methods of teaching in our globalized world. They are
expected to innovate the theories related to teaching and learning so that it prepares
students to adjust in the world.
In order to adjust in this changing world, innovation and evolution plays a
critical role. Hoffman and Holzhuter opines that ‘Innovation resembles mutation,
the biological process that keeps species evolving so they can better compete for
survival’. Innovation is therefore, considered as a process which brings positive
change. If one does not give much importance to innovation, then the economy
will stagnate.
The need for educational innovations has become acute. ‘It is widely believed
that countries’ social and economic well-being will depend to an ever greater
extent on the quality of their citizens’ education: the emergence of the so-called
‘knowledge society’, the transformation of information and the media, and increasing
specialization on the part of organizations all call for high skill profiles and levels of
knowledge. Today’s education systems are required to be both effective and
efficient, or in other words, to reach the goals set for them while making the best
use of available resources’. (Cornali, 2012, p. 255).
Innovation is not merely about the final change that has taken place, but it is about
the result and the conditions that must be in place to allow innovators to see the
problem in new light, create potential solutions, refine their strategy and ultimately
lead to acquire effective ideas, products, processes, strategies and platforms. For
example, in biotechnology sector, one can see that in human genome project, how
evidence from one cycle of innovation is captured and disseminated and that has
been applied by many other scientists towards thinking through the next challenge.
In the education sector, this kind of work needs to be refined at the student,
school and system levels that will subsequently require reconfiguration of many
incentives that currently drive behaviors. In the present times, we have a publicly
regulated system which is created to value stability over adaptation and as a result
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we have some fundamental barriers to innovation. These barriers are discussed as Innovation
follows:
 Lack of clarity on the problem to be solved: A significant number of
ideological disagreements about the purpose and the role of public
NOTES
education rights and parent’s rights creates confusion for the policy
makers.
 Weak technology infrastructure: Most of the district and schools
plan only for technology acquisition and not for upgrades and
maintenance, thus, it is tough for the teachers and users to trust in the
adoption of technology tool that may not be supported over time. This
in turn inhibits innovation in technology applications.
 Misaligned labor market: The profession of teaching, school leadership
and educational management including administration are set up to value
‘seat time’ and longevity, with virtually no incentives or rewards for
initiating innovative practices to drive student outcomes.
 Weak knowledge base: Fields of education such as medicine, which
have professional knowledge standards, a constantly improving
knowledge base such as Board Certification process for medical doctors,
the knowledge base that is required for student achievements is relatively
weak. As a result, there is no body of knowledge that is widely accepted
as a prerequisite for entering a profession, nor a standard for advanced
mastery.
 Ineffective uptake and dissemination: Enough amount of attention
is not paid to diffusion of knowledge and innovation.
 Policy is impenetrable to most innovators: Innovations are rarely
transformed into policy changes, whether they originate from social
entrepreneurs who operate outside the traditional system, where policy
constraints are reduced, or from inside change agents who work around
the traditional system constraints.
 Local government is not aligned to support innovation: Shift of
political forces and school boards that are often taken as a step by
political forces, lead to ‘spinning wheels’ in most districts ironically creates
almost constant change for practitioners, but makes it nearly impossible
to sustain any innovation long enough to truly understand its efficacy.
 Isolation of research from problems of practice: Research largely
remains isolated from within the schools of education and is often aligned
to tenure incentives rather than problem-based needs in the field. There
is a very little sense of urgency to disseminate knowledge and being
innovative ideas or knowledge into the development cycle and to scale.
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Innovation 1.2.2 Suggestions for the Promotion of Innovativeness in
the Students
Innovations must be carried out and must focus the prioritization upon the students
NOTES who are not being adequately served by the system and the problems of practice
that had defied effective solutions to date, as they have most to gain from urgent
action. It is imperative that one must not let the students slip through the loopholes
of educational system.
Suggestions for the promotion of innovativeness in the students are as follows:
 Strengthen communication and cooperation thereby closing the
knowledge gaps.
 Making use of ICT, providing educational technology accessibility to
the students.
 Maintenance of supportive environment for the development of
competencies among the students.
 Letting them gain lifelong learning experiences thereby, encouraging
creativity among the students.
Check Your Progress

1. Why are innovations rarely transformed into policy changes?
2. What are the ways in which innovation can be promoted in students?
1.3 INSTRUCTIONAL MEDIA
According to author Romizowski (1988), instructional media refers to the devices

and materials employed in teaching and learning. It includes chalks, blackboard,
radio, television, films, slides, teacher made diagrams, video tapes, recorders and
projectors, software and transparencies, cartoons, models, maps and photographs.
According to a renowned author Nkuuhe (1995), Instructional media are
all devices and materials used in teaching and learning process.
Author Ogumilade (1984) also identifies instructional media as devices of
hardware (equipment) and software (consumables) through which the learning
process may be ensured and carried out.
In other words, instructional media is the collection of materials and equipment
that are used for successful delivery of the teaching learning process. It includes
hardware components such as chalks, duster, blackboard, pictures, maps,
projectors and media devices as well as software components such as ideas,
thoughts and senses. Thus, instructional media act as a key component in the
teaching learning process and finally helping to bring out meaningful teaching- learning
activity.
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Instructional Media and Multimedia Approach Innovation
Instructional Media and Multimedia approach can convey information and provide
many sources from which student can access the information. Multimedia approach
will improve the teaching learning process. It is not restricted to a single type of NOTES
learning style; it can provide the support of a wide range of activities. The approach
aims at providing meaningful learning experiences through a mix of media in order
to achieve predetermined objectives. It provides opportunity to gain mastery of
competencies and skills. However, it is important that the choice of the media has
to be done carefully so that one does not hamper or reduce the effect of the other.
This will enable the learner to get access to information in dynamic environment.
The procedure for adopting instructional-multimedia approach
The following stages will help a person in adopting the right approach:
 First stage: In the first stage, teacher initiates teaching through teaching
and learning activities and then delivers a well prepared lesson plan based
upon the formulated objectives. For this, the teacher may use the formulated
objectives for the preparation of multimedia lesson plan.
 Second stage: In the second stage, teacher demonstrates a specific unit
using multimedia. The teacher may also provide the learner with the
programmed teaching material such as cassettes and CD.
 Third stage: Third stage is termed as the preparatory stage, as the learner
starts learning independently in this stage. For that the student may discuss
his learning material and problems related to it with peer groups and teachers.
 Fourth Stage: In the fourth stage, learner actively participates and uses
variety of media and materials for self study.
 Fifth stage: In the fifth stage, the student integrates theory with practice
while using multimedia resources.
 Sixth stage: In the sixth stage, learners find that the teaching learning material
and resources must be organized to a higher level. Therefore, the students
at this stage are involved in critical analysis which focuses on evaluation and
reasoning.
Role of teacher in instructional and multi-media approach
A teacher has to adopt a number of methods and techniques. Teacher has to be
aware of the different available media and their availability. He or she must be
physically competent to use and demonstrate the use of the different instructional
media. The teacher should be skillful enough to make a judicious choice of media
and competent enough to mix them in a sequential and orderly manner. The role of
teacher is of a facilitator or manager of activities. Therefore, the teacher has to
lead his or her students for independent and individualized learning.
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Innovation Prerequisites for developing a multimedia instructional device
Let us discuss the prerequisites for developing a multimedia in instructional device.
 Planning
NOTES  Express the idea and purpose
 Develop the objectives
 Consider the learner
 Find related material
 Prepare the content outline
 Designing the multimedia device
 Identifying the factors or criteria for instructional media selection
 Select the media
 Make a story board
 Developed the script
 Production of the multimedia device
 Take the picture and keep a record
 Process the pictures
 Edit the picture edit the narration and captions
 Mix sound
 Prepare final copies
 Follow up
 Use the materials
 Evaluate for future use revise the materials
 Obtain the copyright for the materials
Advantages of the Instructional Media Approach
The following are the advantages of instructional media approach:
 Instructional media approach enables the learner to represent information
using several different media.
 It can arouse the curiosity among the learner and provide them vivid
impressions.
 It can take into account different learning styles, some people learn by
interpreting text while others require more graphical representations.
 It can help develop a positive attitude among the learners towards the
teaching learning process.
 Multimedia approach allows for self-pacing.
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 The technique of simulation can be effectively applied through the instructional Innovation
media approach.
 It helps in the development of higher order thinking skills.
 It provides the student the flexibility of ‘anywhere’ and ‘ anytime’ learning. NOTES
 It helps in developing group and interpersonal skills.
 Effective remediation programs can be implemented through the multimedia
approach.
 It can bridge the language barrier since audio is not the only means of
communication.
Disadvantages of the Instructional Media Approach
The following are the disadvantages of the instructional media approach:
 Sometimes when it requires highly sophisticated infrastructure facilities, it
may lead to a heavy financial burden.
 Expertise and skill are required to operate the instructional media devices
which will lead to the problem of non-availability of human resources.
 Not feasible in all the topics of study.
In early years, the only term used for teaching aids was audio-visual aids
however, with the advancement and opening of new horizons in the field of electronic
technology and communication media, new and improved equipments and aids
for teaching and learning are developed, instead of mere teaching aids improved
terms were used i.e. educational or instructional technology.
The present situation calls for a change at almost every level of education,
so that practical and dynamic approach can be given to the existing and new field
of education. The crux of this modern education is to awaken the hidden curiosity
and interest of the learner, nourishing his behaviors, in order to develop basic and
essential skills of lifelong learning as well as ability to think critically and to judge
him and others in a more beneficial manner.
There are different types of audio-visual equipments ranging from simple
hand-made charts to highly sophisticated projectors available in the markets. In
the broadest sense, teaching aids can be categorized under two heads according
to sociologists and authors Sampath Pannneerselvam and Santhan, (1998) as
follows:
1. Projected Aids: Projected aids are those aids which involve an enlarged
image of the material or text projected on a screen and which is at a
distance from the projector. For example: film strips, slide projector,
overhead projection, opaque projection, while using them, the room is
either totally dark or may be partially dark. The bright colors and images
on the screen catch the attention; sound and motion will make presentation
more dynamic as compared to non-projected aids. Projected aids are
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Innovation equally effective for every age group as well as small or large group.
The projected aids provide a useful learning experience to the students
as it helps in explaining the concept to the students in a better way. It
also provides better elaboration of the concept in the pictorial form.
NOTES
2. Non-Projected Aids: Non-projected aids are most commonly used
as teaching aids as they do not employ the use of projectors to project
enlarged images of objects or text. They are inexpensive to use and are
relatively less sophisticated as compared to projected aids. Some
examples of non-projected aids include graphic aids, display boards,
3-D aids, activity aids and audio-visual aids.
Teaching aids may be classified as audio aids, visual aid, audio visual aids
and activity aids. The various types of teaching aids are described as follows:
Audio aids: An audio-visual aid makes a lesson interesting and a memorable
experience not only for students but for teachers as well. They play a vibrant role
in focusing the attention of individual student towards the teacher or the topic.
Human beings have five senses which are the doorway for effective learning,
especially seeing, hearing and touching brings maximum knowledge for the
individual. For example: radio and tape recorder represent that aids material which
helps the learner to acquire the knowledge through his auditory senses.
Visual aids: Visual aids includes charts, picture models, graphs, D-aids,
globes and maps, diagrams, posters, flash cards, photographs, micro projector,
film strip and display boards. It represent that aids material which helps the learner
in acquiring learning experiences through his visual senses.
Audio-visual aids: Audio-visual aids include television, Motion pictures,
cartoon and comics, posters, video films and living objects represent all those
equipments and aid material which helps the learner to get opportunity to utilize
both his auditory and visual sensors for gaining the desired learning experiences.
Activity aids: Activity aids are those aids in which the students learn by
engaging in some useful activities. These aids facilitate learning through sight and
sound as well as through doing. The examples of such aids in teaching of biological
sciences are as follows:
 Science excursions and visits
 Science exhibition and fairs
 Science museum and clubs
 Nature study corner and nature related projects and assignments
 Botanical garden and nursery
 Zoological place
 Aquarium and terrarium
 Experimentation in the laboratory and workshop, seminars and
conferences, discussion panel.
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Innovation
Check Your Progress

3. State any advantage of instructional media approach.
4. What is the aim of instructional media approach? NOTES
1.4 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

QUESTIONS
1. Innovations are rarely transformed into policy changes because policy is

impenetrable to most of the innovators whether they originate from social
entrepreneurs who operate outside the traditional system, where policy
constraints are reduced, or from inside change agents who work around
the traditional system constraints.
2. The following are the ways in which innovation can be promoted in students:
 Strengthen communication and cooperation thereby closing the
knowledge gaps.
 Making use of ICT, providing educational technology accessibility to
the students.
 Maintenance of supportive environment for the development of
competencies among the students.
 Letting them gain lifelong learning experiences thereby, encouraging
creativity among the students.
3. Instructional media approach enables the learner to represent information
4. The instructional media approach aims at providing meaningful learning
experiences through a mix of media in order to achieve predetermined
objectives. It provides opportunity to gain mastery of competencies and
skills.
1.5 SUMMARY
 Education is a social institution which serves the needs of the country by

educating the future generations of the society.
 Innovation is not merely about the final change that has taken place, but it is
about the result and the conditions that must be in place to allow innovators
to see the problem in new light, create potential solutions, refine their strategy
and ultimately leading to acquire effective ideas, products, processes,
strategies and platforms.
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Innovation  Most of the district and schools plan only for technology acquisition and
not for upgrades and maintenance, thus, it is tough for the teachers and
users to trust in the adoption of technology tool that may not be supported
over time.
NOTES
 Innovations are rarely transformed into policy changes, whether they originate
from social entrepreneurs who operate outside the traditional system, where
policy constraints are reduced, or from inside change agents who work
around the traditional system constraints.
 Research largely remains isolated from within the schools of education and
is often aligned to tenure incentives rather than problem-based needs in the
field.
 Innovations must be carried out and must focus the prioritization upon the
students who are not being adequately served by the system and the
problems of practice that had defied effective solutions to date, as they
have most to gain from urgent action.
 In other words, instructional media is the collection of materials and
equipment’s that are used for successful delivery of the teaching learning
process.
 Instructional Media and Multimedia approach can convey information and
provide many sources from which student can access the information.
 Multimedia approach will improve the teaching learning process. It is not
restricted to a single type of learning style; it can provide the support of a
wide range of activities.
 A teacher has to adopt a number of methods and techniques. Teacher has
to be aware of the different available media and their availability.
 The role of teacher is of a facilitator or manager of activities. Therefore, the
teacher has to lead his or her students for independent and individualized
learning.
 Instructional media approach enables the learner to represent information
 In early years, the only term used for teaching aids was audio-visual aids
however, with the advancement and opening of new horizons in the field of
electronic technology and communication media, new and improved
equipments and aids for teaching and learning are developed.
 The present situation calls for a change at almost every level of education,
so that practical and dynamic approach can be given to the existing and
new field of education.
 There are different types of audio-visual equipments ranging from simple
hand-made charts to highly sophisticated projectors available in the markets.
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 Projected aids are those aids which involves an enlarge image of the material Innovation
or text projected on a screen and which is at a distance from the projector.

 Non projected aids are most commonly used as teaching aids as they do
not employ the use of projectors to project enlarged images of objects or
NOTES
text.
 An audio-visual aid makes a lesson interesting and a memorable experience
not only for students but for teachers as well.
 Visual aids includes charts, picture models, graphs, D-aids, globes and maps,
diagrams, posters, flash cards, photographs, micro projector, film strip and
display boards.
 Audio-visual aids include television, Motion pictures, cartoon and comics,
posters, video films and living objects represent all those equipments and
aid material which helps the learner to get opportunity to utilize both his
auditory and visual sensors for gaining the desired learning experiences.
 Activity aids are those aids in which the students learn by engaging in some
useful activities.
1.6 KEY WORDS
 Activity aids: It refers to those aids in which the students learn by engaging
in some useful activities.
 Instructional media: It refers to the collection of materials and equipment
that are used for successful delivery of the teaching learning process.
 Projected aids: It refers to those aids which involve an enlarged image of
the material or text projected on a screen and which is at a distance from
the projector.
 Non projected aids: It refers to those aids which are most commonly
used as teaching aids as they do not employ the use of projectors to project
enlarged images of objects or text.
1.7 SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS AND

EXERCISES
Short-Answer Questions
1. Write a short note on the role of teacher in instructional multimedia approach.
2. What are the uses of multimedia approach in education?
3. What are the various stages involved in adopting instructional multimedia
approach?
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Innovation 4. How is audio aid different from audio-visual aid?
5. What are the two main categories of teaching aids?
Long-Answer Questions
NOTES
1. Discuss the concept of innovation in education and its importance.
2. Explain the role of instructional media in education.
3. Compare the advantages and disadvantages of the instructional multimedia
approach.
4. Analyse the barriers related to innovation in education.
5. Identify the prerequisites for developing multimedia instructional device.
1.8 FURTHER READINGS
Linton, Ralph. 1998. The Cultural Background of Personality, Volume 1. United

Kingdom: Routledge.
Larkley, E Jasmine and Viola B. Maynhard (ed). 2008. Innovation in Education.
New York: Nova Publishers.
S.S., Chauhan. 2009. Innovations in Teaching Learning Process. Noida: Vikas
Publishing House Pvt. Ltd.
Beck, Clive and Clare Kosnik. 2012. Innovations in Teacher Education:
A Social Constructivist Approach. New York: SUNY Press.
Mota, Ronaldo and David Scott. 2014. Education for Innovation and
Independent Learning. United Kingdom: Elsevier.
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Emergence of School
UNIT 2 EMERGENCE OF SCHOOL

Structure NOTES
2.0 Introduction
2.1 Objectives
2.2 Culture Setting
2.3 Characteristics of Culture
2.4 Social Demand for Education Leadership
2.6 Summary
2.7 Key Words
2.0 INTRODUCTION
Culture is defined as the norms and social behaviour which are found in human
societies. It is a complex whole which consists of various ranges of phenomena
and is transmitted in societies through social learning. On the other hand, cultural
setting has been defined as a setting which includes patterns of behaviour and
beliefs which dominates a society. Individuals are taught to live in a society according
to their respective cultural setting. The unit will discuss the concept of culture and
cultural setting.
Education is one of the important means through which culture and customs
can be understood effectively. Its main aim is to inculcate in children, the customs
which are a part of our society. Culture and education are mutually dependent on
each other as one of the main aims of education is to impart the value of social and
cultural heritage.
It is important that a social leader and teacher have certain characteristics
attached to their personality so that they can impart values properly. They can help
in maintaining a level of trust and equality within the society.
In this unit, the relationship between culture and education has been analysed.
The unit will explain the characteristic of a social leader and the role of the teacher
in a society. The characteristics of culture and education have also been highlighted.
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Emergence of School
2.1 OBJECTIVES

NOTES  Discuss the concept of culture setting
 Anlayse the role of school as an important part of culture
 Interpret the characteristics of culture
 Discuss the relationship between culture and education
 Explain the importance of social leadership in a society
 Describe the role of a teacher in a society
2.2 CULTURE SETTING
Culture has been defined in a variety of ways in the field of social sciences, especially
by sociologists. Ralph Linton, an American anthropologist has defined culture as
the configuration of learned behaviour, and the result of behaviour whose component
elements are shared and transmitted by the members of a particular society.
According to his view point, culture has been observed as a social heredity that is
passed on by the social group from generation to generation. Edward B Tylor, an
English anthropologist in his own contribution to the discourse of culture viewed it
as a complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, models, law, custom
and any other capabilities and habit acquired by man as a member of society.
Though invention contributed largely to cultural development, over the period
of time, diffusion benefited it more. Diffusion is defined as the process of adopting
the characteristics of culture from other societies, irrespective of their means of
emergence in the source society.
Invention and diffusion both have contributed to the development of culture.
However, with the growth of the cultural base, societies were further set apart. It
caused an expanded increase in the diffusion of traits and a simultaneous increase
in the growth factor. At present, the growth factor of a culture has reached
spectacular heights, especially in the case of western countries.
Custom
A habit once formed, becomes a normal way of life. Customs usually comprise
mutual give and take, accompanied by compulsive responsibilities. Additionally,
customs also abide by the law, in the absence of which they would hold no
significance in the society. According to sociologists, Robert MacIever and Charles
Page, custom sets of its own kind of social order which curbs the disagreements
that arise between custom and law. Thus, customs streamline the entire social life
of an individual. Law is not capable of covering all the aspects of social behaviour.
Practices of rituals and customs add to the harmony within a social group. Often,
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14 Material
In certain cases, custom is the measure of the relations between two Emergence of School
communities, for instance, it is the custom of the Bedouins of the Arabian Desert
not to damage any water well even if it belongs to the enemy.
However, a few of the customs have no impact on the social control. These
NOTES
customs exist simply because they have been there since ancient times and people
of all generation have been practicing them. However, in many traditional societies
and religious rituals, customs are losing their significance. In other words, a custom
is viewed just like a public opinion. It has a strong impact on life in social groups as
it is the only factor which textually influences social behaviour.
Human beings who grow in an environment with certain cultural traits
internalize and appreciate them. Any attempt to condemn, alter or influence the
change is always met with serious resistance and antagonism. It is so because they
are an inherent part of us. These values attached to the culture by individuals are of
importance which calls for a diplomatic and gradual approach to change otherwise
there will be instability and chaos. In societies, where certain attempts are made to
bring an aspect of alien culture into the existing norms of the society, then violence
may take place.
Cultural Norms
Cultural norm is an established standard of a group that expects in terms of thought
and conduct. These expectation and resultant behaviors often vary from one culture
to the next. It can be in various forms such as values, folkways and morals. In
every society, there is a reinforcement of morals like rapes, murder, and robbery
with punishment sanction by the laws for members to obey and respect them.
Ideal and real culture
Ideal culture consists of officially approved behaviour patterns while real culture
consists of what people actually do in their day-to-day practices without due
consideration to their official status like cheating, lying, fighting and so forth.
Subculture
A subculture is a group, smaller than a society, it is related to the larger culture in
the sense that it accepts many of its norms but the subculture is also distinguishable
because it has some norms of its own.
Cultural relativity
It is impossible to understand the behavioral patterns of other groups, if we analyse
them only in terms of our motives and values. A trait which may be disruptive in
one society may be vital to the stability of another.
Cultural shock
Cultural change occurs whenever new traits and trait complexes like traditional
values, customs emerge to replace the old ones in content and structure.
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Emergence of School Cultural Lag
When the non-material element of the culture like norms values and beliefs attempt
to keep pace with changes in the material element of the culture like technology
NOTES then cultural lag takes place.
Acculturation
The context between one culture and another to change the existing traits is referred
to as acculturation.
Enculturation
Enculturation is a process by which people become part of the native culture. It is
done through the internalization of the morals loss and folkways of such culture to
become a part and parcel of it.
Culture is not a simple accumulation of folkways and mores; it is an organized
system of behaviour. Culture is always organized with cultural traits and complexes.
Cultural traits are basically the smallest units of culture, for instance, shaking hands,
offering prayers and saluting a flag and so on. The culture complex is intermediate
between the trait and institution.
The concept of culture can be visualized as an ongoing repository which
keeps on adding material and non-material elements that have been socially inherited
by future generations from past generations. Culture is incessant because its patterns
have surpassed the boundaries of time to recur in succeeding generations.
Culture keeps on getting improved as every generation has a new feature or
quality to it. Accordingly, an outstanding equivalence comes into focus which
connects the evolution of Homo sapiens with the growth and prosperity of the
culture. This similarity cannot be elaborated upon since most conclusions about
the Prehistoric period are based on material facts which reveal only part of the
way of life of the people of those times. Cro-Magnon’s main ability to think was
great, but other characteristics related to the development played an active role in
restricting a visible growth in learned behaviour.
The characteristic mark of an educated man should be a positive attitude towards
the good culture, that is, towards the ultimate objective values. This kind of attitude
should be the cherished product of educational activity.
Each family, whatever maybe its nature complexion and membership has
certain traditions customs or methods for rearing children and leading a social life.
These cultural aspects can be adopted from other people in the society or can be
transmitted from previous generations. Whatever may be the source, they form
the part of the culture in which the child is brought up. They influence the life of the
child from the very beginning and as he or she grows up from the powerful
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ingredients of his or her learning process. Thus, to get an insight into the learning Emergence of School
process of the child, it is almost essential to get an understanding of the culture in

which he or she is born and the habits they acquire from the surrounding environment
i.e. School.
NOTES
School is a place where teachers teach under a pre-planned system (definite
curriculum and examination system) and give specific doses of knowledge and
experiences to the students of the school under a fixed timetable and once this
process is over with the help of students interaction, students, as well as teachers,
are evaluated to certify the degree of success that they have achieved.
Definition of school
According to an American educational reformer, John Dewey, school is a special
environment where a certain quality of life and certain types of activities and
occupations are provided with the object securing child development along desirable
lines.
Characteristics of school
On the basis of the mentioned definitions, we can derive the following characteristics
of school:
 School has special environment and is not merely a building which is used
for teaching-learning process.
 In a school, life-related activities and experiences are provided to students
to make the quality of life better.
 With the help of these activities and experiences, the development of the
child is brought about on the desirable lines.
 Schools are established by all civilized societies. Here, young children and
adults are prepared to get adjusted in the society.
 Schools make the students efficient and productive members of the society.
Thus, schools work as miniature societies.
 Schools always work along the lines of the general welfare of the people in
whatsoever manner it is possible. The role of school changes with the change
and demand of the time.
School is an institution established by the society for the purpose of preparing
the young to participate in that society. Thus, school is a social institution whose
fundamental character is determined by the society it serves.
One of the first theorist and practitioners of democratic education was the
novelist, Leo Tolstoy who founded a school for peasant children in Russia. The
most prominent theorists to voice what has become a common justification for
uniform, mass education, and critiqued Tolstoy’s philosophy, was Emile Durkheim
in his lecture at the Sorbonne in 1902-03. Durkheim was the father of modern
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Emergence of School Sociology and developed the sociological and anthropological school of
functionalism. These lectures have since been published under the title ‘moral
education’.
Durkheim argued that the transition from primitive to modern societies
NOTES
occurred in part as ‘elders’ made a conscious decision to transmit what have
deemed the most essential elements of their culture to the following generation. In
moral education, Durkheim makes the case for an education system that preserves
social solidarity by instilling three principles of secular morality in children: what he
turns a spirit of discipline, attachment to social groups and self-determination.
Check Your Progress

1. How has Ralph Linton defined culture?
2. What do you understand by the term ‘enculturation’?
2.3 CHARACTERISTICS OF CULTURE
Culture defines a typical way in which the human beings live. It does not have a
single point of origin. This means that no member of the human species emerged
all of a sudden on this earth. The evolution of culture was gradual as well as was
with the conversion of primates to human beings. Culture can be characterized in
the following ways:
 Culture is man-made
 Culture is learned
 Culture is transmitted
 Every society has its own culture
 Culture is social, not individualistic
 Culture is ideal for a group
 Cultural satisfies human need
 Culture has adaptability
 Culture has integrative quality
 Culture shapes human personality
 Culture is both super individual and super organic
Culture and education are inseparable as they are two sides of the same coin and
are inter-dependent. Culture is a collective term for socially transmitted behaviour
patterns. In ordinary language, culture means good manners and good taste.
According to Charles Ellwood, an American sociologist, ‘culture includes man’s
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entire material civilization, tools, weapons, clothing, shelter, machines and even Emergence of School
the systems of industry’.

Sociologist, Brown opined that both material and non-material cultures are
dependent upon each other. But culture cannot be defined; rather it can be described
NOTES
and explained. The culture of a group of people is the way of life of people, for
instance it could imply the things its people value, the things that they don’t value,
their habits of life, their work of art, what they do and what they don’t, their likes
and dislikes and so on. By material elements, it implies a man’s material civilization
such as tools, weapons, machinery, clothing and industry. By non-material elements,
it implies language, art, religion, morality, law and the government. The two concepts
‘Education and Culture’ can be said to be distinguishable, as the primary definition
of Education is Acculturation.
Every human society, whatever is its level of technical evolution devotes
considerable attention to transmit its cultural heritage to the young. This trans-
generational transmission of culture has helped to cement human solidarity to ensure
the continued survival of societies over a long period of time. Before the emergence
of schools as specialized agencies, education has taken place in the society, where
the young and not so young individuals became educated by simply living their
culture.
Education was in fact threatened by schooling, and most societies have
been questioning the educational effectiveness of schools since they have been
invented. In the case of Africa, it was not only sovereignty that was lost with
colonialism. Its education was also lost, and had not been found or reinvented, in
spite of well-documents post-colonial reforms.
The broad-based definition of culture gives us an idea that culture is a complex
whole. In this complex whole, a child is born. He or she comes with his or her
physiological endowment, but they are not sufficient to let him or her live peacefully
and in harmony with his environment. A child has to learn to modify them and to
put them to their maximum use in order to satisfy his or her own needs. This
learning process implies that the society’s pattern of culture can be transmitted to
the child. This process of transmission of culture when formally or informally
organized refers to the education of the child. Therefore, the transmission of the
cultural patterns is one of the important functions of education.
The various definitions of culture mentioned imply that our culture exercises
a profound influence on us. Our way of life is determined to a great extent by it.
One learns to see the world as our culture makes us see it. One can neither see it
in accordance with our pure sensations, not in the light of their own institutions.
For example, the appreciation of a beautiful flower is not an innate endowment.
It is the culture, in which we are born that guides our ideas towards such an
appreciation. Most of those who visit Taj Mahal at Agra appreciate it and are
enamored of its beauty. However, there are people who belong to the communist
society and who look towards it not with the eye for beauty but with the notion of
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Emergence of School the misery caused to the labor in building the gigantic mausoleum. Their love for
beauty is clouded with their feelings of misery which a powerful king might have
caused to the innocent people who had been treated worse than the beasts of
burden.
NOTES
The example of Taj Mahal may give an impression that culture is subordinate
to education. It will be an erroneous notion. Thus, education culture is an inclusive
concept. When one talks of education, it talks about the education of being who is
living in a cultural environment. This being is a product of biological combination
but the biological happening of his birth is in a cultural context.
Education is a part of cultural pattern and its nature is determined by the
culture in which it is organized. In fact, its very existence is determined by the
culture of the people. Among people who are living in remote corners of a backward
country, there is no need for a formalized system of education. Whatever patterns
are necessary for their modest existence, they are transmitted informally from
parents to the offspring. On the other hand, in highly developed technological
societies, education is demanded in a highly organized form.
In describing the relationship between culture and education, emphasis has
been laid on the transmission of culture through education. It may once again be
reiterated here, that education is not only concerned with the transmission of culture
but it also builds new cultural patterns. It brings changes in the existing culture.
These changes are necessitated due to the cross culture contacts or the building of
new knowledge which makes the old cultural patterns redundant. It is required
that an individual is equipped to bring the cultural changes so as to meet his or her
needs in a changing environment and is prepared to adjust his or her life with the
changed cultural life in which they had been born or lived a portion of life, so that
it may be a very major portion. There are certain characteristics of education and
are as follows:
 Education is a product of culture
 Education functions towards the transmission of culture to the new
generation
 Education leads to cultural changes
 Education equips the individual to adjust himself in the changing cultural
patterns
Check Your Progress

3. What are the characteristics of culture?
4. How is the nature of education determined?
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Emergence of School
2.4 SOCIAL DEMAND FOR EDUCATION
LEADERSHIP
The origin, nature, and development of personality had been considered in a variety NOTES
of discourses. It is a central issue in the society as a discipline which centers on
leadership and society. There had been presentation of a variety of models of
leader’s inner nature.
Culture is the hallmark and a distinguishing mark of human society. The term
personality has been used in several terms, both popularly and psychologically.
However, its comprehensive and satisfactory use is integrated. The dynamic
organization of physical, mental and social qualities of an individual is apparent to
others, in exchange of social life.
One can define a social leader’s personality as the collection of habits,
mindsets, behaviour and qualities of a person. These characteristics focus externally
on specific and general roles and statuses. Internally, they are focused on self-
consciousness and the concept of self, ideas, values, and purpose.
The characteristics of a social leader’s personality are as follows:
 It is influenced by social interaction
 It is acquired over a period of time
 It refers to persistent qualities of an individual
 It is an individual unit
 It is not related to bodily structure alone
The type of characteristics which a social leader inherits is generally defined
by the culture, as the one which prevails in a specific social group. Culture plays a
vital role in influencing the personality of an individual as well as of the group. It has
attracted the attention of the scholars of the culture and various schools of thought
that are concerned with personality.
The relationship between the culture and social leadership belongs to one
side, whereas the total social heritage available to the individual and to which he or
she consciously and unconsciously responds belongs to the other side, the integral
character of the individual being. It can be argued that the personality of social
leaders is everything that makes an individual. Personality comprises of the total
organized aggregate of psychological processes and states which pertains to an
individual. Thus, the pattern of any culture basically determines the broad contours
of an individual’s personality. These individual personalities in turn provide evidence
of the culture pattern and tend to strive for its perpetuation.
It is important that a teacher should be given a right kind of training. This training
will improve the overall personality of a student and will help her or him to achieve
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Emergence of School various goals in a life whether it is personally or professionally. The main role of a
teacher has been elaborated in the following points:
1. A teacher must know and understand the relevant statutory and non-statutory
curricula and frameworks, including those provided through the National
NOTES
Curriculum Framework for their subjects/curriculum areas, and other
relevant initiatives applicable to the age and ability range for which they are
trained.
2. A teacher must plan homework or other out-of-class work to sustain
learner’s progress and to extend and consolidate their learning.
3. A teacher must know a range of approaches related to the process of
teaching and assessment. He or she must also analyse and include the
importance of formative assessment.
4. A teacher must know how to use local and national statistical information to
evaluate the effectiveness of their teaching, to monitor the progress of their
students and to raise levels of attainment.
5. A teacher must also be aware of the current legal requirements, national
policies and guidance on the safeguarding and promotion of the well-being
of the children and young people.
6. A teacher must know how to identify and support children and young people
whose progress, development or well-being is affected by changes or
difficulties in their personal circumstances, and when to refer them to
colleagues for specialist support.
7. A teacher must establish a clear framework for classroom discipline to
manage learner’s behaviour constructively and promote their self-control
and independence.
The behaviour of teacher, in the classroom in particular, has a great bearing
on the development and shaping of the behaviour of the students and in their
participation in the teaching-learning process. The behaviour of the teacher should
comprise of the two main components:
 Verbal components
 Non-verbal components
Sociologists McNergency and Carner (1981) regard teacher behaviour as
a function of the characteristics of a teacher, his/her environment and the tasks in
which the teacher engages.
Some of the important teaching skills are as follows:
 Stimulus variation
 Set induction
 Skill of reinforcement
 Fluency in questioning
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 Probing question Emergence of School
 Recognizing and attention behaviour

 Skill of increasing pupil participation
 Skill of using blackboard NOTES
 Skill of using audio-visual aids
 Skill of pacing lesson
 Divergent question
 Planned repetition
 Completeness of communication
 Lecturing
 Skill of explaining
A healthy and good relationship between a teacher and his or pupils are
vitally important in the give and take of the classroom life where they exist, there is
less likelihood of the difficulties arising. A teacher should treat the children as
individuals and must recognise and value their individual characteristics. Many of
the factors which contributes to teacher student relationships, for example, the
personality of the teacher is clearly beyond the control of the teacher and therefore,
has to be taken as ‘given’ when interactions occur.
One factor, however, that does lie within the teacher’s power to manipulate
is what has been termed as ‘non-verbal immediacy behaviors.’ This implies that
the initiator, namely the teacher, is approachable and available for communication.
They can thus, communicate interpersonal closeness and warmth, they can also
contribute positively to relationships. Indeed, research on immediacy constructs
suggest that there can be positive force in the classroom, particularly in bringing
about better teacher-pupil relationships.
The following suggestions should help a teacher treat all the children equally:
 Ensuring equality in a classroom: It is the responsibility of a teacher
to ensure that he or she treats all the children equally and give them time
to learn things at their own pace. The teacher must respect their opinions
irrespective of their backgrounds.
 Formation of groups: It is essential that a teacher must create groups
in a classroom. Groups help students to interact with other children. It
gives a chance to analyse how students interact in a social environment
and if necessary, provide them guidance to work in a group. It is also
necessary that a teacher must not form groups according to gender.
 Pronouncing the names correctly: It is important that a teacher must
know the names of their children and should also pronounce them
correctly. It encourages a healthy environment in the classroom and a
student feels happy about it. It increases their level of confidence as they
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Emergence of School believe that a teacher knows them. If in case, a teacher has any problem
regarding the pronunciation, a teacher must ask the students whether
they have got their name correctly or not.
 Designing class exercises: In case of designing class exercises, case
NOTES
studies or scenarios, a teacher must ensure that he or she has not type
cast their roles according to race, gender, sexuality, age or disability. It
is also recommended that the task should not be divided according to
the generalized views of the society, for instance, even boys can do
chores related to cleaning of the desk or the girls can help in moving
objects.
 Helping colleagues: It is necessary that a teacher must also help other
teachers realise the importance of equality in a classroom. If in case, a
teacher observes any instance where a teacher has violated any such
rules of equality, it is the responsibility of the teacher to make them
realise their mistake. He or she should explain the importance of equality
among the children.
 Ensuring equality among students: It is also important that a child
should not be biased towards other children whether it is based on
gender or economical backgrounds. If a teacher observes any such
behaviour, he or she must help them understand the importance of equality
and inculcate values of equality in them.
 Reflect quality in work: A teacher must work collaboratively with
colleagues of different race, gender, sexuality, age, whenever the
opportunity arises. It promotes a healthy and sound environment and
teachers can learn one thing or the other from each other which will
benefit the students.
Check Your Progress

5. State the two main components of teacher behaviour.
6. What are some of the important teaching skills?

QUESTIONS
1. Ralph Linton, an American anthropologist has defined culture as the

configuration of learned behaviour, and the result of behaviour whose
component elements are shared and transmitted by the members of a
particular society.
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24 Material
2. Enculturation is a process by which people become part of the native culture. Emergence of School
It is done through the internalization of the morals loss and folkways of such
culture to become a part and parcel of it.
3. The following are the characteristics of culture:
NOTES
(a) Culture is man-made
(b) Culture is learned
(c) Culture is transmitted
(d) Every society has its own culture
(e) Culture is social, not individualistic
(f) Culture is ideal for a group
(g) Cultural satisfies human need
(h) Culture has adaptability
(i) Culture has integrative quality
4. Education is a part of cultural pattern and its nature is determined by the
culture in which it is organized. In fact, its very existence is determined by
the culture of the people.
5. The two main components of teacher behaviour are verbal and non-verbal
components.
6. Some of the important teaching skills are as follows:
(a) Stimulus variation
(b) Set induction
(c) Skill of reinforcement
(d) Fluency in questioning
(e) Probing question
(f) Recognizing and attention behaviour
(g) Skill of increasing pupil participation
(h) Skill of using blackboard
(i) Skill of using audio-visual aids
(j) Skill of pacing lesson
2.6 SUMMARY
 Culture has been defined in a variety of ways in the field of social sciences,
especially by sociologists.
 Ralph Linton, an American anthropologist has defined culture as the
configuration of learned behaviour, and the result of behaviour whose
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Emergence of School component elements are shared and transmitted by the members of a
particular society.
 Diffusion is defined as the process of adopting the characteristics of culture
from other societies, irrespective of their means of emergence in the source
NOTES
society.
 According to sociologists, Robert MacIever and Charles Page, custom
sets of its own kind of social order which curbs the disagreements that arise
between custom and law.
 Cultural norm is an established standard of a group that expects in terms of
thought and conduct.
 Ideal culture consists of officially approved behaviour patterns while real
culture consists of what people actually do in their day-to-day practices
without due consideration to their official status like cheating, lying, fighting
and so forth.
 A subculture is a group, smaller than a society, it is related to the larger
culture in the sense that it accepts many of its norms but the subculture is
also distinguishable because it has some norms of its own.
 It is impossible to understand the behavioral patterns of other groups, if we
analyse them only in terms of our motives and values.
 Cultural change occurs whenever new traits and trait complexes like
traditional values, customs emerge to replace the old ones in content and
structure.
 When the non-material element of the culture like norms values and beliefs
attempt to keep pace with changes in the material element of the culture like
technology then cultural lag takes place.
 The context between one culture and another to change the existing traits is
referred to as acculturation.
 Enculturation is a process by which people become part of the native culture.
It is done through the internalization of the morals loss and folkways of such
culture to become a part and parcel of it.
 Cultural traits are basically the smallest units of culture, for instance, shaking
hands, offering prayers and saluting a flag and so on.
 The concept of culture can be visualized as an ongoing repository which
keeps on adding material and non-material elements that have been socially
inherited by future generations from past generations.
 Schools make the students efficient and productive members of the society.
Thus, schools work as miniature societies.
 School is an institution established by the society for the purpose of preparing
the young to participate in that society.
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 Culture is a collective term for socially transmitted behaviour patterns. In Emergence of School
ordinary language, culture means good manners and good taste.

 Education is a part of cultural pattern and its nature is determined by the
culture in which it is organized.
NOTES
 In describing the relationship between culture and education, emphasis has
been laid on the transmission of culture through education.
 One can define a social leader’s personality as the collection of habits,
mindsets, behaviour and qualities of a person.
 The relationship between the culture and social leadership belongs to one
side, whereas the total social heritage available to the individual and to which
he or she consciously and unconsciously responds belongs to the other
side, the integral character of the individual being.
 The behaviour of teacher, in the classroom in particular, has a great bearing
on the development and shaping of the behaviour of the students and in
their participation in the teaching-learning process.
2.7 KEY WORDS
 Acculturation: It refers to the context between one culture and another to

change the existing traits.
 Cultural lag: It refers to the lag which takes place when the non-material
element of the culture like norms values and beliefs attempt to keep pace
with changes in the material element of the culture like technology.
 Cultural norm: It refers to an established standard of a group that expects
in terms of thought and conduct.
 Diffusion: It refers to the process of adopting the characteristics of culture
from other societies, irrespective of their means of emergence in the source
society.

EXERCISES
1. What are the characteristics of education?
2. List the steps taken by a teacher to treat children equally in a class.
3. Write a short note on the characteristics of school.
4. Why is it important to have a healthy relation between a teacher and student?
5. What are the characteristics of a social leader’s personality?
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Emergence of School Long-Answer Questions
1. ‘Invention and diffusion both have contributed to the development of culture’.
Elucidate the statement.
NOTES 2. Analyse the relation between education and culture.
3. Discuss the importance of culture in a society.
4. Interpret the role of a teacher.
5. ‘Culture is the hallmark and a distinguishing mark of human society’. Discuss
the statement.

Kingdom: Routledge.
S S, Chauhan. 2009. Innovations in Teaching Learning Process. Noida: Vikas
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Innovations from
UNIT 3 INNOVATIONS FROM Educational Experiments
EDUCATIONAL
NOTES
EXPERIMENTS
Structure
3.0 Introduction
3.1 Objectives
3.2 Educational Experiments of Rabindranath Tagore
3.3 Froebel’s Kindergarten
3.4 Basic Education and Gandhi
3.5 Principles Underlying Self-Learning Devices
3.5.1 Child Development Theory
3.7 Summary
3.8 Key Words
3.0 INTRODUCTION
The philosophy of education aims at examining the goals, methods and forms of
the education. It aims at examining the pedagogical approaches of the teaching
methods and suggests the reforms which should be taken.
The programmes related to educational reform aims at reforming the
curriculum, assessment and professional development of the students. There are
certain principles related to the concept of self-learning programmes. The child
development theory focuses on the development of a child’s capabilities. The stages
in this process are broadly classified into three different categories, namely, cognitive,
psychosocial and moral development have been analysed.
In this unit, the educational philosophy of Rabindranath Tagore, Mahatma
Gandhi, and Bertrand Russell has been discussed. The unit will also discuss the
principles related to various educational programmes and the concept of child
development theory.
3.1 OBJECTIVES

 Discuss Rabindranath Tagore’s educational philosophy
 Explain the aims of education as propounded by Froebel
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Innovations from  Analyse the educational philosophy of Mahatma Gandhi
Educational Experiments
 Discuss the teaching methodology of Bertrand Russell
 Interpret the principles related to educational programmes
NOTES  Discuss the concept of child development theory
3.2 EDUCATIONAL EXPERIMENTS OF

RABINDRANATH TAGORE
Tagore’s idealism is a true child of India’s own past and his philosophy
in Indian both in origin and development.
Dr S Radhakrishnan
Rabindranath Tagore, the great poet, dramatist, novelist, actor, composer,
educator, philosopher, painter, and prophet was born in Calcutta on May 6th,
1861 in a highly educated family.
Tagore’s philosophies of life are more idealistic in nature. He successfully
incorporated idealism into naturalism. He believed in the absolute and immortal
existence of god and in the philosophy of liberation. He was the Apostle of truth
and had a firm belief in the Vedas. He believed in the Supreme Being and regarded
it as omnipotent, omnipresent and omniscient. He professed that in the Supreme
Being, we find unity between man and man, and men and nature.
Educational Philosophy of Rabindranath Tagore
The main objectives of Rabindranath Tagore’s philosophy are as follows:
 The medium of instruction must be in the language which is familiar to the
child.
 For developing creative faculties, the child should be provided opportunities
for self- expression.
 The child should be educated in the laps of nature, thus, far away from the
busy life of towns and cities.
 The concept f national education should be closely connected with national
life.
 Children should be given education which is rooted in their culture.
 Children should be provided freedom to live in a natural environment and
learn from their own experiences.
 Children should not be forced to receive knowledge through books. Instead,
they should be encouraged to learn from original sources.
 Schools should be reformed.
 Education should not train children to be effective farmers, clerks or
craftsmen but develop them to become good human beings.
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Concept of Education Innovations from
Rabindranath Tagore’s concept of education believed that God reveals himself
through nature more effectively as compared to the education taught in institutions.
Therefore, education of the child should be under natural surroundings so that he NOTES
or she develops love for all things around him.
 Meaning of Education: Tagore says, ‘Education is highest which not only
impart information and knowledge to us, but also promotes love and fellow-
feeling between us and the living beings of the world’.
Curriculum
Curriculum should be made in such a way that it develops an individual physically,
mentally, morally, socially and spiritually to the utmost limits. For this curriculum
based on activities and broad experiences in real life situation is necessary. It will
help in improving the overall personality of the child. He also believed that along
with various subjects, different types of co-curricular activities should also be made
an essential part of the curriculum.
Methods of Teaching
Rabindranath Tagore believed in the following teaching methods:
 Teaching while walking: Tagore believed that education which is imparted
in the classroom does not influence the mind and body of the child. If
education is restricted only till the classroom, the child will remain inactive
and passive. However, if teachers and students walk while learning, the
mind remains active and he or she can easily grasp the things.
 Teaching through tours and trips: Tagore believes history, geography,
economics and other subjects of social sciences can be effectively taught to
the students through tours and excursions. According to him, a child learns
maximum when he or she is allowed to be a part of nature.
 Learning through activities: For the complete development of the child,
it is essential that a child must learn the concepts through some kind of
activity. Therefore, he included the activities such as climbing tree, jumping,
plucking flowers and dancing in his educational curriculum
 Narration-cum-discussion and debate method: Narration-cum-
discussion and debating activities were organized in Tagore’s education centre
to develop oratory abilities of the students. He said that real education is
not about learning things by books. It must be based upon real life problems.
Students were encouraged to solve problems of various areas through rational
debate and discussion so that the students will be able to think logically and
argue.
 Heuristic Method: Rabindranath Tagore introduced heuristic method as
an important method of teaching in his educational institution. In this method
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Innovations from first, the students are asked to question and clarify their doubts. It is the
responsibility of the teacher to clear their doubts and the teacher then asks
the questions to the students, to evaluate how far the students are able to
comprehend the topic which is discussed in the class.
NOTES
Discipline
Rabindranath Tagore was a lover of children and an advocate of free discipline.
He wanted to provide the child an opportunity for the discovery of his or her
innate potentialities in liberty. The education of the child should be carried on
naturally and in a natural environment.
The teacher should behave with the child with great love, affection, sympathy.
It is the responsibility of the teacher to provide a conducive environment so that a
child in engage himself or herself in constructive activities. Such method will help
them to understand the concepts in a better way.
The teacher should create engaging activities which will help the child to
enhance their creative capabilities. He believed in dynamic methods of teaching.
Teaching methods should be based on the interests, ability and experience of the
child. The best method of teaching is teaching while walking. The static education
which is carried in the environment of the classroom results in boredom and does
not facilitate any creative faculty in children. Lectures should be avoided and a
democratic atmosphere should be adopted in the classroom and school as well. It
was also emphasized by him that learning should be a joyous adventure for children.
Poetry should also be taught from the emotional stand-point. Thus, the main aim
of Tagore’s method of education was to make the child learn through the concept
of self-learning and provide him or her situations so that they can have a real life
experience.
Rabindranath Tagore believed in education which is rooted in experience.
Education should be connected with our complete life experiences whether it is
economical, intellectual and aesthetical aspects.
Check Your Progress

1. What is the main aim of Rabindranath Tagore’s method of education?
2. How is curriculum designed in Tagore’s method of education?
3.3 FROEBEL’S KINDERGARTEN
Friedrich William A Froebel (1782-1852), the German pedagogue laid the

foundation for the modern education system. It is based on the concept that children
have unique needs and capabilities. He is known as ‘the father of kindergarten’
because of his contribution to the field of early childhood educationn. As a keen
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32 Material
the biological as well as the spiritual perspective. According to Froebel, ‘mind Innovations from
unfolds from within according to a predetermined pattern. The development and
formation of the whole future life of each being is continued in the beginning of its
existence’.
NOTES
He also believed that, all the things are developing according to the specific
divine laws and so there should be no external interference in the process of
development. He also believed that all the things of the universe have different
entities yet they all have originated from one and only God. He opined that all the
objects are of different shapes and sizes, yet they are essentially similar to each
other. This philosophy of life influenced his educational thoughts and practices.
Frobel’s was influenced by various philosophers such as Jean Rousseau’s
works and was inspired towards the concept of nature, goodness and maturity of
the child. He was also influenced from Johann Basedow and his natural methods
of teaching; and his own tutor Pestalozzi, who developed the natural model of
education and Elementary School practices.
Aims of education
Froebel’s goal of education is stated in terms of relationship to nature and God.
Education consists in ‘leading man as thinking, intelligent beings, growing into self-
consciousness, to a pure and unsullied, conscious and free representation of the in
a law of divine unity, and in teaching him ways and means thereto’.
According to Froebel, education is the means to awaken the spiritual nature
of man and to identify him or her with nature. It also enables the students to realize
the fundamental unity of all living beings with the God.
School curriculum
On the basis of his observation of nature and the stages of Human Development,
Froebel’s curriculum incorporated the principles of self-development activity and
the process of socialization. The content of the curriculum was made up of all
types of self-expression activities. It was so because it will help the child to gain an
understanding about the knowledge of self, human relations, nature, and the external
world and to understand the concept of god as the divine source and cause of all
existence. Play Way method was at the core of the curriculum and was considered
as the most valuable form of self-expression. It was believed that this method
stimulated motor expression, skill and developed the child’s symbolic, constructive
and aesthetic power. Subjects like modeling, drawing, ceiling, painting, gardening,
and nature study are taught along with formal subjects like religion philosophy
natural sciences, mathematics, and languages. All these subjects should possess
internal unity and a high degree of correlation.
Kindergarten
The school opened by Froebel in 1840 at Blankenburg to educate the children is
known as ‘kindergarten’ which means garden of the small kids. His educational
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Innovations from thoughts were applied in this school. Children were educated and guided on the
principles of self-experience, observation, and socialization. In this school, the
child expressed his or her ideas through various activities and plays.
NOTES Gift and occupation

The gifts and occupation was a series of twenty devices and activities, essentially
a hand on curricular system intended to introduce the children about physical
forms and relationships found in nature. These tangible objects and activities assume
that there was a mathematical and natural logic underlying all things in nature. The
gifts literally functioned as a tool which was used to awaken and develop a child’s
recognition of the common, considered to be as God-given elements found in
nature. Froebel was concerned regarding the interrelationship between living and
inanimate things. His idea of gifts helped him do so by instilling in children, the idea
of appreciation for natural forms and harmony.
In fact, even in the existing times, most of Frobel’s ideas and materials are
used without acknowledging their source. For instance, the concept of playing
with blocks is a part of Froebel’s method.
Teaching methods
There were three types of teaching methods in Froebel’s method of education
which are as follows:
 Use of gifts
 Singing of songs
 The games
The gifts which consisted of geometrical patterns were used to awaken in
the child, a power to conceptualize and help him or her to reach the recognition of
ultimate truth. Nursery rhyme is a small book which consisted of fifty pages. The
songs mentioned in the book, established an affectionate bond between the sense
organs of the child and helped in improving the physical, mental and spiritual
development. The games helped in developing a sense of community as well as an
opportunity to share things. Cooperative activities helped in improving socialization
and motor competencies. Games also helped to build relationships and provided
a group of ideas among the children
Evaluation
Froebel was against memorization and rote method of learning. He was concerned
about the traditional method of education which only emphasized on memorization.
His idea of education focused on learning which will develop a child’s creativity
and perception. Froebel stands as a pioneer of modern educational theory, especially
in his recognition that a child should not be pushed beyond his ability and readiness
and in his sensitivity to the child’s natural inclinations.
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Innovations from
Check Your Progress
3. What are the three main types of teaching methods in Froebel’s method of
education? NOTES
4. How has Froebel defined education?
3.4 BASIC EDUCATION AND GANDHI
Mahatma Gandhi was born on October 2, 1869 at Porbandar, Gujarat. He believed

in a classless society by decentralizing powers to village panchayat and Parishad
and by raising the economic standard of lower sections of the society. His socialism
is different from that of Marx in the sense that Marx believed in supremacy.
Gandhi’s philosophy of life can be described as follows:
 Truth and Ahimsa (Non-Violence): According to Gandhi, ‘Truth and
Ahimsa are the two sides of the coin. They inter-twined and it is
practically impossible to separate both of them’.
 Satyagraha: It implies holding of truth through love and purity.
 Supreme God: According to Gandhi, God is ‘indefinable, by extraneous
evidence but in the transformed conduct and character of those who
have felt the real presence of god within’.
 Righteousness and Truth as the Highest Religion: Gandhi had a
firm view that, ‘true religion and true morality are inseparably bound up
with each other’.
 Service of Humanity: The immediate service of all human beings
becomes a necessary part of the society because it is the only way to
see him in his creation.
Fundamental Principles of Education Proposed by Mahatma Gandhi
The following are the fundamental principles of national education:
 Fostering of Patriotism: Education should not cultivate loyalty to British
rule. It should instead promote an idea of national consciousness and a love
for the mother country.
 No Servile Imitation of the West: Although, there were various ways
which had to be adopted from the Western civilization. Yet, Indian education
must be based on Indian cultural and intellectual traditions.
 Domination of English Language: The use of English as a medium of
language was considered as a serious defect of the official system. It was
opined that the media of instruction should be in the modern vernaculars.
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Innovations from  Vocational Education to be emphasized: National education should have
a vocational emphasis and focus on the economic development of the
country.
NOTES Basic Education

The origin of Basic Education System must be traced back to July, 1937. When
Mahatma Gandhi wrote in Harijan, ‘By education I mean all round development
drawing out of the best in child and man-body, mind and spirit. Literacy itself is no
education. He believed in beginning of the child’s education by teaching useful
handicraft and enabling it to produce from the moment it begins its training. Thus,
every school can be made self-supporting, the condition being that the state takes
over the manufacture of these schools’. In October 1937, a Conference of National
Workers was held at Wardha under the chairmanship of Mahatma Gandhi.
The basic school is a special type of school for children aged between
seven and fourteen. The following were the characteristics of basic school:
 Life centered activities through crafts.
 Correlation with the central craft.
 Freedom for the Teachers for experimentation and innovation.
It emphasized more on philosophy and ideology rather than the method of
instruction. This scheme has five limbs:
1. Free basics for children between five and seven
2. Basic school for children between seven and fourteen
3. Post basic school for pupils from fourteen and seventeen
4. Adult education
5. Education for social workers and teachers in the villages
All these must be well organized for a well-balanced society with well-
balanced individuals. The Sarvodaya ideal is the main ideal of a self-sufficient co-
operative community.
The chief tenets of Gandhian Education were as follows:
 There should be free and compulsory primary education.
 The education should be craft-centered.
 It should be self-supporting.
 It should be given in mother tongue.
 It should be based on non-violence.
Free and Compulsory Education
According to Gandhi, within the age of seven and fourteen, free and compulsory
elementary education should be provided to the students.
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Craft Centered Education Innovations from
Mahatma Gandhi believed that the highest development of the mind and soul was
possible only through handicraft. He did not want to teach handicraft side by side
with the liberal education. He wanted to start the complete process of education NOTES
with handicraft only.
Self-Supporting Element
By advocating the self-supporting aspect, he believed that the right kind of teachers
should teach the students, the dignity of labour and the children who regard craft
as an integral part and means of their intellectual growth.
Flexible Curriculum
Teachers and students are free to work according to their interest and local needs.
Necessary changes may be introduced by the teacher, if any need arises. Basic
education curriculum is designed for children from seven to fourteen years of age.
The structure of the curriculum is given as follows:
 General science for boys and home science for girls
 Co-education up to class fifth only
 Important crafts included in the curriculum are spinning and weaving,
carpentry, agriculture, fruits and flowers cultivation, book craft, leather work,
pisciculture, or any craft needed locally.
 Mother tongue as the medium of instruction
 Mathematics as a subject to be incorporated to develop calculation ability
 History geography and civics to be taught in all classes
 Painting and music to be included in the curriculum since the beginning of
teaching process
 PT, drill and sports to be a part of children’s curriculum
 Hindi as a subject had to be introduced if it is not the mother tongue of the
people.
 English has not been given any place in the curriculum.
 Religious education also does not occupy any place in the curriculum. Self-
realization is the greatest religion according to Gandhi.
Bertrand Russell was born in 1872 in Trelleck, Wales. Among many titles, he is
known as philosopher logician, essayist, and mathematician.
Theory of learning
According to Russell, skills and knowledge should be acquired in schools which
are designed for the purpose of training children. Parents cannot be expected to
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Innovations from possess the skill or the ledger required for the new and difficult art of dealing with
young children. The schools should provide what the parents cannot and the
environment in which all the children should be treated equally and learn the art of
socialization.
NOTES
Russell negated idealistic philosophical theories and finally propounded the
existence of matter and was therefore, known as neorealist. With time, he
propounded his thought on the basis of mathematical logic. It came to be known
as logical atomism. He has worked the most on sense data (an immediate object
of perception, which is not a material object; a sense impression), and he has
done it on the basis of logic and therefore, some scholars also recognize him as a
logical positivist.
Aims of education
Russell had an outline of the world in his mind, a world in which truth persists and
will replace the place of true concepts, love will rule in place of hatred; creative
task will be done in place of destructive ones, freedom in place of repression, and
peace will prevail in place of War. According to him, this task must be performed
by education only and education can perform this task when it is planned for the
attainment of the following aims:
 Character building: A man’s character should have four attributes of vitality
(good health), courage, sensitiveness, and intellect.
 Intellectual development: By intellectual development, he meant the
development of seven qualities in a man such as curiosity, freedom from
prejudices, patience, attention, perseverance, reality, and possibility of
knowledge.
 Development of scientific attitude: According to Russell, three things
are necessary for the development of scientific attitude. First, a person should
control his feelings, desires, and excitement, second, he should have faith in
the truth and third, he should be free from prejudices.
 Development of individuality and citizenship: Russell was a staunch
supporter of democracy. According to him, democracy respects the
individuality of the individuals. He emphasized on the need of making an
individual a good person from the social viewpoint and a good citizen from
the state viewpoint.
 Development of internationalism: Russell wanted to root out the basic
causes of war which he thought are the reason for fear, enmity, false prestige,
narrow nationalism and he wanted to establish peace in place of war in the
world. According to him, education should be such that it should inculcate
a sense of understanding between individuals belonging to different regions.
He considered the development of internationalism by education as the
foremost need of the world. Thus, he believed this should be the supreme
aim of education.
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Teaching methodology Innovations from
Russell laid special emphasis on the following factors regarding teaching
methodology:
 Teaching learning environment should be free from fear. NOTES
 Learners should have curiosity for learning.
 Learners should have opportunities to learn by doing.
 Learners should proceed from simple to complex.
 The most suitable method should be used for teaching a subject at any
level.
 Teaching aids should be used to make teaching learning process effective.
 Individual difficulties of the learners should be removed in the process.
Discipline
Russell emphasized on self-discipline. According to him, excessive punishment or
freedom both of them do not establish any discipline in the student. He opposed
the process of making the student discipline by the teacher or any other individual.
He also believed that punishment should be given to the child but in a limited way.
He believed that, discipline can never be imparted to the student; the child learns
discipline by himself and through the environment in which he or she resides.
Teacher
According to Russell, a teacher should be competent in all respects. They should
possess general knowledge besides the knowledge of the teaching subjects and
should be trained and skilled in the art of teaching and they should be loyal to the
students as well the nation. The teacher should possess more love towards his or
her pupils as compared to the nation. A teacher should be given freedom to express
their opinions and the people should have the freedom to accept or reject them.
Check Your Progress

5. What are the basic characteristics of a school?
6. What are the chief tenets of Gandhian Education?
3.5 PRINCIPLES UNDERLYING SELF-LEARNING

DEVICES
The design for the principle of curriculum, instruction, assessment and professional
development, provide one of the organizing frameworks of the committees analysis
of educational programmes. During the last four decades, scientist have engaged
in research that has not only improved our understanding of the basics concept of Self-Instructional
Material 39
Innovations from human cognition, providing greater insight into how knowledge is organized how
experience can shape the understanding, how learners differ from one another,
and how people acquire expertise. Thus, scientist and others have been able to
synthesize a large number of principles for human learning. This growth in
NOTES understanding of basic concept on how people learn has the potential to influence
significantly the nature of education and its outcomes. The following are the basic
principles which have been developed to assess the programmes of advanced
study and can also serve as a guide or framework for those involved in developing,
implementing or evaluating new educational programmes.
1. Learner motivation
What motivates the learner? Why do people sometimes put so much effort and
energy into learning another language? In trying to understand the motivation that
drives language learning, major studies have been done in the past. The studies
have divided motivation into two broad categories instrumental and integrative.
Broadly, instrumental motivation refers to a type of motivation in which
learners learn a language as it will help in achieving instrumental and practical
goals, such as getting a job, reading foreign newspapers or obtaining a promotion.
This category also includes more negative factors such as failure. Integrative
motivation, on the other hand, refers to a type of motivation in which learners learn
a language for reasons of understanding, relating to or communicating with the
people of the culture.
2. The teacher’s metalanguage
The term metalanguage is used to mean different things. Here, it is used to mean
teacher talk and which is not related to the language being presented: the language a
teacher uses to allow the various classroom processes to happen, that is, the language
of organizing the classroom. This includes the teacher’s explanation response to
questions, instructions and giving praise correction collection of homework.
While the general name of the classroom is to minimize teacher talking time,
so as to encourage student talking time, better language itself is an important source
of learning because it is genuinely communicative. For example, when a teacher
praises a student or ask another one to be quiet, or sets up a task, the language
used is genuinely contextualized, purposeful and communicative, and therefore, a
potentially rich source of input.
3. The learning environment
It is generally observed that people learn best when they are relaxed, comfortable,
unstressed, interested and involved in what is going on, and motivated to continue.
However, there is no such criterion which explains the right kind of environment
which will be conducive to the learning process. We cannot, for example, say that
‘the more a teacher smiles, the more relaxed the students are’ as this is absurdly
simplistic. Nonetheless, there may be a lot to be gained from developing an
Self-Instructional awareness of the effective factors that influence learning.
40 Material
4. The language of feedback to error Innovations from
The language of feedback refers to the responses given by the teacher to what
learners produce in the classroom. In its most narrow definition, this refers to
teacher response to an error. Most teachers are aware of feedback in terms of its NOTES
motivational value- the value of positive feedback and disincentive that negative
reinforcement can produce. However, apart from the motivational aspects of
producing feedback, there are linguistic and cognitive reasons for teachers to
consider closely how they respond. The exact content of the teacher’s response
as it relates to the learner’s production may well have an important influence on
the learning process.
5. Checking learning
If all students learn what they were taught at the time at which it was first taught,
and if all of them grasped it equally well and quickly, teaching would be much less
complex than it is. In fact, of course, learners do not always learn what the teacher
sets out to teach-sometimes they learn less, and sometimes other valuable things.
Nor do they all learn in the same way or at the same rate. It is for this reason that
teachers develop strategies for checking that learning is taking place or has taken
place and it is a necessary principle for learning.
6. Learning and teaching compared
It has long been known that teaching does not equal learning-that what a teacher
goes into a classroom to teach may not match what the learner perceives the
lesson to be about or what learning is achieved on the part of the learner. This is
because the construction of meaning is an essentially personal experience for each
individual.
This principle is primarily concerned with how each lesson is a different
lesson for every learner. It also helps in examining how a teaching plan appears to
be realized in learning terms in the mind of learners. The difficulty in this type of
task, as in many aspects of observing learning, is that learning itself is not directly
visible. Teaching aims, for example, should not be confused with the learning
outcomes, as these will vary according to how the learner acts on the input. We,
therefore, must guard against making simply stick equations or drawing conclusions
about learning based only on observable data. Keeping these considerations in
mind, we must consider how learning appears to be happening for some learners.
7. Using teaching and learning resources well
The resources used for a teaching are a crucial element in influencing the quality of
our teaching. Outstandingly good teaching materials are not only the guarantee for
good teaching, but they do tend to improve the teacher’s confidence and they
tend to be an area of work that pupil’s comment on, whether adversely or with
praise. Most teachers also recognize that the ways in which resources are used
make all the difference and that planning of activities is crucial to the success. Self-Instructional
Material 41
Innovations from 3.5.1 Child Development Theory
Developmental theories are quite useful in understanding how the children learn
and grow. Most of the biologists believe that both biology and experience are the
NOTES major factors that help in shaping the developmental outcomes. Risk as well as the
protective factors are also said to contribute towards the development and growth
of the child and are often modified through intervention efforts. In fact, theories of
development often provide a framework for thinking about human growth,
development and the learning process if one has ever wondered about what
motivates human thought and behavior or how the personality is formed,
understanding these theories can provide useful insight into both individual as well
as societal influences on early child development.
Development
Development means the emerging and expanding capacities of the individual to
provide a greater facility in functioning such as the development of motor ability
from certain manipulation to proficiency in games. It is achieved through the process
of growth.
Development refers to interaction of a person with his environment
surrounding whose after product is to increase. The outcomes of the development
process can be categorized into the following categories:
 The strength
 The degree of differentiation
 The organization of personality
Let us now the stages related to the development process.
1. Stages in Cognitive Development
According to Jean Piaget, a Swiss psychologist, cognitive development in human
beings takes place through four important stages in cognitive development of the
child:
(a) Period of sensory-motor adaptation (0 to 2 years of age): The Infant
starts this age by his reflex activities and then he or she reaches to the states
of sensorimotor schemes by practice and accommodation. Infant
differentiates himself or herself from objects; gradually becomes aware of
the relationship between his or her action and their effects on the environment
so that he or she contact intentionally and make interesting events last longer
(if he or she shakes a rattle it will make a noise); learns that object continues
to exist even that they are no longer visible (object permanence).
(b) Preoperational stage (2 to 7 years of age): Child uses language and
can represent object by images and words; is still egocentric; the world
revolves around him and he has difficulty taking the viewpoints of others;
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42 Material
classifies object by single salient features: if A is like B in one respect, must Innovations from
be line B in other respects; towards the end of the stage begins to use
numbers and develop conservative concepts.
(c) Concrete operational stage (7 to 12 years of age): The child becomes
NOTES
capable of logical thought; achieves conservation concepts on this order;
can classify objects on the basis of numbers order them in series along a
dimension and understand relational terms.
(d) Formal operational stage (12 years and above): The child can think
and abstract terms, follow logical propositions, and reason by hypothesis;
isolates the elements of a problem and systematically explodes all possible
solutions; becomes concerned with the hypothetical, the future, and the
ideological problems.
2. Stages in Psychosocial Development
Stages (Ages are Psychosocial Radius of significant Psychosocial Favorable

approximate) Crises relations Modalities outcome
1. Birth-first year Trust vs. Mother or Mothers To get Drive and

Mistrust substitute To give in return hope
2. Second year Autonomy vs. Parents To hold (on) Self-control
Shame or Doubt To let (go) and willpower
3. Third year to Initiative vs. Basic Family To make (going after) Direction and
Fifth year Guilt To ‘make like’ purpose
(playing)
4. Sixth year to Industry vs. Neighborhood; To make things Method and
onset of puberty Inferiority school (competing) competence
To make things
together
5. Adolescence Identity and To be oneself (or not To be oneself (or not Devotion and
reputation vs. to be) to be) fidelity
Identity diffusion
6. Early Intimacy and Partners in friendship, To lose and find Affiliation and
Adulthood solidarity vs. sex, competition, oneself in another love
isolation cooperation
7. Young and Generativity vs. Divided labor and To make be Production and
middle adulthood self-absorption shared household To take care of care
8. Later Integrity vs. ‘Mankind’ To be, through Renunciation
Adulthood Despair ‘My kind’ having been and wisdom
To face not being
3. Stages in Moral Development
Levels and Stages Illustrative Behavior

Level I Premoral
1. Punishment and obedience orientation. Obeys rules in order to avoid punishment.
2. Naïve instrumental hedonism Conforms to obtain rewards, to have favors
returned.
Level II Morality of conventional role conformity
3. ‘Good-boy’ morality of maintain good relations, Conforms to avoid disapproval, dislike by others.
approval of others.
4. Authority making morality Conforms to avoid censure by legitimate
authorities, with resultant guilt.
Level III Morality of self-accepted moral principles
5. Morality of contract, of individual rights, and of Conforms to maintain respect of the impartial
democratically accepted law. spectator judging in terms of community welfare.
6. Morality of individual principles of conscience Confirms to avoid self-condemnation
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Innovations from
Check Your Progress
7. What are the main outcomes of the development process?
NOTES 8. What do you understand by the term ‘metalanguage’?

QUESTIONS
1. The main aim of Tagore’s method of education was to make the child learn
through the concept of self-learning and provide him or her situations so
that they can have a real life experience.
2. Curriculum is designed in such a way that it develops an individual physically,
mentally, morally, socially and spiritually to the utmost limits. For this
curriculum based on activities and broad experiences in real life situation is
necessary.
3. The three main types of teaching methods in Froebel’s method of education
are as follows:
(a) Use of gifts
(b) Singing of songs
(c) The games
4. According to Froebel, education is the means to awaken the spiritual nature
of man and to identify him or her with nature. It also enables the students to
realize the fundamental unity of all living beings with the God.
5. The basic characteristics of a school are as follows:
(a) Life centered activities through crafts.
(b) Correlation with the central craft.
(c) Freedom for the Teachers for experimentation and innovation.
6. The chief tenets of Gandhian Education are as follows:
(a) There should be free and compulsory primary education.
(b) The education should be craft-centered.
(c) It should be self-supporting.
(d) It should be given in mother tongue.
(e) It should be based on non-violence.
7. The main outcomes of the development process are as follows:
(a) The strength
(b) The degree of differentiation
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(c) The organization of personality
44 Material
8. The term ‘metalanguage’ is used to mean different things. Here, it is used to Innovations from
mean teacher talk and which is not related to the language being presented:
the language a teacher uses to allow the various classroom processes to
happen, that is, the language of organizing the classroom.
NOTES
3.7 SUMMARY
 Tagore’s philosophies of life are more idealistic in nature. He successfully

incorporated idealism into naturalism.
 Rabindranath Tagore’s concept of education believed that God reveals
himself through nature more effectively as compared to the education taught
in institutions.
 Curriculum should be made in such a way that it develops an individual
physically, mentally, morally, socially and spiritually to the utmost limits.
 Tagore believed that education which is imparted in the classroom does not
influence the mind and body of the child.
 Tagore believes history, geography, economics and other subjects of social
sciences can be effectively taught to the students through tours and
excursions.
 For the complete development of the child, it is essential that a child must
learn the concepts through some kind of activity.
 Narration-cum-discussion and debating activities were organized in Tagore’s
education centre to develop oratory abilities of the students.
 Rabindranath Tagore introduced heuristic method as an important method
of teaching in his educational institution.
 Education should be connected with our complete life experiences whether
it is economical, intellectual and aesthetical aspects.
 Friedrich William A Froebel (1782-1852), the German pedagogue laid the
foundation for the modern education system. It is based on the concept that
children have unique needs and capabilities.
 According to Froebel, education is the means to awaken the spiritual nature
of man and to identify him or her with nature.
 On the basis of his observation of nature and the stages of Human
Development, Froebel’s curriculum incorporated the principles of self-
development activity and the process of socialization.
 The gifts and occupation was a series of twenty devices and activities,
essentially a hand on curricular system intended to introduce the children
about physical forms and relationships found in nature.
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Innovations from  Froebel was against memorization and rote method of learning. He was
concerned about the traditional method of education which only emphasized
on memorization.
 Froebel stands as a pioneer of modern educational theory, especially in his
NOTES
recognition that a child should not be pushed beyond his ability and readiness
and in his sensitivity to the child’s natural inclinations.
 Education should not cultivate loyalty to British rule. It should instead promote
an idea of national consciousness and a love for the mother country.
 According to Gandhi, within the age of seven and fourteen, free and
compulsory elementary education should be provided to the students.
 By advocating the self-supporting aspect, Gandhi believed that the right
kind of teachers should teach the students, the dignity of labour and the
children who regard craft as an integral part and means of their intellectual
growth.
 Teachers and students are free to work according to their interest and local
needs. Necessary changes may be introduced by the teacher, if any need
arises.
 According to Russell, skills and knowledge should be acquired in schools
which are designed for the purpose of training children.
 Russell negated idealistic philosophical theories and finally propounded the
existence of matter and was therefore, known as neorealist.
 Russell emphasized on self-discipline. According to him, excessive
punishment or freedom both of them do not establish any discipline in the
student.
 The design for the principle of curriculum, instruction, assessment and
professional development, provide one of the organizing frameworks of the
committees analysis of educational programmes.
 The language of feedback refers to the responses given by the teacher to
what learners produce in the classroom.
 Developmental theories are quite useful in understanding how the children
learn and grow. Most of the biologists believe that both biology and
experience are the major factors that help in shaping the developmental
outcomes.
 Development means the emerging and expanding capacities of the individual
to provide a greater facility in functioning such as the development of motor
ability from certain manipulation to proficiency in games.
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Innovations from
3.8 KEY WORDS Educational Experiments
 Development: It refers to the process of emerging and expanding capacities

of the individual to provide a greater facility in functioning such as the NOTES
development of motor ability from certain manipulation to proficiency in
games.
 Instrumental motivation: It refers to a type of motivation in which learners
learn a language as it will help in achieving instrumental and practical goals,
such as getting a job, reading foreign newspapers or obtaining a promotion.
 Integrative motivation: It refers to a type of motivation in which learners
learn a language for reasons of understanding, relating to or communicating
with the people of the culture.
 Language of feedback: It refers to the responses given by the teacher to
what learners produce in the classroom.

EXERCISES
1. How is curriculum designed in Froebel’s method of education?
2. Write a short note on Rabindranath Tagore’s educational philosophy.
3. What is the main aim of Froebel’s method of education?
4. List the fundamental principles of Gandhi’s national education.
5. What is the role of teacher in Russell’s method of education?
1. Explain the various teaching methods of Tagore’s educational philosophy.
2. Discuss Gandhi’s philosophy of education.
3. Analyse the aims of education as propounded by Russell.
4. Explain the principles related to self-learning devices.
5. Interpret the stages of development. Discuss in detail.

Kingdom: Routledge.
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Innovations from Larkley, E Jasmine and Viola B. Maynhard (ed). 2008. Innovation in Education.
NOTES
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Factors of Innovations
UNIT 4 FACTORS OF
INNOVATIONS
NOTES
Structure
4.0 Introduction
4.1 Objectives
4.2 Growth of Culture and Civilization
4.2.1 Factors Responsible for the Resistance to the Growth of Culture
4.3 Social Effects of Innovation
4.3.1 Inventions
4.4 Innovation and Educational Goals
4.6 Summary
4.7 Key Words
4.0 INTRODUCTION
Culture is defined as a system of learned behaviour which is shared by the members

of a group. On the other hand, civilization is defined as the manners and thoughts
which are inherited in a person. Education is acquired by learning and is also a
result of good upbringing. Thus, civilization and culture are closely interrelated.
Education explains the way in which one should live his or her life and this way of
living is a part of an individual’s culture and civilization.
Innovations and inventions are also an important part of the teaching process.
The developments and new methods have paved the way for a better future. It is
important that education should be given to everyone and thus, there are various
articles in our constitution which provides equal education.
There are three main types of innovative practices which are team teaching,
personalized system of instruction and educational games. The main characteristics
of each of these practices have been explained in the unit.
In this unit, the concept of growth of culture and civilization has been
explained. The articles related to the principle of equal education and importance
of invention in teaching process has been analysed. The social effects of innovation
have also been highlighted in the unit.
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4.1 OBJECTIVES

NOTES  Discuss the concept of growth of culture and civilization
 Analyse the social effects of innovation
 Discuss the importance of inventions in teaching and principle of equal
education
 Explain the three main types of innovation practices of teaching
4.2 GROWTH OF CULTURE AND CIVILIZATION
We will discuss the concept of growth of culture and civilization in this section.
Growth of Culture
The word culture is derived from the Latin term ‘cult’ or ‘cultus’ which means
tilling or cultivation or refining. Culture is a means in which cultivation and refining
takes place to such an extent its end product brings admiration and respect. Culture
is something more than the material wealth of a society. It refers to the capabilities
acquired by men.
According to author and anthropologist, Bantock, ‘the word culture is
normally used in two broad senses. It is used by the anthropologists to refer to the
total pattern of a society’s life. The other typical use of the word culture, however,
involves a high degree of selectivity’.
A country in order to achieve the status for true development should not
only focus on scientific tools and economic growth but should also focus to sustain
its traditional heritage and cultural civilization. The very notion of Human
Development Index (HDI) devised by United Nations Development Programme
(UNDP) is that progress and development is no longer to be measured just in
terms of Gross Domestic Product (GDP) or per capita income but also in terms of
human well-being which includes number of factors such as cultural identity, sense
of security of both one’s personal safety, as well as safety of one’s culture and
ones, place in this world. Keeping this view in mind, Bhutan has very high indicators
of human happiness. It is so because of Bhutan’s flourishing craft activities, linking
craft to Bhutan sense of Identity (Chatterjee and Ashoke 2005). So traditional
cultural ethos and values are a major part of a country’s development. In India, it
is a traditional skill (local knowledge) of the handicrafts artisans that is a major
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basis of their identity and in post-liberalization India that identity is either getting Factors of Innovations
vanished or getting diluted and the skill/local knowledge is very much influenced
by the market forces (Jena 2008,22). Sustaining one’s own cultural heritage of
any form in modern globalized times is one of the greatest challenges for any
country. Without this, true development of nation and humanity is impossible. NOTES
Growth of Civilization
According to sociologists, MacIver and Page, the two great areas of human
experience and human activity are ‘culture’ and ‘civilization’. All that man does, all
that he or she creates, all his or her artifacts fall permanently into one order or the
other. It would include not only our systems of social organization but also our
techniques and material instruments. It would include the ballot box and the
telephone alike, our laws as well as our schools and our banking system as well as
our banks. They both argued that technology is a part of civilization.
Within the order of civilization, they distinguished between basic technology
and social technology. The basic technology is directed towards man’s control
over natural phenomena. It is the area of the engineer and the mechanic. It applies
the laws of physics, chemistry, and biology to the service of human objectives. It
rules the process of production in industry, agriculture and extractive industries. It
constructs ships, planes, ornaments, tractors and elevators and an endless variety
of artifacts. It shapes and assembles the objects of every scale. It plans the modernize
city and its parkways and also the newest design of women’s hats. Social technology,
on the other hand, is a collection of techniques that are directed towards the
regulation of the behavior of human beings. It has two essential divisions, economic
technology, and political technology. Economic technology is concerned with the
economic processes and immediate relationship between men, for the pursuit of
economic means. Political technology regulates a wide range of human relationships.
MacIver and Page describe culture; they believe that, just as the typewriter
belongs to one great order, similarly the book that has been typed on it belongs to
another great order. All material things that we bring into existence give something
that we crave for all we need. All of them are expressions of us. They have been
created to satisfy the need within us. This need is not an outer necessity. They
belong to the realm of culture. This is the kingdom of principles, styles, emotional
strings and intellectual ventures. They argue that culture is then the antithesis of
civilization. It is the expression of our nature in our modes of living and thinking, in
our everyday intercourse, in art and literature, in religion, in recreation, and in
enjoyment.
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Factors of Innovations 4.2.1 Factors Responsible for the Resistance to the Growth
of Culture
The factors which provide resistance to growth/challenged area of culture and
NOTES their routed solutions are as follows:
Factors resistance to the growth of Culture Culture Routed Solutions
1. Accessibility: Schools physically, socially, Strong community involvement, relying on culture
psychologically, economically inaccessible to accepted structures.
the children.
Use of traditional structure (homesteads,
playgrounds, etc) for schooling.
2. Gender Equity: Poor attendance and girls Adapting schooling to local realities.
participation (their entry in the school,
retention, progression and completion of Using culturally acceptable mobilization strategies.
education)
Attending to the special needs of girls.
3. Relevance: Improper alignment of Use of local culture/local activities as the substance
educational processes to the perceived need of Education
of the community and learners.
Use of methods, materials and content appropriate
to the environment.
Community language for laying the foundation for

learning.
4. Quality of Education: The improper Learning based activities and socially acceptable
curriculum construction, assessment and skills and competencies ( instead of Rote learning
regulation impact on the learner. or memorizing)
Use of learners language for deep understanding

5. Efficiency: Elimination of wastage Community involvement in school management
through judicious mix and use of resources
Active and culturally imbibed teaching learning
activities that make teaching and learning
interesting
Activities that enhance relevance and quality
Check Your Progress

1. What are the two essential divisions of social technology?
2. Why is it considered that culture is the antithesis of civilization?
4.3 SOCIAL EFFECTS OF INNOVATION
Innovations have become an essential part of everyday life. Our day-to-day tasks
are completely technology driven. We cannot imagine our life without technology.
Science is moving a step ahead every day. Thus, the effects of Innovation on the
society cannot be neglected. The following are the social effects of Innovation:
 Bring changes in the society.
 Improvement in the level of education in the youth.
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52 Material
 They help in building the economy of the nation. Factors of Innovations
 Results in rise in the IQ level of the students.

 Improvement in the research quality.
 Development of better society and culture. NOTES
 Improvement in social, religious and emotional development.
 Improvement in the social structure.
 Enhancement of social status.
 Better living standards and improvement in medical facilities.
 Technological improvement in the society.
 Beneficial for people of all age groups.
Thus, innovation aims at enhancing the status of the society, thereby bringing
a positive change in the structure of society. Like every coin has two sides, similarly
innovations also have negative side. Some of the negative effects of innovation
include negative effects of experimentation, students might feel overloaded with
the innovation sometimes and students may underestimate the capabilities of the
teacher.
4.3.1 Inventions
With the introduction of educational technology, numerous changes have resulted
in the advancement of the society. Inventions have revolutionized the world, not
only in the society but also the teaching methodologies. The origin, purpose and
scope of innovative practices are numerous. Inventions in the teaching learning
systems resulted in the development of personalized system of instruction, team
teaching, educational games and changes in the educational system.
Inventions are considered as an important ingredient of teaching, they are
essential for the designing and selection of teaching devices, educational
measurement, programmed learning, feedback devices, development of action
research as supporting device, development of multi-media devices and
development of evaluation techniques.
It is essential to provide equal education to all the individuals and every individual
must be treated equally in the eyes of law. Articles 14 to 18 provides for right to
equality which aims to secure all citizens their civic equality. Articles 325 and 326
secure all citizens political equality. Articles 39 under the Directive Principles secure
all citizens economic equality. Law of Equality not only means to provide equal
education, rather it means to provide equal opportunities to the individuals along
with the equal education. Principle of equality plays a prime role in the development
of the child. If the child is not treated equally like other children, he/she may develop
Self-Instructional
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Factors of Innovations negative attitude towards certain group of individuals and may develop unwanted
feelings towards educational system. There are times when children are not given
equal rights and opportunities, they do not want to study more, they stop their
education, they drop-out, and the cases of stagnation are not less in the country.
NOTES
There may be many reasons for a girl child to move out of the education
system, but the major reason is unequal treatment of girl child. There are many
times, when the people who are physically or mentally disabled are not considered
suitable for a certain post. A lot of time, student suffers because of biasness in the
education system which is done by the teachers. These cases are to be sorted out,
and it is the responsibility of all of us to take care of the educational system in such
a way that all the teachers, students and stakeholders of the education system
including the parents and the society must take the education of the child seriously.
Check Your Progress

3. State the premises of the Law of Equality.
4. What are some of the negative effects of innovation?
4.4 INNOVATION AND EDUCATIONAL GOALS
With the introduction of educational technology in the discipline of education, great

changes have taken place in the process of teaching learning and training of teachers.
In the last 25 years, classroom teaching has been changed considerably with the
application of technology of teaching. The emphasis is being given to evolve new
practices in teaching in order to raise the academic performance, and individual
differences of the students to be properly considered in the teaching learning
situations. As a result, various innovative practices have been involved in this area.
The three most important innovative practices of teaching are as follows:
1. Team teaching
2. Personalized system of instruction
3. Educational games
These practices have been discussed in the following section.
1. Team Teaching
Present system of education demands too much from a teacher by curtailing his or
her freedom. The teacher has to teach same subject matter every year and to
teach the same content to two or three sections of the same class. It is very boring
for them and ceases their interest in the subject. Sometimes he or she is assigned
to teach the subject in which one has no interest to teach but is forced to do so.
This may be an important reason that present structure of education has failed to
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cater to the needs of the students. More over the present-day classroom are Factors of Innovations
appropriate only for the average student.

In these circumstances, when teachers and students have to work, under so
many constraints, we feel an urge to use ‘Team teaching’. The innovation of team
NOTES
teaching is widely spreading to improve the teaching learning process in the
classroom.
Team teaching is a form of organization in which an individual teacher decides
to pool resources, interest and expertise in order to device and implement a scheme
of work suitable for the needs of the people and the facilities of the school. The
following are the characteristics of team teaching:
 It involves two or more teachers to teach a class.
 It is an instructional strategy rather than training strategy.
 A team or group of the same teachers of the same subject work together
to deal a significant content to same group of students jointly.
 It can be termed as ‘cooperative teaching’, in which individual teachers
plans to pool resources, interest and their expertise for teaching a content
for the same group or class of students.
 Every individual teacher gets an appropriate instructions space and length
of time so as to use special competencies of teaching content to a group
of students.
 In team teaching, the group of teachers has to consider the needs of
their pupils and they should teach jointly to satisfy their needs and remove
the difficulties of their students.
Types of team teaching
There are various ways to classify the team teaching but a better way to classify it
on the basis of its organization. Team teaching may be organized mainly in three
types:
1. Teachers from the same department
2. A team of teachers from inter department but from the same institution
3. Teachers from inter-institution
Objectives of team teaching
The teaching strategies have been designed to achieve certain objectives. The
team teaching has been evolved to achieve the following objective:
 To make the best use of expertise of teachers under team teaching.
 To improve the quality of teaching. It involves two or more experts of the
subject to teach same group simultaneously.
 To develop the feelings of cooperation or group work in teaching learning
situation. Self-Instructional
Material 55
Factors of Innovations  To help the students, to satisfy the needs and difficulties relating to the special
content.
 To develop the sense of shared Responsibility in teaching and evaluation of
students learning outcome.
NOTES
 To minimize the scope of teaching wrong things to the students.
Procedure of organizing team teaching
The team teaching serves several purposes of teaching and it has different forms
or types. Therefore, it is difficult to provide a general procedure for organizing
team teaching, but it involves the following steps:
 Formulating the objectives of team teaching.
 Writing these objectives in behavioral terms.
 Identify the entering or initial behaviour of the learners of the group.
 Deciding the topic to be taught.
 Preparing a tentative schedule of teaching.
 Assigning duties to teachers, considering their interest and competencies.
 Fixing up the level of instruction.
 Selecting appropriate teaching aids and teaching equipment’s for generating
learning environment.
 Deciding ways and means for evaluating the students’ performance-oral
and written questions for practical work.
2. Personalized System of Instruction
The personalized system of instruction gets its name from the fact that each student
is served as an individual by another student, face to face and one inspect of the
fact that the class size is large. It is necessary that the student is expected to
acquire a well-defined body of knowledge or skill the majority of college course.
The personalized system of instruction designer experts makes sure that almost all
his or her students learn material well and in the class itself. This system has been
designed to reduce the needs of the individual learner. It is a means of instruction
which is person oriented. It emphasizes on the individualized instruction as compared
to the other methods of higher education. The main characteristics of a good
personalized system of instruction are as follows:
 It lays more emphasis on personal-social relationship in the educational
process. Teaching and learning problems are solved on personal basis.
 The personal system of instruction emphasize on the importance of written
work. The teacher provides the situations to the learners to practice on
well-designed assignments. It provides an opportunity for assimilating the
content.
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 It provides opportunities to remove the learning difficulties of each student Factors of Innovations
of the system.
 It provides appropriate motivation and frequent reinforcement to the learners.
 It facilitates the student learning using multimedia approach because different NOTES
students learn better through different devices. Some students learn better
by listening, or some other by reading or writing the content. Thus, in the
personal system of instruction, the subject matter is presented in written
form through film, through tape and by computer.
3. Educational Games
Educational games are recent innovation in instructional technique to provide
appropriate learning experiences. The pragmatic philosophy makes educational
system experience centered and intends to prepare students for life situations.
This type of education can be best imparted by using gaming technique.
An educational game is defined as an activity among two or more independent
decisions that are seeking to achieve their objectives in some limiting content.
Educational games usually stimulate or at least approximate real-life situations for
helping students more to understand real life situations and human behavior.
Educational games usually lay less stress on corporation, bargaining and adjustment
or compromise the main characteristics of human instruction in the society. As in
real life, winning is often related and some groups may win more as compared to
the others, but these groups do not require one against one’s competition. The
main characteristic features of the educational games are as follows:
 Role play games require participants to assume realistic social roles and
to interact with one another in terms of common social situation.
 These games are designed to teach dynamics of human behavior in
response to a specific social problem situation.
 Role profile is prepared which describe the social situation in terms of
which the roles are to be performed.
Check Your Progress

5. How is team teaching organized?
6. What are the characteristics of educational games?

QUESTIONS
1. The two essential divisions of social technology are economic technology

and political technology.
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Factors of Innovations 2. Culture is considered as the antithesis of civilization because it is the
expression of our nature in our modes of living and thinking, in our everyday
intercourse, in art and literature, in religion, in recreation, and in enjoyment.
3. Law of Equality not only means to provide equal education, rather it means
NOTES
to provide equal opportunities to the individuals along with the equal
education.
4. Some of the negative effects of innovation include negative effects of
experimentation, students might feel overloaded with the innovation
sometimes and students may underestimate the capabilities of the teacher.
5. Team teaching may be organized into three main categories namely, teachers
from the same department, a team of teachers from inter department but
from the same institution and teachers from inter-institution.
6. The following are the characteristics of educational games:
(a) Role play games require participants to assume realistic social roles
and to interact with one another in terms of common social situation.
(b) These games are designed to teach dynamics of human behavior in
response to a specific social problem situation.
(c) Role profile is prepared which describe the social situation in terms of
which the roles are to be performed.
4.6 SUMMARY
 The word culture is derived from the Latin term ‘cult’ or ‘cultus’ which
means tilling or cultivation or refining.
 Culture is a means in which cultivation and refining takes place to such an
extent its end product brings admiration and respect.
 A country in order to achieve the status for true development should not
only focus on scientific tools and economic growth but should also focus to
sustain its traditional heritage and cultural civilization.
 According to sociologists, MacIver and Page, the two great areas of human
experience and human activity are ‘culture’ and ‘civilization’.
 The basic technology is directed towards man’s control over natural
phenomena. It is the area of the engineer and the mechanic. It applies the
laws of physics, chemistry, and biology to the service of human objectives.
 Social technology, on the other hand, is a collection of techniques that are
directed towards the regulation of the behavior of human beings.
 Economic technology is concerned with the economic processes and
immediate relationship between men, for the pursuit of economic means.
On the other hand, political technology regulates a wide range of human
relationships.
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 Innovations have become an essential part of everyday life. Our day to day Factors of Innovations
tasks are completely technology driven.

 Innovation aims at enhancing the status of the society, thereby bringing a
positive change in the structure of society.
NOTES
 Inventions have revolutionized the world, not only in the society but also the
teaching methodologies.
 Inventions in the teaching learning systems resulted in the development of
personalized system of instruction, team teaching, educational games and
changes in the educational system.
 It is essential to provide equal education to all the individuals and every
individual must be treated equally in the eyes of law.
 Law of Equality not only means to provide equal education, rather it means
to provide equal opportunities to the individuals along with the equal
education.
 With the introduction of educational technology in the discipline of education,
great changes have taken place in the process of teaching learning and training
of teachers.
 The emphasis is being given to evolve new practices in teaching in order to
raise the academic performance, and individual differences of the students
to be properly considered in the teaching learning situations.
 Team teaching is a form of organization in which an individual teacher decides
to pool resources, interest and expertise in order to device and implement a
scheme of work suitable for the needs of the people and the facilities of the
school.
 In team teaching, the group of teachers has to consider the needs of their
pupils and they should teach jointly to satisfy their needs and remove the
difficulties of their students.
 The personalized system of instruction gets its name from the fact that each
student is served as an individual by another student, face to face and one
inspect of the fact that the class size is large.
 The personalized system of instruction is a means of instruction which is
person oriented. It emphasizes on the individualized instruction as compared
to the other methods of higher education.
 Educational games are recent innovation in instructional technique to provide
appropriate learning experiences.
 An educational game is defined as an activity among two or more independent
decisions that are seeking to achieve their objectives in some limiting content.
 Educational games usually lay less stress on corporation, bargaining and
adjustment or compromise the main characteristics of human instruction in
the society.
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4.7 KEY WORDS
 Educational game: It refers to an activity among two or more independent

NOTES decisions that are seeking to achieve their objectives in some limiting content.
 Personalized system of instruction: It refers to a means of instruction
which is individual oriented. It emphasizes on the individualized instruction
as compared to the other methods of higher education.
 Social technology: It refers to a collection of techniques that are directed
towards the regulation of the behavior of human beings.
 Team teaching: It refers to a form of organization in which an individual
teacher decides to pool resources, interest and expertise in order to device
and implement a scheme of work suitable for the needs of the people and
the facilities of the school.

EXERCISES
1. How is social technology different from basic technology?
2. What is economic technology?
3. List the social effects of innovation.
4. Write a short note on principle of equal education.
5. What are the main characteristics of personalized system of instruction?
1. Discuss the concept of growth of culture and civilization.
2. ‘Inventions are considered as an important ingredient of teaching’. Elucidate
the statement.
3. Explain the objectives of team teaching.
4. Discuss the factors of resistance to the growth of culture.
5. What are the innovative practices of teaching? Discuss any one practice in
detail.

Kingdom: Routledge.
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Larkley, E Jasmine and Viola B. Maynhard (ed). 2008. Innovation in Education. Factors of Innovations

NOTES
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National Trends in
Educational Innovations BLOCK - II
NATIONAL TRENDS AND EDUCATIONAL
TECHNOLOGY
NOTES
UNIT 5 NATIONAL TRENDS

IN EDUCATIONAL
INNOVATIONS
Structure
5.0 Introduction
5.1 Objectives
5.2 Science Education in Developed and Underdeveloped Countries
5.3 Role of Science and Culture in the Future
5.3.1 Role of Education and the Need for Improvement in Science Education
5.4 UNESCO: The Modification of Educational System
5.6 Summary
5.7 Key Words
5.0 INTRODUCTION
Science is a universal subject which examines the physical and natural aspects of
the world through observation. This branch of knowledge can also be understood
through experiments. Science is divided into three main fields namely, biology,
chemistry and physics. However, there are many other branches of science. Science
as a subject helps to analyse the importance of scientific problems which are
related to change and its causes. The importance of science as a subject was soon
realized and efforts were made by developed and underdeveloped countries to
include it as a part of curriculum.
Science is acquired through knowledge and its role is classified into facts,
concepts, theories and generalizations. It is important that science must be taught
in every school so that pupils can learn the value of leading a good life. It is imperative
that students should be taught in such a manner that what is taught in the school
must also be practiced in the real life. However, there were several challenges
which were propounded by UNESCO and have to be addressed so that education
serves its purpose well.
In this unit, the development of science as a subject in developed and
underdeveloped countries, the role of science at present and in the future has been
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analysed. The importance of facts, laws, theories and generalizations have been National Trends in
Educational Innovations
explained with examples. The unit will also highlight the challenges which one will
face while teaching various subjects.
NOTES
5.1 OBJECTIVES

 Discuss the development of science as a subject
 Explain the role of science for future purposes
 Interpret the steps taken to improve the role of science education
 Discuss the challenges faced in the field of education as propounded by
UNESCO
5.2 SCIENCE EDUCATION IN DEVELOPED AND

UNDERDEVELOPED COUNTRIES
The development in teaching methods related to science can be traced back from
the works of various philosophers, namely, John Amos Comenius who emphasized
that science instruction must move from words to things and the teaching of useful
knowledge. Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi, a Swiss educator, advocated learning by
doing and argued that teaching and learning must be largely analytical.
Over the years, methods of teaching science and the curriculums of science
have undergone significant changes. Instruction in science has profited from
innovative programs such as BSCS, PSSC, ISCS, ESCS, and many other projects
with acronyms that are readily recognized. More recently, programs such as the
BioQuest Curriculum Consortium, Project Wild, and case-based learning approach
to biological concepts have made problem-solving and decision-making inseparable
from the content of the discipline. These programs individually and collectively
have enlightened science teachers as well as the students at all the levels of instruction.
India made a pioneer headway in the field of medicine and agriculture till
about 600 A.D. The oldest Indian scripture, Rig Veda which was written about
4000 years ago, refers to physicians and speaks about the healing power of
medicinal herbs. The concept of atom and the formation of the world as discussed
in The Vaiseshika, one of the Upanishads, approach the modern western thought.
The Sankhiya philosophy by Kapila is very much like Darwinism. The Upa- Vedas
or secondary Vedas discuss various sciences. One of these Upa-vedas is ‘Ayur
Veda’ which consists of six books on surgery, nosology, anatomy, therapeutics,
toxicology and supplementary section dealing with various local diseases. However,
most importantly attention was given to diet. In surgery, they attained great
proficiency. The material medica of the Hindus embraced a vast collection of
drugs which belongs to the mineral, vegetable and animal kingdoms many of which
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National Trends in have been adopted by western physicians. These were colleges and universities
of international repute.
From the point of view of methods and technique of acquiring scientific
knowledge, there was considerable development in the refinement of observation.
NOTES
Logical analysis as a tool for refinement of ideas and to arrive at generalizations
was also considerably developed. From the point of view of the institutions for
acquiring knowledge and continuing the tradition, it may be noticed that they were
centered on individuals, who passed on the knowledge and skills to their best
disciples only. The result was that most of the scientific knowledge and traditions
were lost with time. The early universities of Takshila and Nalanda could be taken
as a first step towards institutionalization of teaching and acquiring knowledge, but
their character must be fully studied, and also the reasons for their disappearance.
In a normal course, the scientific knowledge and the methods and techniques
of acquiring it should have led to the next stage of development; however, it did
not happen. The philosophy of Buddhism (Between 750 A.D. to 1000A.D)
discouraged further development of life sciences. Rules of caste became stricter
and Brahmins forbade contaminating with blood and withdrew from all the practice
of medicine. They even shrank from touching dead bodies and as a result of
decreasing number of good physician’s public hospitals had to be closed. Later,
on the gradual conquest of the country by invaders from West Asia and Central
Asia brought an element of discontinuity of ancient Indian tradition. The people
brought with them different languages i.e. Arabic, Turkish and Persian, and also
scientific knowledge, methods, techniques and concepts. There is however, some
evidence to suggest that many of the scientific ideas brought to India by foreigners
during the medieval period had the Indian origin. A large number of scholars went
out of India and were patronized at the courts of various feudal kings in West Asia
and Central Asia. The information, methods, techniques and concepts which they
took with them were synthesized and incorporated in the medieval Arabic and
Persian scientific traditions of West Asia and Central Asia. This was further
developed as a part of the scientific and intellectual developments of these
civilizations, the form in which they came to India. There is, however, still a
controversy on the origin of many scientific ideas, concepts, methodology and
techniques and further studies need to be made before one can fully understand
the evolution of scientific thought in medieval India.
The modern period brings another sharp break in the scientific thought and
tradition of India with the conquest of the country by the British. Modern science
was introduced in India along with the British, in opposition to the earlier two
traditions and again in a foreign language i.e. English. Modern science came to
India at a stage of development which marks a radical change from the medieval
and ancient sciences, newer branches of sciences had been developed,
experimentation developed as a full-fledged technique of acquiring information.
Language of science had taken a definite shape; scientific institutions had been
developed and technology made a decisive breakthrough.
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Modern science did not make a significance highway in India during the National Trends in
British period for various reasons. Its character was not radically different from
the earlier scientific tradition in the country, but the new language made the process
of its assimilation in Indian culture difficult. Secondly, it either aroused awe or
hostility as a ‘British thing’ alien and hostile to the Indian tradition. The effort, NOTES
therefore, became once again, one of choice rather than of a synthesis to evolve a
scientific tradition in the Indian context.
In order to study the development of science education in India during the
modern period we have to look at the history of the science in the West because
whatever happened there was followed in India through a slower pace.
At the end of eighteenth century, the Universities, however, neglected the
teaching of science and it had no place in the school curriculum. Chief scientific
discoveries were made by amateur scientists such as Cavendish, Priestly, James
Watt and Hershel. A number of philosophical societies were started to fill the gap
between the educational provision and the social need, such as Societies of Arts,
London, Literary and Philosophical Society of Manchester founded in 1781 and
Lunar Society of Birmingham (1766). In 1799, Count Rumford was influential in
founding the Royal Institute of Great Britain. It was intended for teaching young
men in the mechanical profession by courses of philosophical lectures and
experiments on the application of science to common purpose of life. But later its
policy was altogether changed by the influence of Sir Humphry Davy and of Faraday
and it became the center of research.
The Royal Education Commission reported that in none of the schools,
science was taught as an independent subject though at Rugby, natural science
was taught to boys who elected to study it instead of languages. They described it
as ‘a plain defect and a great practical evil’. They therefore, suggested that natural
science should be taught and should include two main branches, one comprising
physics and chemistry and other comparative physiology and natural history. As a
result of this, physics was introduced in 1837 at Rugby under Dr Arnold. Dr Trait,
his successor, introduced subjects such as botany, chemistry and geology in the
curriculum in 1859 and a science lecture room and laboratory were built for the
first time at the cost of over £1,000.
The great exhibition of 1851 gave further impetus for teaching science in
schools, as a result, Department of Science and Art was established in 1853. In
1854, three eminent scientists urged the claims of science as an essential part of
general education. An English biologist, T H Huxley delivered an important address
on the Educational value of the Natural History of Sciences. In 1861, an English
sociologist, Herbert Spencer believed that ‘Knowledge of life was the important
knowledge for all Moral and Physical.’ The staunchest advocate of teaching science
in the ‘sixties’ and ‘seventies’ was Huxley. The establishment of natural science
course in the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge further paved the way for the
inclusion of science in the curriculum of the secondary schools. A full survey of the
position of science teaching in secondary schools is contained in the Devonshire Self-Instructional
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National Trends in Commission Report which was published in 1895. The report begins with the
discussion on the difficulties attending the introduction of science teaching in the
schools and recommended that (i) In all public and endower schools, a substantial
portion of the time allotted to-study must be devoted to natural science, and not
NOTES less than six hours a week on the average should be assigned for this purpose (ii)
school laboratories should be constructed to supply accommodation for practical
work in physics as well as chemistry in the curriculum of boys schools and of
botany into that of girls school.
Public examinations of science and of other science subjects are of very
recent origin. Societies of Arts of London held science examination in 1852,
designed to qualify for membership. During few years the system became
established and papers were set in botany, chemistry, physiology, mathematics
and mechanics.
Since the beginning of twentieth century, there has been an adequate increase
in the equipment and facilities for teaching of science in schools. The Great World
War of 1914-18 opened the eyes of public to the importance of general science in
the modern world. Sir J J Thompson appointed a committee, in 1916, to inquire
into the position of natural science in the educational system and as a result so
named ‘Thompson Report’ was published under the title ‘Natural Science in
Education’. Consequently, many advanced courses in science were added to many
schools. The Science Masters association and the association of women’s science
teachers were formed in the early century. School Science Review, the S.M.A.
periodical, created a good influence on the teacher as well as public.
In India, the pattern of education was influenced by what happened in
England; the only difference is that things moved at a slower pace. The reviews
issued by Government of India in the years 1877-92 gave an insight into the story
state of science teaching. Even in the beginning of this century, science was not a
school subject in our country and it was only a name in the universities. Indian
science congress was formed a few decades back but it also did not do any
notable work towards the teaching of science in schools. The Report of the
Secondary Education Commission, 1953, recommended the teaching of general
science as a compulsory subject in the high and higher secondary schools.
Let us now discuss about the various steps which were taken to promote
science in the country.
1. All India Seminar on Teaching of Science
The All India Seminar on the teaching of science in secondary schools held at Tara
Devi (Shimla Hills) in 1956, dealt with almost all the problems facing the inclusion
of general science as a core subject for higher secondary classes. It was the first
of its kind which touched almost all the aspects concerning the teaching of science
in schools viz. syllabus, equipment and apparatus, method of examination, teaching
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aids in science and other allied topics like textbooks, Science clubs and museums. National Trends in
It had suggested a unique and uniform system of science teaching for the entire
country, suited to its needs and resources.
2. Indian Education Commission (1964-66) NOTES
The progress, welfare and security of the nation depend critically on rapid planning
and sustainable growth in the quality and extent of education and research in science
and technology. Science is universal and so can be its benefits. Science represents
a cumulative and cooperative activity of mankind and its rate of growth is extremely
rapid. The knowledge of science is doubling in the period of ten to fifteen years.
The commission had pointed out that science education is in bad shape and
it becomes worse, if one fail to reckon with the explosion of knowledge. To meet
this immediate threat, the commission recommended upgrading school curricula
by ‘research in curriculum development, the revision of the textbooks and teaching
learning material.’ The commission recommended that:
 Science and mathematics should be taught on compulsory basis to all
the pupils as a part of general education during the first ten years of
schooling.
 In the lower primary classes, teaching should be related to the child
environment. The roman alphabets should be taught in class IV to
facilitate child’s understanding of internationally accepted symbols of
scientific measurement and use of maps, charts and statistical tests.
 At the lower secondary stage, science should be developed as a
discipline of mind. The newer concept of physics, chemistry and biology
and the experimental approach to the learning of science should be
stressed.
 Science teaching should be linked to agriculture in rural areas and to
technology in urban areas.
 Science course as an advanced level may be provided for talented
secondary students in selected lower secondary school with facilities of
staff and laboratory.
 The method of teaching science should be modernized, stressing the
investigatory approach and understanding of the basic principles. Guide
materials should be made available to help teachers adopt the approach.
Laboratory work will need considerable improvement. There should be
flexibility in the curriculum to cater to the special needs of the gifted.
 The development of science must derive its nourishment from our cultural
and spiritual heritage and not bypass it.
 At the university level, better conditions for research should be provided.
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National Trends in 3. National Policy on Education (1968)
The National Policy of Education (1968) marked a significant step in the history
of education in post- independence India. It aimed to promote national progress,
NOTES a sense of common citizenship and culture, and to strengthen national integration.
It laid stress on the need for the radical reconstruction of the education system, to
improve its quality at all stages, and gave much greater attention to science and
technology, the cultivation of moral values and a closer relation between education
and the life of the people.
Since the adoption of 1968 policy, there has been considerable expansion
in educational facilities all over the country at all the levels. More than 90 per cent
of the country’s rural habitations now have schooling facilities within a radius of
one kilometer.
One of the most significant developments has been the acceptance of a
common structure of education throughout the country and the introduction of the
10+2+3 system by most states. In the school curricula, in addition to laying down
a common scheme of studies for both boys and girls, science and mathematics
were incorporated as compulsory subjects.
4. National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT)
The NCERT was established on September 01, 1961 as an autonomous
organization with its headquarters in New Delhi. At the headquarters it has National
Institute of Education (NIE) which is concerned with research, instruction and
evaluation. The NIE functions through its various departments like the department
of education in Science and Mathematics, Department of Education in Social
Science and Humanities, Department of Educational Psychology, Department of
Teacher Education, Department of Textbooks, Department of Teaching Aids
National Science Talent Search, Survey and Data Processing and Examination
Reform.
A Central Science Workshop was also established under the NCERT to
produce prototypes of school equipment and to develop low cost kits for the
primary and middle school stages through the various departments of NIE and the
Regional Institute of Education, the NCERT discharges functions relating to the
improvement of education at all levels of school education and teacher training in
India. It also maintains a close liaison with the Education departments and the
schools in the different states and the Union territories of India.
5. State Councils of Educational Research and Training (SCERT) and
State Institutes of Science Education (SISE)
Some states have now established State Council of Educational Research and
Training (SCERT) on the pattern of NCERT. In these states SCERT incorporates
the functions of the States Institutes of Education.
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SISEs have been set up in all the states with a view to improve the quality of National Trends in
science education in the schools. The main function of these institutes is to provide
in-service training to science teachers in the new developments in the field of science
education; prepare instructional material in the science; conduct research studies
in science education of their respective states; provide guidance service in science NOTES
to school; take up innovative programs in science education; and participate in the
national science programs.
6. National Policy on Education (NPE) 1986
In January 1985, the Government of India announced that a new education policy
would be formulated for the country. A comprehensive appraisal of the existing
educational scene was made followed by a countrywide debate. The views and
the suggestions received from different quarters were carefully studied. As a result,
a new educational policy was established in 1986.
The NPE has reiterated the importance of Mathematics and Science
Education as well as inculcation of scientific temper. The committee set up under
the chairmanship of Prof. Yash Pal, former Chairman, UGC for implementation of
programs for the improvement of the science education has stressed need of proper
motivation of teachers in order to enable them to play their role effectively and
provision of suitable training to them. To implement this program a detailed scheme
for improvement of science education in schools was prepared. The scheme was
approved for implementation in 1987-1988. The salient features of the scheme
are:
 Provision of science kits to 90,000 upper primary schools.
 Assistance to 22,500 Secondary and Higher Secondary Schools having
laboratory rooms and science teachers, to acquire science equipment.
 A one-time assistance of 15,000 per Secondary Higher Secondary
School each to procure about 500 books relating to Science and
Mathematics;
 Identification of an educational institution or voluntary agency in each
district to act as resource center to help science teachers. Each resource
center should be given equipment worth of 1 lakh.
 Conducting in-service training in the form of summer institutes in
institutions of Higher Education courses in Secondary Teacher Training
(College courses in DIETS and through voluntary organizations having
expertise.
 Assistance on 100 per cent basis to voluntary organizations having
expertise to promote scientific temper and science education.
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National Trends in
Check Your Progress
1. What were the recommendations made by the Devonshire Commission
NOTES Report?
2. State the aim of The National Policy of Education.
3. What is the main function of SISEs?
5.3 ROLE OF SCIENCE AND CULTURE IN THE

FUTURE
We will discuss about the role of science and culture in the future in this section.
The nature of science can be identified as:
 An accumulated and systematized body of knowledge
 The scientific method of inquiry, and
 The scientific attitudes.
The first point indicated the PRODUCT of science, while second and third
points indicate the PROCESS of science. In other words, science is both a product
and a body of knowledge that has been accumulated by scientists, and the process
in which they acquire this knowledge. We will discuss about this concept in detail
in the following section.
(a) The body of scientific knowledge: The body of scientific knowledge
can be classified into facts, concepts and generalizations, theories and
laws. These form the structure of science.
(b) The process of science: The second dimension of science is the
process by which the knowledge is acquired. To define processes of
science, the American Association for the Advancement of Science
(AAAS) asked scientists to say what they actually do. The following
list of thirteen processes came from this enquiry.
1. Observation
2. Classification
3. Number relations
4. Measurement
5. Space/time relations
6. Communication
7. Prediction
8. Inference
9. Making operational definitions
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10. Formulating hypothesis National Trends in
11. Interpreting data
12. Identifying and controlling variables
13. Experimenting NOTES
The structure of science can be compared to the framework of a building
under construction. A framework of building consists of foundation, vertical pillars
and horizontal beams to the methods are process of science. The facts are
comparable to the building materials i.e. stone, bricks and concrete. In this analogy,
the vertical pillars and the horizontal beams of science is subject to alteration based
on empirical tests.
It may be worthwhile to know the role of science for future purposes:
1. Facts: Facts are all the basis of all knowledge. They are said to be
grassroots for any theory or law. Since science is the human enterprise,
it has its limitations, because science does not merely involve recording
and classifying facts, but also involves speculation, intuition, and
imagination. This quality of science makes it subject to errors. Scientists
not only make mistakes in their observation but also make errors in
formulating models or theories. The facts, models, or theories which are
proved wrong during the course of time are discarded and replaced by
new ones. The whole process of the scientific enterprise is continuously
replenished by new facts and discoveries. The process of acquiring
scientific information can be compared to a building.
2. Concepts: A concept is a generalized idea suggested to the individual
by object, symbol or situation, it is not synonym for principle. It is rather
an understanding of almost indefinable something. For instance, the
concept of dog for a three-year-old child is different from a ten year or
twelve year old child. So, the concepts about different objectives and
phenomena are different for different people according to their age and
experience. For instance,
 Development is the product of ‘Heredity and Environment’.
 The mass of a body is equal to the product of its density and volume.
 All living things are composed of cells.
 Metals are good conductors of heat and electricity.
 All living things show characteristics of life.
 All gases are made up of molecules moving randomly in all directions.
3. Generalization: Generalizations are very helpful in deriving useful
conclusions regarding the ‘scientific facts’. The facts, concepts and
generalizations are inter-related and inter-dependent. The facts give rise
to concepts and when the facts and concepts are properly classified
based on various scientific process, they give rise to generalizations. It is
not essential that only direct experiences should be used in generalizing. Self-Instructional
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National Trends in Many times, our generalizations are based on indirect experiences such
as listening the same thing from several sources. However, in the field of
sciences, we usually take help of direct experiences in the form of self –
observation and experimentation for deriving valid generalizations.
NOTES
For instance, let us take another case of generalization ‘All bodies are
attracted by earth’. When a child throws a piece of chalk upwards, it
falls on earth. When he or she tries the similar experiment with the help
of piece of stone, the child observes the same phenomenon. After that,
the child performs similar activity with the help of a glass ball, a pencil, a
book and finds the same results. Hence, he or she draws the conclusion
that all substances when thrown upwards, fall on the earth. Therefore,
the child generalizes that all bodies are attracted by earth.
4. Theory: Theory is a tool of science in many ways. Some definitions of
scientific theory given by various scientists are given below:
 A theory is a set of interrelated concepts, definitions and presents a
systematic view of phenomena by specifying relations among variables
with the purpose of explaining and predicting the phenomena.
–Kerlinger
 Theory refers to the relationship between facts or to the ordering of
them in some meaningful way.
–Good and Hatt
 A theory specifies the relationship between events for explaining the
occurrence of the events and predicting future events.
–Matheson
Author, George J. Mouley has given the following list of characteristics
of a good theory:
 Theory is based on facts.
 Theory should be precise and clear.
 Theory must be grounded in empirical data.
 Theory is open to interpretation and verification.
 Theory follows the law of parsimony (that theory is best which explains
in simplest forms).
 Theory has a meaningful structure.
 Theory has applicability.
5. Law: Oxford Learner’s Dictionary has defined scientific law as ‘a factual
statement of what always happens in certain circumstances’. For
instance, ‘Newton’s Law of Motion’ is statements of principles i.e.
generalized statements through which unrelated data is systematized.
So, the law is broad generalization which means the same for all people
irrespective of their age and experience and holds good in different
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5.3.1 Role of Education and the Need for Improvement in Science National Trends in
Education
Since the time India got its freedom, India has achieved milestones in the field of
science and economics. It has achieved the levels of self-sufficiency in many areas. NOTES
The development goes on to say our education system is strong and healthy plus it
is quite viable in the face of global competition. If the nation has progressed in such
an enormous way, it seems that, our country have the best of educators and best
of the education available.
If one talks about the teaching of science, India has addressed to number of
problems facing human life through science. It focusses on the heredity and hereditary
material. It also focusses on the issues of socioeconomic concerns such as
population control, environment preservation, conservation of natural resources,
animal breeding, plant breeding and economic importance of sericulture and
apiculture. Looking at the content of science and its being taught over a period of
fifty-six years one thing can be said. The school going population have acquired all
this knowledge, values and skills necessary and are ready to combat any of the
problem pertaining to the content are of science. They may also be able to lend
their voice to solve many of the environmental problems facing human generation.
They would have also better understanding of the processes and the products of
science. They may be aware about the flora and fauna on the planet earth. Perhaps
they may be even aware about the life processes and their interdependence.
If we have been able to achieve our objectives of teaching science as a
school subject, mentioned set of behaviors are expected from the clientele of
education today. Schools are the place that satisfy the curiosity of students and
answer the questions raised by students. The following objectives have been
achieved to an extent:
 A well-developed garbage management system.
 Smaller queues at the hospital and doctor clinics.
 Air free pollution, water pure and portable.
 Fruits and vegetable without pesticides.
 More use of natural things, i.e. biodegradable things.
 Use of recycled products, rather than increasing the garbage pile.
 A more rational lifestyle with lesser stress and burden.
 A better water harvest system and conservation of natural resources.
 A strong knowledge of fundamentals.
If one observes the current scenario, one finds the opposite, people do
have awareness of the various problems, but do not have action programmers, it
seems that one just teach them and do nothing about it. However, one advocates
that students should know the structure, function, relationship but teaching according
to teleological approach is seldom done. Topics pertaining to environmental
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National Trends in conservation a mere lip say. A research conducted in this area revealed though
student prefer walking for short distance in the written questionnaire but in practice
used mopeds and other two wheelers for short distances. Students memorize
such recommendations and write in examination, however, do not feel necessary
NOTES to implement in their real life perhaps they feel the content taught in school is far
from reality and is meant to just pass examination.
Similarly, the concept of balanced diet, the student may score ten on ten in
the written examination but can be very fussy about their food habits and may
prefer food which has low nutrition value. As far as skill development in science is
concerned, it is an important part in science learning.
Instructional objectives: Instructional objectives are the statements written
in the future tenses the instructional objectives are stated in terms of student’s
performance i.e., the student will be able to do the instructional objective are of
the two types which are as follows:
 General objectives: They are long term; they need longer time in
accomplishment. They do not indicate the action verb. The general
objectives are broad and based on the subject objective. For example,
students will be able to know the effect of population explosion on
environment.
 Specific objectives: The specific objectives are stated in the behavioural
terms of the students, which are evaluated thereafter. For an objective
to be specific one must specify the condition in which the objective will
be achieved the minimum expectation from the students is stated in explicit
terms.
Check Your Progress

4. What are the characteristics of a good theory?
5. What are the types of instructional objectives?
5.4 UNESCO: THE MODIFICATION OF

EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM
The report of UNESCO of International commission on education for twenty first

century has identified several challenges which education has to address. These
challenges have to be reflected in the aims and objectives and the curricular and
co-curricular programmes of different subjects. These challenges are discussed
as follows:
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 The challenge between the global and the local. It is necessary that people National Trends in
must become global citizens without losing their roots and continuing to
play an active part in the life of their nation and their local community.
 The challenge between the universal and the individual. Culture is steadily
NOTES
being globalized. We cannot ignore the promises of globalization nor its
risks. The individuals must choose their future and achieve their full potential
within their traditions and cultures.
 The challenge between traditional and modernity. This is the spirit in which
the challenges of the new information technology have to be met.
 The challenge between extraordinary expansion of knowledge and human
beings capacity to assimilate it.
 The challenge between the spiritual and the material. It is education’s noble
task to strike a balance between the two.
 The challenge between on the one hand the need for competition and on the
other, the concern for quality of opportunity. This is really a classic issue
which has been making both economic and social policy makers. Education
policy must reconcile three forces viz., competition which improves
incentives, co-operation which gives strength and solidarity, which unites.
The objectives of teaching science have undergone major changes during
the last few decades. These unexpected developments in the field of science in
twentieth century have only made position for itself in the school curriculum but
have affected the ultimate objectives of education also.
According to B.S. Bloom, ‘Educational objectives are not only the goal
towards which curriculum is shaped and towards which instruction is guided, but
they are also the goals that provide detailed specification for the construction and
use of educational techniques’.
The National Science Teaching Association, Washington presented the
following objectives in 1961:
 A basic knowledge of the nature of the scientific enterprise.
 An increase in the mathematical observational and experimental skills.
 Understanding related to the interrelations of science and society.
 Increased understanding of the concepts and theories which describe
and unify the fields of science.
Check Your Progress

6. What are the objectives of National Science Teaching Association?
7. State the three main forces of education policy.
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National Trends in
Educational Innovations 5.5 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
QUESTIONS
NOTES 1. The recommendations made by the Devonshire Commission Report were

as follows:
(a) In all public and endower schools, a substantial portion of the time
allotted to-study must be devoted to natural science, and not less than
six hours a week on the average should be assigned for this purpose.
(b) School laboratories should be constructed to supply accommodation
for practical work in physics as well as chemistry in the curriculum of
boy’s schools and of botany into that of girl’s school.
2. The National Policy of Education aimed to promote national progress, a sense
of common citizenship and culture, and to strengthen national integration.
3. The main function of SISEs is to provide in-service training to science
teachers in the new developments in the field of science education; prepare
instructional material in the science; conduct research studies in science
education of their respective states; provide guidance service in science to
school; take up innovative programs in science education; and participate
in the national science programs.
4. The following are the characteristics of a good theory:
(a) Theory is based on facts.
(b) Theory should be precise and clear.
(c) Theory must be grounded in empirical data.
(d) Theory is open to interpretation and verification.
5. There are two types of instructional objectives, namely, general objectives
and specific objectives.
6. The objectives of National Science Teaching Association are as follows:
(a) A basic knowledge of the nature of the scientific enterprise.
(b) An increase in the mathematical observational and experimental skills.
(c) Understanding related to the interrelations of science and society.
7. The three main forces of education policy are competition which improves
incentives, co-operation which gives strength and solidarity, which unites.
5.6 SUMMARY
 The development in teaching methods related to science can be traced

back from the works of various philosophers, namely, John Amos Comenius
who emphasized that science instruction must move from words to things
and the teaching of useful knowledge.
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 Over the years, methods of teaching science and the curriculums of science National Trends in
have undergone significant changes.
 Logical analysis as a tool for refinement of ideas and to arrive at
generalizations was also considerably developed.
NOTES
 In a normal course, the scientific knowledge and the methods and techniques
of acquiring it should have led to the next stage of development; however, it
did not happen.
 The modern period brings another sharp break in the scientific thought and
tradition of India with the conquest of the country by the British.
 Modern science was introduced in India along with the British, in opposition
to the earlier two traditions and again in a foreign language i.e. English.
 Modern science came to India at a stage of development which marks a
radical change from the medieval and ancient sciences, newer branches of
sciences had been developed, experimentation developed as a full-fledged
technique of acquiring information.
 Modern science did not make a significance highway in India during the
British period for various reasons.
 The Royal Education Commission reported that in none of the schools,
science was taught as an independent subject though at Rugby, natural
science was taught to boys who elected to study it instead of languages.
 The establishment of natural science course in the Universities of Oxford
and Cambridge further paved the way for the inclusion of science in the
curriculum of the secondary schools.
 Since the beginning of twentieth century, there has been an adequate increase
in the equipment and facilities for teaching of science in schools.
 In India, the pattern of education was influenced by what happened in
England; the only difference is that things moved at a slower pace.
 The All India Seminar on the teaching of science in secondary schools held
at Tara Devi (Shimla Hills) in 1956, dealt with almost all the problems facing
the inclusion of general science as a core subject for higher secondary classes.
 The progress, welfare and security of the nation depend critically on rapid
planning and sustainable growth in the quality and extent of education and
research in science and technology.
 Science represents a cumulative and cooperative activity of mankind and
its rate of growth is extremely rapid.
 The National Policy of Education (1968) marked a significant step in the
history of education in post- independence India. It aimed to promote national
progress, a sense of common citizenship and culture, and to strengthen
national integration.
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National Trends in  The NCERT was established on September 01, 1961 as an autonomous
organization with its headquarters in New Delhi.
 Some states have now established State Council of Educational Research
and Training (SCERT) on the pattern of NCERT.
NOTES
 SISEs have been set up in all the states with a view to improve the quality of
science education in the schools.
 In January 1985, the Government of India announced that a new education
policy would be formulated for the country.
 The NPE has reiterated the importance of Mathematics and Science
Education as well as inculcation of scientific temper.
 Science is both a product and a body of knowledge that has been
accumulated by scientists, and the process in which they acquire this
knowledge.
 Facts are all the basis of all knowledge. They are said to be grassroots for
any theory or law.
 A concept is a generalized idea suggested to the individual by object, symbol
or situation.
 Generalizations are very helpful in deriving useful conclusions regarding the
‘scientific facts’.
 A theory specifies the relationship between events for explaining the
occurrence of the events and predicting future events.
 Oxford Learner’s Dictionary has defined scientific law as ‘a factual statement
of what always happens in certain circumstances’.
 Instructional objectives are the statements written in the future tenses the
instructional objectives are stated in terms of student’s performance.
 The report of UNESCO of International commission on education for twenty
first century has identified several challenges which education has to address.
 The unexpected developments in the field of science in twentieth century
have only made position for itself in the school curriculum but have affected
the ultimate objectives of education also.
5.7 KEY WORDS
 Concepts: It refers to a generalized idea suggested to the individual by

object, symbol or situation.
 General objectives: It refers to objectives which are long term and need
longer time in accomplishment. The general objectives are broad and based
on the subject objective.
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 Theory: It refers to an idea which specifies the relationship between events National Trends in
for explaining the occurrence of the events and predicting future events.
5.8 SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS AND NOTES

EXERCISES
1. What was the aim of the All India Seminar on the teaching of science?
2. What are the recommendations made by the Indian Education Commission?
3. How is the nature of science identified?
4. Write a short note on the role of education.
5. What are the functions of National Institute of Education?
1. Explain the emergence of science as a subject of study in India.
2. Analyse the features of National Policy on Education.
3. Discuss in detail the structure of science.
4. Explain in detail the challenges of the education system.
5. Why did modern science fail to succeed in India? Discuss in detail.

Kingdom: Routledge.
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Educational Technology
UNIT 6 EDUCATIONAL
TECHNOLOGY
NOTES
Structure
6.0 Introduction
6.1 Objectives
6.2 Educational Technology: Meaning
6.3 Characteristics of Teaching Devices
6.4 Types of Machines
6.6 Summary
6.7 Key Words
6.0 INTRODUCTION
Educational technology is defined as the study which facilitates learning and

improves performance by creation and managing technological processes. It
includes various domains such as online learning, computer-based training and
learning theories. Teaching aims at developing the personality of the students and
aims at achieving learning objectives.
Instructional media plays an important role in teaching. It makes the process
of teaching effective and interesting. Print instructional media and non-print
instructional media are the two main types of instructional media. Teaching machine
is a device which is designed to be operated by an individual student. On the other
hand, a computer-assisted instruction (CAI) is a programme which is related to
instructional material and is presented by means of computer systems.
In this unit, the concept of educational technology, its characteristics and
objectives have been described. The steps involved in the process of educational
technology and the characteristics of teaching learning devices have been discussed.
The role of media in teaching and the concept of teaching devices have been
highlighted. The characteristics of innovation and programmed learning have also
been dealt in the unit.
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6.1 OBJECTIVES

 Discuss the meaning and characteristics of educational technology NOTES
 Interpret the characteristics of teaching devices
 Anlayse the types of media
 Explain the types of teaching machines
 Anlayse the concept and uses of computer-assisted instruction
 Discuss the characteristics of innovation and programmed learning
6.2 EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY: MEANING
The word technology has been derived from the Greek word ‘technik’, which
means an art. H.J. Leaving defines technology as a problem-solving invention.
The development of technology is essentially related to attempt to be rationale and
provide greater efficiency.
McGrath has expanded the definition to include the methods and strategies
of teaching, tools, mechanical and electronic devices and instruments, media
equipment’s, library inventories and even text books.
Technology is a means of component. It is possible to classify technology
for education into two categories
 Systematic programme
 Support/Transport items
A systematic programme is conceived as a complete package or programme
structured towards an end (a single textbook or CAI Programme). Support/
transport items consists of technology of support such as projectors, transparencies,
or film and transport including CCTV (Closed Circuit Television), IT (Instructional
television) and language laboratory. The computer alone is an example of support/
transport item. Further, this computer can be used as a tool to generate an evaluation
of the mentioned systemic programme.
Education Technology can be conceived as a science of techniques and
methods by which educational goals can be achieved. Although, it does not specifies
the goals or translates them into behavioural terms. It is the other hand of science
on the basis of which various strategies and tactics could be designed for the
realization of specified goals.
The educational technology comes to see whether by a given process or
situation the specified goals can be achieved and if so to what extent and if not
what changes should be made in the process in order to achieve the specified
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Educational Technology goals. Keeping this view in mind, the process of educational technology involves
four steps which are as follows:
 The first step is to make the functional analysis of the teaching and learning
process to identify the various components which operate at the stage
NOTES
of input to that of output.
 The second step is to explore the various functions of these components
which are performed separately or in connection with other components.
 The third step is to observe the effect of manipulation of the various
components and their functions in various fields.
 The final step is to translate all these research findings into some kind of
useful guidelines for the practitioners.
Educational Technology and its Characteristics
It may be noted that by considering the mentioned meaning and definitions of
educational technology, the characteristics of educational technology are as follows:
 It involves input, output and process aspects of education.
 It stresses upon development of methods and techniques for effective learning.
 It is an application of scientific knowledge and principles to education.
 It includes organizations of learning conditions for realizing goals of education.
 It emphasizes upon designing and measuring instruments for testing learning
outcome.
 It facilitates learning by control environment, media and methods.
On the basis of above meaning and definitions of Educational Technology
the term may be stated as: ‘Education Technology implies a behavioral science
approach to testing and learning, by making pertinent use of scientific and
technological methods and concepts developed in psychology, sociology,
communications, linguistics and other related fields. It also attempts to incorporate
the management principles of cost effectiveness and the efficient development and
use of available resources in man and materials. It involves media, methods,
equipment’s and resources’.
General Characteristics of Educational Technology
The following are some of the other general characteristics of educational
technology.
 It is an application of scientific process to man’s learning.
 A systematic and scientific principle applied to teaching, training and
instructions for achieving desired objectives.
 It makes teaching learning process effective as well as more efficient which
means that it is an economical method of teaching.
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 It is an application condition of learning for child’s development. Educational Technology
 It is a branch of educational theory and practice which concerns the use of

media to control learning process.
 It is an art of teaching and science of learning. NOTES
 It makes use of feedback devices for regulating and controlling environment
for effective learning.
Objectives of Educational Technology
The following are the objectives of educational technology which are realized in all
teaching learning situations.
 To determine the goals and formulate the objectives in behavioral terms.
 To analyse the characteristics of the learner.
 To organize the content in the logical or psychological sequence.
 To mediate between content and resource presentation.
 To evaluate the learner’s performance in terms of achieving educational
objectives.
 To provide the feedback of other components for the modifications of
learners.
 To make teaching, training and instruction effective and efficient.
 To use media and methods in education.
Process of Educational Technology
The following explains the process of educational technology.
1. In the first step, the teaching learning process is analysed in behavioural
terms and all the relevant elements are identified which are necessary for
initiating the teaching to achieve the goals of education.
2. In the second step, those activities and elements are determined which are
helpful in relating other relevant elements and reduce the probability of
repetition of some elements in teaching.
3. In the third step, the effects of teaching are evaluated. It examines the
appropriateness of different activities and elements of teaching in terms of
achieving teaching and learning objectives.
4. In the fourth step, the main function is to provide feedback for improving
learning activities. The result of evaluation guides the teacher to modify his
or her teaching activities for optimal utilization of objectives.
Education Technology: Basic Principles
Educational technology is one of the most significant forces, influencing change in
the educational structure. It is highly advanced communication and information
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Educational Technology technology. The computer is an important technological media used to enhance
the educational means. The basic principles of educational technology are as follows:
 Principle of Active Involvement: The principle of active involvement
makes sure that the student has to be focused or engage directly with the
NOTES
activity or task where he or she may draw knowledge, concepts, principles,
attitudes, skills or habits. The student should take an active role in the search
for knowledge. According to a German pedagogue, Froebel ‘learning is
the result of the activity of the child himself’. With educational technology,
student can be given various materials from regalia to contrived experiences.
 Principle of Connectivity: The principle of connectivity involves the building
of relationships or linkages between and among experiences. The process
of connectivity facilitates remembering of names, dates, events, issues,
processes including spelling, number combinations, grammatical relationships
and formula in mathematics.
 Principles of Integration: The principle of integration refers to the
organization or putting together diverse elements to form a unified and
harmonious whole. The students should be able to combine his or her
previous experiences together in meaningful patterns of understanding and
application.
 Principle of Active Learning: The principle of active learning aims to
provide the learners in understanding the concept in a quick and easier
way. The students would be able to create software, learn on their own and
actively participate in the online on-going seminar and conferences thereby
providing them rich experiences. They should be able to learn the new
concepts on their own in a much simpler manner.
 Principle of Feedback: The principle of feedback makes sure that the
instructor must provide the feedback to the students’ performance for online
tests. Immediate feedback about the marks or grades of the students can
be provided to the students. They can also be provided the suggestions for
further improvement and the details regarding their weaknesses and
strengths.
Check Your Progress

1. What are the two main forms of educational technology?
2. What are the objectives of educational technology?
6.3 CHARACTERISTICS OF TEACHING DEVICES
Teaching is a social and professional activity. It is a process of development of a

teacher through a system of action which induces learning through interpersonal
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relationship. It is an application of philosophical, sociological and scientific Educational Technology
knowledge to teaching for achieving some specific learning objectives.

Teaching is a purposeful activity. The goal of teaching is to bring all around
development of the child. The knowledge and practice help in realizing the goals,
NOTES
is the content matter of teaching technology.
Characteristics of Teaching Technology/Teaching Learning Devices
The following are the main features of teaching technology:
 All the three types of objectives: cognitive, affective and psychomotor can
be achieved by this technology.
 The content structure can be related to the communication structure for
achieving the learning objectives.
 The philosophical, sociological and scientific knowledge can be applied to
teaching process.
 The teaching theory can be formulated by the use of teaching technology.
 The pupil teacher and in-service teacher can improve their teaching
methodology using teaching technologies.
 Teaching technology implies the input, process and output aspects side by
side.
 The teaching can be organized from memory level to reflective level.
 It helps the teacher and learner by providing them varied experiences in the
teaching-learning process.
 It is an application of the laws, principles as well as recent discoveries of
science and technology in the process of education.
 It can be conceived as a science of techniques methods and media by which
educational process is made efficient.
 It is a systematic approach by organization of available resources for effective
learning
The use of instructional media is an essential component of teaching learning process
to realize various socio-economic, cultural and national goals. The media contributes
towards the efficient and effective progress of teaching and learning process so as
to meet the teaching-learning objectives efficiently. If the use of media is done in an
appropriate manner and is made to utilize in the field of education in a proper way,
it will undoubtedly prove to be highly useful in making the students efficient and
enhance the student’s ability as it provides the totality of experiences to the learners.
Media is not only helpful in making the teaching and learning process flexible
rather it also helps the learner to learn anytime and anywhere. Through the use of
instructional media, the students can take the help of the teacher at any time by
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Educational Technology connecting with the teacher through video-conferencing, online system, sending
e-mail, or electronic messages.
Instructional technology has been therefore, a boon for the teaching learning
institutions. A student may attend the seminar or a conference while sitting in the
NOTES
drawing. He or she can easily understand the concept as well as record and replay
the theoretical lesson as many as times he/she wants. Thus, technology has paved
a way for the students by creation of online learning systems, digital libraries, open
universities, and many more. There are many open learning education systems as
well as universities that help the students in preparation and completion of their
studies while doing a part-time job. The student gets the assignments and notes
through online learning systems. Any information can be easily transmitted from
one place to another with the use of online resources.
The following are the types of media generally used in the education system
as follows:
1. Print Instructional Media: The Print Instructional Media is used in
distance education, correspondence education or postal education. With
the help of print media, the students get the information in the form of
notes, learning material, lessons and assignments in the printed form. As
some students find it easy to understand the concepts through print media
therefore, the lessons/assignments are sent to the students by postal
services or in-hand. Print Instructional Media helps the students in
preparation of their notes, helps in understanding the concepts in a better
form, makes the student aware about the learning material, and provides
flexibility of the students to learn the material by sitting at home through
a book or learning material. It also helps the students during the
preparation of exams. It also helps the learners in understanding them
about their weakness and strengths. Students would be able to read the
concept and know the pattern of writing the concept through print media.
2. Non-Print Instructional Media: Non-Print Instructional Media is used
in the process of distance teaching through radio, television, computer,
teleconferencing and video-disc. The teacher/trainer provides the learning
material through online resources. The students connect with the teacher
through digital means and technology. It provides the flexibility to the
learners as well as to the teachers as they can communicate with each
other according to their own time. It is a cost-efficient and time saving
method of teaching and learning. It also helps the student to learn a
subject in variety of ways. A student may ask the difficulties related to
the subject through electronic means. It enables the learners to become
more efficient with the means of technology. Different subject teachers
may connect with the student at the same time enabling the learners to
solve their problems. The students get the entire learning material through
e-mail or digital means.
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Check Your Progress

3. What is the premise of principle of integration?
4. State any one use of print instructional media. NOTES
6.4 TYPES OF MACHINES
A renowned author, Kenneth Austwick (1986) observed, ‘Pressing demands for

more teaching inn schools and for more training in the industry are leading to a
greater study of teaching and learning procedures to seek for greater efficiency,
and these have led to what appear to be two contradictor developments in the
schools and colleges. One is the development of mass media, like TV and Films,
in conjunction with other forms of large instruction like lectures. The other
development is that of individualized self-instruction, like language laboratories
and teaching machines’.
Meaning of Teaching Machine
A teaching machine is a device designed to be operated by an individual student.
There is an interaction between the machine and the student. Psychologists have
found that important principles of affective learning can be mastered by the use of
machines with special instructional material prepared for use. The (tutorial type)
Socratic method of teaching is the basis of all programmes for the teaching machines.
It is usually accepted that teaching machines provide not only better instruction
and learning at lower costs which saves time but also ensures maximum student
achievement.
Working of Teaching Machine
The machine works as follows:
 There is a device that displays a question or problem on the machine.
 In response, the student must do something overtly about the problem,
such as writing his or her answer or pushing the button to indicate an answer.
 The student is informed by the machine, through some device, whether his
or her answer is correct and sometimes even why he or she is right or
wrong.
 Every response is generally recorded in the machine.
Basic Principles of Teaching Machines
The following are the basic principles of teaching machines:
 Instruction is individualized.
 The content to be learnt is presented in small doses. Self-Instructional
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Educational Technology  The likelihood of error is reduced to the minimum.
 There is logical ordering of the subject matter.
 The learner is allowed to learn at his or her own pace.
NOTES  The device instantaneously checks the answer, and thereafter the desired
reinforcement takes place.
 The machine demands the active participation of the students.
 The device may be operated electrically or manually.
Value of Teaching Machine
The following are the points which will help one to analyse the importance of
teaching machine:
 Teaching machines provide a technological solution to the problem of
individual differences.
 Teaching machines, if programmed intelligently and used wisely, provide
individual experience to the students.
 Auto instruction can be almost as good as personalized tutor instruction.
 Every student can proceed at his own rate of learning.
Types of Teaching Machines
Auto instructional devices have reached a higher level of technological sophistication.
The stages involved in their evolution include: a set of cards in a cardboard or
plastic case, or simply cyclostyled sheet; a write-in machine; a film machine, a
machine using combination of microfilm and motion pictures; and finally hi-tech
machines electronically synchronized with a television broadcast.
Broadly speaking, teaching machines can be classified into two categories:
1. Constructed Response Devices: These are based on an American
psychologist, B F Skinner’s principle, viz., emission of a response
considered more effective in learning than simple recognition. These
machines are of the following types:
 The slider machine
 The disc-type machine
 The type-writer input computing machine
 Audio-visual combination television
However, audio-visual combination television is perhaps the most
common example of this combined approach to teaching machines
2. Multiple-choice Machines: In multiple choice machines, it is possible
to prepare branches for every reply to a given question. These machines
are of following types:
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 Sidney L Pressy, a professor of psychologist developed a machine, Educational Technology
consisting of revolving drum and the programme printed upon the face
of the drum
 Audio-Visual Machine
NOTES
 Electronic computer and multiple type programmes
 Non-mechanical multiple choice devices and punch cards consisting
of small cards that contain multiple choice items
Courseware Development
Courseware development aims at designing and developing the appropriate e-
learning materials for teaching and learning. It includes use of authoring tools and
languages to develop multimedia educational tools.
A computer-assisted instruction (CAI) is a programme related to instructional
material which is presented by means of computer systems. The use of computers
has become widespread from primary education to the university level. These
programmes provide a presentation of data in a systematic and friendly manner.
They can also provide a tutorial role in which the student is tested based on what
is taught to them.CAI is an interesting instructional technique in which computers
monitor the learning which takes place.
Uses of CAI
The following are the main uses of CAI:
 It provides one to one interaction with a student and a student can learn at
their own pace. There is no competition as compared to studying in a class.
 It provides a new learning environment where a student is not confined to
the four walls of a classroom.
 A computer programme helps to identify the problem and once the problem
has been identified, it then focuses on the problem area. Thus, helping the
students to understand the problem and a solution is also given to them.
 Computers are useful especially in those subjects which involves practical
rather than just memorizing things.
Programmed Instruction or programmed learning is one of the important innovations
in the teaching-learning process. Programmed instruction or programmed learning
is carefully specified, systematically, planned, empirically established, skillfully
arranged and effectively controlled self-instructional technique for providing
individualized instruction or learning experiences to the learner. The subject matter
or the learning experience is logically sequenced into small segments. The learning
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Educational Technology experience is self-corrected. It is the application of principles of behavioral sciences
and technology in the field of education.
Characteristics of Innovation and Programmed Learning
NOTES The characteristics of innovation and programmed learning are as follows:
 The objectives underling the programme is defined in explicit and operational
terms. This makes the terminal behavior desired to be built up through the
programme measurable and observable.
 The subject matter of the programme is presented by breaking it into simple
steps in a logical sequence. The small steps stress the gradual nature of the
increase in complexity and the smoothness of the transition from one item
to the next. Information grows in depth and changes occur in quality and
quantity.
 Programmed Instruction is a process of constructing sequences of
instructional material in a way that the rate and depth of learning are
maximized, understanding is fostered and the motivation of the student is
enhanced.
 Assumption about the learner are clearly stated and put in definite terms in
a programmed learning type of situation. These assumptions may relate to
the particular level of reading competence of the learner, the extent of his
vocabulary and his background in the subject matter.
 It emphasizes the logical phased interaction between the learner and the
programme.
Effects of Innovations and Educational Goals
The effects of innovation and educational goals are as follows:
 Tutorial experiences are provided for individual learners on a large scale,
wherein the learner may proceed at its own rate.
 The help in exercise control on homework and individual study.
 It enables the learner to catch up if he has fallen behind in his learning schedule
due to absence from school.
 It provides a technological solution for the problem of the individual
differences. The lack of innovations would compel the teacher to design his
presentation to cater to what he senses is the student of average ability but
such a presentation is bound to be too slow for the bright students and too
fast for the slow ones.
 It helps the teachers to be much more professional in their approach to
teaching than they are now.
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Check Your Progress

5. What are the uses of computer-assisted instruction (CAI)?
6. State the aim of courseware development. NOTES

QUESTIONS
1. The two main forms of educational technology are systematic programme

and support or transport items.
2. The following are the objectives of educational technology:
(a) To determine the goals and formulate the objectives in behavioural
terms.
(b) To analyse the characteristics of the learner.
(c) To organize the content in the logical or psychological sequence.
(d) To mediate between content and resource presentation.
3. The principle of integration refers to the organization or putting together
diverse elements to form a unified and harmonious whole.
4. Print Instructional Media helps the students in preparation of their notes,
helps in understanding the concepts in a better form, makes the student
aware about the learning material, and provides flexibility of the students to
learn the material by sitting at home through a book or learning material.
5. The following are the uses of computer-assisted instruction (CAI):
(a) It provides one to one interaction with a student and a student can
learn at their own pace. There is no competition as compared to studying
in a class.
(b) It provides a new learning environment where a student is not confined
to the four walls of a classroom.
(c) Computers are useful especially in those subjects which involves
practical rather than just memorizing things.
6. Courseware development aims at designing and developing the appropriate
e-learning materials for teaching and learning. It includes use of authoring
tools and languages to develop multimedia educational tools.
6.6 SUMMARY
 The word technology has been derived from the Greek word ‘technik’,
which means an art. H J Leaving defines technology as a problem-solving
invention. Self-Instructional
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Educational Technology  A systematic programme is conceived as a complete package or programme
structured towards an end (a single textbook or CAI Programme).
 Support/transport items consists of technology of support such as
projectors, transparencies, or film and transport including CCTV (Closed
NOTES
Circuit Television), IT (Instructional television) and language laboratory.
 Education Technology can be conceived as a science of techniques and
methods by which educational goals can be achieved.
 The educational technology comes to see whether by a given process or
situation the specified goals can be achieved and if so to what extent and if
not what changes should be made in the process in order to achieve the
specified goals.
 Educational technology is one of the most significant forces, influencing
change in the educational structure.
 The principle of active involvement makes sure that the student has to be
focused or engage directly with the activity or task where he or she may
draw knowledge, concepts, principles, attitudes, skills or habits.
 The principle of connectivity involves the building of relationships or linkages
between and among experiences.
 The principle of integration refers to the organization or putting together
diverse elements to form a unified and harmonious whole.
 The principle of active learning aims to provide the learners in understanding
the concept in a quick and easier way.
 The principle of feedback makes sure that the instructor must provide the
feedback to the students’ performance for online tests.
 Teaching is a social and professional activity. It is a process of development
of a teacher through a system of action which induces learning through
interpersonal relationship.
 Teaching is a purposeful activity. The goal of teaching is to bring all around
development of the child.
 The use of instructional media is an essential component of teaching learning
process to realize various socio-economic, cultural and national goals.
 Media is not only helpful in making the teaching and learning process flexible
rather it also helps the learner to learn anytime and anywhere.
 The Print Instructional Media is used in distance education, correspondence
education or postal education.
 Non-Print Instructional Media is used in the process of distance teaching
through radio, television, computer, teleconferencing and video-disc.
 A teaching machine is a device designed to be operated by an individual
student. There is an interaction between the machine and the student.
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 Courseware development aims at designing and developing the appropriate Educational Technology
e-learning materials for teaching and learning.

 A computer-assisted instruction (CAI) is a programme related to instructional
material which is presented by means of computer systems.
NOTES
 Programmed Instruction or programmed learning is one of the important
innovations in the teaching-learning process.
 Programmed Instruction is a process of constructing sequences of
instructional material in a way that the rate and depth of learning are
maximized, understanding is fostered and the motivation of the student is
enhanced.
6.7 KEY WORDS
 Computer-assisted instruction (CAI): It refers to a programme related

to instructional material which is presented by means of computer systems.
 Education technology: It refers to a technology which is based on science
of techniques and methods by which educational goals can be achieved.
 Teaching machine: It refers to a device designed to be operated by an
individual student. There is an interaction between the machine and the
student.
 Principle of active learning: It refers to a principle which aims to provide
the learners in understanding the concept in a quick and easier way.
 Principle of connectivity: It refers to a principle which involves the building
of relationships or linkages between and among experiences.

EXERCISES
1. What are the characteristics of innovation and programmed learning?
2. Why is teaching considered as a purposeful activity?
3. What are the steps involved in the process of educational technology?
4. List some of the general characteristics of educational technology.
5. How do media contribute in effective teaching?
1. Discuss the concept of teaching machines and its types.
2. Explain the principles related to educational technology.
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Educational Technology 3. Interpret the features of teaching learning devices.
4. Anlayse the two types of media.
5. Explain the concept of instructional technology in detail.
NOTES

Kingdom: Routledge.
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Programmed Instruction
UNIT 7 PROGRAMMED
INSTRUCTION
NOTES
Structure
7.0 Introduction
7.1 Objectives
7.2 Programmed Instruction: Meaning
7.3 Types of Programmed Instructions
7.4 Preparing the Learning Material for Programmed Instruction
7.5 Teaching Machines
7.7 Summary
7.8 Key Words
7.0 INTRODUCTION
Programmed instruction is defined as a research based system which helps the

learners to work efficiently and successfully. Various researches have been made
in this type of instruction. In this type of method, the learning material is provided
in the form of textbook or computer or on teaching machines.
There are two main models based on the concept of programmed instruction.
One was developed by Norman Crowder and the other by B.F. Skinner.
Crowder’s system was based in the multiple choice questions and on the other
hand, Skinner’s method was based on the concept of reinforcement. The teacher
had to provide feedback for each of the alternatives which were suggested by the
students.
Computer assisted instruction (CAI) is an interactive instructional technique
in which computer presents the instructional material and monitors the learning
which takes place. It uses a combination of graphics, sound and video. Teaching
machines provide instruction to students according to a certain programme and
then reacts to their responses.
In this unit, the concept of programmed instruction, its principles and
characteristics have been discussed. The main types of programmed instruction
and the steps involved in preparing the material of programmed instruction have
been explained. The unit will also help one to analyse the characteristics of computer
assistance instruction and the role of teaching machines.
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7.1 OBJECTIVES

NOTES  Discuss the meaning of programmed instruction
 Explain the principles related to programmed instruction
 Analyse the types of programmed instructions
 Discuss the steps related to the preparation of programmed learning
 Interpret the types of computer assisted instruction (CAI)
 Describe the characteristics of teaching machines
7.2 PROGRAMMED INSTRUCTION: MEANING
The instructions provided by a teaching machine or programmed textbook is

referred to as programmed instruction or programmed learning. Let us seek some
help from the definitions put forward by the various scholars in understanding the
meaning of the term programmed learning are programmed instruction.
 Smith and Moore (1962) said ‘Programmed instruction is the process of
arranging the material to be learnt into a series of sequential steps, usually it
was the student from a familiar background into a complex and new set of
concepts, principles and understanding’.
 Jacobs and other (1967) assert that ‘Self-instructional programs are
educational materials from which the students learn. These programs can
be used with many types, of students and subject matter either by
themselves, and the name “self- instruction” or in combination with other
instructional techniques’.
 Espich and Williams (1967) said, ‘Programmed instruction is a planned
sequence of experiences, leading to proficiency, in terms of stimulus response
relationship that have proven to be effective’.
 Susam Markle (1969) says, ‘It is a method of designing a reproducible
sequence of instructional events to produce a measurable and consistent
effect on the behaviours of each and every acceptable student’.
Characteristics of Programmed Instruction
The following are the characteristics of programmed instruction:
 In this technique, the instructional material is logically sequenced and broken
into suitable small steps or segment of the subject matter called frames.
 For sequencing a particular unit of the instructional material, the programmer
has to pay consideration for the initial or entry behaviour of the learner with
which it begins and the terminal behaviour or the competence with student
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 In actual operation the beginning is made by presenting a frame (a small but Programmed Instruction
meaningful segment of subject matter). The learner is required to read and

listen and then respond Programmed instruction is a method or technique of
giving or receiving individualized instruction from a variety of sources like
programmed textbook, teaching machine and computers with or without NOTES
the help of a teacher.
 Programmed instruction system has an adequate provision for immediate
feedback which is based on the theory of reinforcement. For instance, while
responding to the first frame of the programme material the learner is informed
about the correctness of his or her response. In case, he or she is correct,
his or her response is reinforced and if he or she is wrong, he or she may
correct himself or herself by receiving the correct answer.
 It is the interaction between the learner and the learning material or
programme which is emphasized in the programmed instruction. The student
is actively motivated to learn and respond.
Programmed instruction is a strategy of teaching and learning than a medium which
operates through any device like radio, television, tape recorder, language
laboratory and a teacher. Programmed learning in this context is only a beginning
of the application of the science of behaviour to education.
Principles of linear programming
The principles of programmed learning were identified first about learning
programming and were formulated by an American psychologist, B F Skinner.
The Principles of programming imply the rules and systems by which a programme
instructional material functions and is constructed. These principles have been
classified into three categories:
1. Fundamental principles of programmed learning
Good programmed instruction merely incorporates good principles of learning. In
programmed learning, the subject matter is broken down into a sequence of steps.
The sequence and step must be determined much more carefully and skillfully than
it is possible for any ordinary teacher to do. The steps must be small enough for
the learner to move from one to next easily with minimum errors. Trial and error
learning must be reduced to a minimum. The ideal programme would result in no
mistake. Constant success reinforces past learning and motivates further efforts.
Programmed learning may take various forms depending upon the subject and
desired objectives. One common form in academic subjects is to present certain
carefully worded date in a ‘frame’ or viewing space. Each frame calls for a response.
The response may be constructed or selected from multiple choice alternatives.
The basic idea of programmed learning is that most efficient, pleasant and
permanent learning takes place. Programmed learning has many features which
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Programmed Instruction are different from conventional method of learning. The principle on which
programmed learning is based was discovered in psychological laboratories:
 Principle of small steps
NOTES  Principle of active responding
 Principle of immediate confirmation
 Principle of self-pacing and
 Principle of student testing
The following points will help one to get a better understanding of
programmed learning.
(a) A programme then is made up of a larger number of small, easy to
take steps. A student can proceed from knowing very little about a
subject to mastery of the subject by going through a program.
(b) Another finding from psychological laboratories is that the student
learns best if he or she is actively responding as he or she is learning.
Another way to say that people ‘learning by doing’ is that they learn
by active responding.
(c) The third principle from the psychological laboratory is that, the students
learn best when they can confirm their answer immediately. It is one
type of reinforcement to work on the programme or to learn. A student
who must wait two weeks for the test probably will not learn as well
as student whose test scores immediately.
2. Basic principle of programmed learning
The following principles are the basic ones for programmed learning:
 Objective specification: It means identifying the terminal behaviours so
that the learners will be able to perform when he or she will complete the
programming. These are the intended outcomes rather than the mastery of
the content.
 Small step size: It involves small information to be imparted into small
units. Each requiring activity is sanctioned by reinforcement.
 Over responding: It means that students must act on each unit of information
by means of exercise and assimilate it.
 Success or minimum error: It means that error must be avoided at all
costs because they are constructed as obstacle to learning.
 Immediate feedback: To ensure success and satisfaction the public must
know that his action is correct.
 Logical graded process: It implies two things, relevance of content and
its graded presentation.
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 Self-Pacing: Each individual move at his or her own pace thus, allowing Programmed Instruction
for individualization of instruction.

 Empirical testing: It is used for programme development and validation.
The programme instruction material is prepared, modified and evaluated in
NOTES
terms of learner performances.
These principles are formulated for developing the programmed instructional
material and are based on the theory of behaviour discovered by BF Skinner in
laboratory experiments.
3. The mandatory and optional principle of programmed learning
The optional and mandatory principles are those which may or may not be present
in it. The mandatory principles of programming are those which are critical and
essential for distinguishing it from other forms of instruction such as conventional
classroom teaching, instruction by the use of textbooks and so on. According to
psychologist, Edward (1971) the following three are referred to as mandatory
principles:
(a) Principle of objective specification
(b) Principle of empirical testing
(c) Principle of small steps
A programmed learning sequence is discovered by objective defined terminal
behaviour. Its effectiveness is evaluated in terms of learner’s performance and the
learner can proceed at his own pace. These features or principles are different
from any conventional method of teaching.
Fundamental principles of branching programme
The branching program is based on the three fundamental principles:
1. Principle of exposition: The learner should perceive the whole phenomena
which should be exposed to him or her. It means that a student learns better
if the whole concept is presented to him or her. The complete information is
provided on homepage. It serves two purposes teaching and diagnosis.
2. Principle of diagnosis: The principle refers to identify the weakness of a
learner. After exposition, it is assessed weather the learner would be able to
learn the concept or not and what are the causes for it. Multiple choice
format is used to diagnose the weakness of the learner.
3. Principle of remediation: The diagnosis provides the basis for remediation.
Remedial instructions are provided on the wrong page. For learners chooses
wrong alternative, he or she must move to a wrong page, where remedial
instruction is provided to him and directed to return to the homepage. He or
she is asked to choose the right response. It is known as the principle of
remediation.
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Check Your Progress

1. State the basic idea of programmed learning.
NOTES 2. What is empirical testing?
7.3 TYPES OF PROGRAMMED INSTRUCTIONS
In programmed instruction, the presentation of the instructional material of subject

matter to the learner in a suitable form is termed as programming. Various types of
programming have emerged on account of researches and experimental studies in
the field of programmed instruction. Some of the mentionable researches are
discussed in the following section.
Linear or extrinsic programming
The credit for propagating the linear programming style goes to B.F. Skinner (1955).
It is directly related with his theory of operant conditioning and is based on the
assumption that human behaviour can be shaped or conditioned gradually. In linear
programming, instructional material is sequenced into a number of meaningful small
steps called frames. These frames are presented to the learner in an arranged
sequence one at a time. The learner is required to respond actively at each step.
Immediately after responding the learner is given information about the correctness
of his response. It reinforces his or her behaviour and he or she may be motivated
to learn the next frame in the arranged sequence.
By proceeding from one step to another the learner may then be able to
acquire the desired learning experiences. The linear programming lays great
emphasis on making the sequence of response error less. For this purpose, the
steps are made so small and sequence in such a way that the learner makes only
correct responses throughout the instruction process and receives in consequences
only positive reinforcement.
Branching or intrinsic programming
The credit for developing the branching program goes to an American psychologist
Norman A. Crowder (1954). In Crowders own words branching or instructional
programme is one which adapts to the need of the students without a medium of
any extrinsic device such as computer. In contrast to linear programming the
branching style therefore, provides and intrinsic arrangement in the sense that it is
not controlled extrinsically by the programmer. Here, the learner is free to make
decisions and can adapt the instruction to his needs. The basic assumptions
underlying this style are as follows:
 The learner learns a thing better if it is presented in its totality or in the form
of meaningful components or units.
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100 Material
 Learning takes place better if the students are made to learn on the pattern Programmed Instruction
of traditional tutorial methods.

 The basic learning takes place during the student’s exposure to the new
material.
NOTES
 Wrong responses do not necessarily hinder the learning of a correct
response. In a learning process, errors may occur. If an error occurs, it may
be detected and corrected before proceeding further on the learning path.
 Learning takes place better if a learner is allowed sufficient freedom to take
decisions for adapting the instruction to his needs.
 Learning takes place better if each response is used to test the success of
the latest communication to the student and that testing is followed by remedial
instructions.
 Multiple choice items help more in the learning process then the forced
choice single response item.
The following are the clarifications regarding various confusions about programmed
learning concept:
 It is not audio visual aids of teaching and learning but it is a strategy of
teaching on instructional technology as a part of new educational technology
in the discipline of education.
 Some people think that it is an objective type test or completion type test,
but it is a new strategy of imparting knowledge or developing new behaviour
among the learners.
 It is not the solution of educational problems, but it is the strategy of teaching
for realizing the specific learning objectives.
 It is not a solution to the shortage of capable of effective teachers or is not
an answer to inadequate school budget, but it is a new device of teaching
process.
 It is not the form of scientific lesson plan, but it is a model teaching method.
 It is not a teaching machine, but programme material can be displayed by
teaching machines.
 It is not a new device of evaluation, but it is a new strategy of teaching and
learning.
 Programmed instruction is not educational technology, but it is one of the
aspects of instructional technology or software approach.
Merits of linear programming
 A good linear programme is accompanied with the self-explained set of
instructions to use it, precisely written statements of entering and terminal
Self-Instructional
behaviour and an assessment test. Material 101
Programmed Instruction  It provides a clear understanding of the concepts and sufficient practice of
the skill.
 It provides the learning by doing situation. The learner can learn without the
physical presence of the teacher.
NOTES
 The feedback is designed to minimize the possibility of errors in responses.
The error rate should necessarily be less than ten per cent.
 It controls the individual differences among the learners. It provides the
adjustable devices for individual variations.
Demerits of linear programming
It is not a complete strategy of teaching and learning. It has the following limitations:
 In linear programming, every learner has to follow the same linear path. The
needs of the learner are not considered adequately.
 It can be used only to achieve the lower cognitive objectives. Psychomotor
and affective objective cannot be realized by linear programming.
 It can be used to teach the conceptual and explanatory content, but factual
content cannot be taught.
 It does not provide the freedom to the learner for emitting the responses. It
generates controlled learning situation.
 The linear programme does not suit to the creative and bright children.
Crowder says that linear programming is an insult intelligent student.
 It cannot be used for remedial purpose. It can be used only for teaching
purpose.
 It does not provide the social motivation to the learner which is important
for human learning.
Norman A Crowder has raised several objections for linear programming.
He develops his own strategy as an improvement over Skinnerian programming
even then it is not a perfect instructional strategy. It has the following limitations:
 The students take little interest to use scrambled textbooks because
they don’t follow the sequence of pages in the learning.
 When learner selects wrong response, he moves on the wrong page for
remedial instruction then he must repeat the same material of the homepage
for choosing the correct response. This reduces the probability of
improvement in learning difficulties.
 The learner must select a response from given multiple choice alternatives.
He can select his response by guessing without comprehending the
concepts. So, it will help in diagnosing the learning difficulties. There is
no check for the guessing.
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102 Material
 The wrong responses are generally given on wrong pages. He may not Programmed Instruction
select alternative of the wrong page serial number because remediation

of two or three home pages is provided on one wrong page. It helps in
selecting the correct response to the learner.
NOTES
 The scrambled text cannot be displayed through teaching machines and
computer. It requires a very complex model for presenting scrambled
texts.
 In the branching programming, remediation is provided for two or three
types of learning difficulties. Hence, it is not covering the individual
variations of the learner.
 The scrambled textbook cannot be used effectively for primary and
secondary school students.
Check Your Progress

3. What is programming?
4. What are the merits of linear programming?
7.4 PREPARING THE LEARNING MATERIAL FOR

PROGRAMMED INSTRUCTION
Different programmers have suggested various steps in preparing a programmed

material.
Peter Pipe has suggested six steps:
1. Selection of a unit to be programmed
2. Writing assumptions about the learners and entering behaviours of the
learners
3. Defining appropriate objectives in behaviour terms
4. Defining pre-requisite knowledge and skill in behavioural terms
5. Preparing criterion test
6. Developing specific outline of the content to be programmed
John P Decceo has suggested five steps for developing programmed material
1. Select unknit or topic to be programmed
2. Prepare a content outline
3. Defining objectives in behavioural terms
4. Construct and administer a test of entering behaviour
5. Construct and administer a test of terminal behaviour
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Programmed Instruction These steps are not sufficient to develop a programmed material because
important steps such as writing frames and validation are not mentioned in the
above list. Thus, the following steps are more practical in designing programmed
material.
NOTES
 Specify the goals of learning educational objectives.
 Device a strategy of learning where the student should begin, which
sequence of task would lead him or her most effectively towards the
goals how much repetition is done.
 Write a series of frame stimulus response ‘frames’ each frame gives
some new information and also ask a question which a student has to
answer before it proceeds to another frame.
 Empirical try out, the programme is to be presented section by section
first to individual student and then to a group of students. If a student
makes much error or become confused at any point in short do not
learn-revise the programme.
 Validation and evaluation, after a revision based on tries out, administer
the programme to a representative group of students. Programmes are
to be evaluated in terms of student’s performance.
Computer-assisted instruction (CAI) as the name suggests stands for the type of
instruction aided or carried out with the help of a computer as a machine. It is just
one step ahead to the use of teaching machine and probably two, to the use of
programmed textbooks in making the instructional process as self-directed and
individualized as possible. The computer is said to be ahead of the teaching machine
because of its unlimited capacity of doing more work and multiple types of works
at the same time for an unlimited number of individual learners than the teaching
machine.
Computer-assisted instruction, for this reason, is relatively a new and
developed concept as compared to the teaching machine and programmed learning
oriented instructional technology. As observed by Hilgard and Bover (1977)
‘Computer-assisted instruction has now taken as so many dimensions that it can
no longer be considered as a simple derivative of the teaching machine or the kind
of programmed learning that Skinner introduced’, the fact stands clearer before
us. The use of Computer has now almost revolutionized the field of instruction in
all its dimensions. It cannot be defined now as a teaching machine device, for
presenting the programmed instructional material.
Let us examine one other definition of computer assisted instruction stating
that, ‘CAI is defined as an interaction between a student, a computer-
controlled display and a response entry device for the purpose of achieving
educational outcomes’. (Bhatt and Sharma 1992)
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The definition brings into lime light the following things: Programmed Instruction
 In computer assisted instruction, there is an interaction between an

individual student and the computer just as happens in tutorial system
between the teacher and individual student.
NOTES
 Computer can display the instructional material to the individual student.
 The individual student takes benefit of the displayed material and responds
to it. These responses are attended by the computer for deciding the
future course of instruction displayed to the learner.
 The interaction between the individual learner and computer device helps
in the realization of the set instruction objectives.
In this way while explaining all about the practical of CAIs, this definition is
lacking in respect of providing out the nature and characteristics of the instructions
provided by CAI. It can be modified in the following way. Computer assisted
instruction may be defined as a method of instruction in which there is a purposeful
interaction between a learner and computer device(having useful instructional
material as software) for helping the individual learner to achieve the desired
instruction objective with his own pace and abilities at his command.
Types or modes of computer assisted instruction (CAI)
CAI can take a variety of forms and providing self-individualized instruction to a
learner depending upon the variety of uses to which computers services can be
availed. The following are some of its famous types:
 Informational computer assisted instruction: This type of computer
assisted instruction help the learners to get the desired information needed
by him or her. Here, computer can serve the role of an equity officer, to
respond to student’s enquiry with answers it has stored. It provides minimal
interaction between the student and the computer programme. The sole
purpose of this type of CAI is to provide essential information for the
acquisition of concept and skills. However, individual learner can learn a lot
by adopting an enquiry or discovery approach towards learning through
such instruction.
 Drill and practice Programmes: This type of computer assisted instruction
provides the learner different types of drill and practice programmes covering
specific topics related with a particular subject.Through such drill and practice
programmes of CAI, the services of computers can be properly availed for
providing practice in something already learned in some other way.
 Tutorial type computer assisted instruction: In such type of computer
assisted instruction, the computers are engaged in actual teaching. Here,
they can play effectively the role of a tutor by maintaining a perfect interaction
and dialogue with the individual students. The tutorial programmes are
prepared not only to provide instructions in topics like photosynthesis,
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Programmed Instruction ecosystem and Eco balances and our body systems. But also, to provide
sufficient practice, having proper track of the student’s difficulties and
performance and move the students on the path of progress according to
their pace, ability and interest. In case, the student is able to master a concept,
NOTES the sea AI programme provides next step of instruction, but if he or she is
not able to achieve mastery, the programme provides remedial instruction.
 Educational games types: In such type of computer assisted instruction
the learners are provided with the variety of well-designed computer games.
These games should not be confused with academic type games. The purpose
of such type of games is only to provide intellectual challenge, stimulation of
curiosity and serve as a source of motivation to the individual learner. During
the course of learning, these games can be used as a source of review or as
a reward for some accomplishment on the part of the learner.
 Stimulation type of instruction: In such type of computer assisted
instruction, stimulation is used as a technique for providing training to the
students. Such type of instructional activities provides the most powerful
learning tools to them. With the carefully prepared programmes, the students
are made to face real or idealized situations.They have to play an active
role and are required to take decisions that have consequences. For example,
a stimulation computer programme may put the participants in the shooting
range of the enemies in the battle front or in the role of a hunter in a village
full of horror of beasts or in the role of an explorer who is looking for buried
treasurer. The stimulation in all such ways proves much less expensive and
dangerous to have a trainee below up something on the screen then to face
a real danger to make a real mistake while trained in real situations.
Check Your Progress

5. What is the purpose of educational games?
6. What is stimulation type of instruction?
7.5 TEACHING MACHINES
Sydney L Pressey developed and used machines for teaching and testing. In 1926-
27, he produced the drum tutor, which underwent successive modification. It was
a teaching and testing device that presented a question until the student responded
correctly the number of times for which the device was designed. The student
selected his or her response from multiple choice alternatives by pressing one of
four response keys. Thus, one of the first teaching machines was reported by
Sydney L Pressey in 1926.
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It was B F Skinner who has introduced teaching machine for presenting the Programmed Instruction
programme instructional material. The teaching machine is essential a technology

aid which can provide easily continuous reinforcement for the modification of
desirable behaviour. Teaching machine or auto interactional device is a form of
apparatus designed to be operated by an individual student. There are many types NOTES
and varieties of teaching machines, but all of them have the following characteristics:
 The student is presented with a question or problem by some form of
display on the machine.
 The student is required to respond by writing or answering or pushing a
button to show an answer.
 The student is informed, one way or another, so as to let him or her
know whether his or her answer is right or wrong in some cases, why he
or she is right or wrong.
 Often an account is kept of the response, to each item not for testing
purposes, but for teaching purposes.
 The content to be taught is analysed and developed into a programme.
The programme, the series of items which are presented to the student
in the form of blanks to be filled in.
 The programme is designed, considering a theory of learning, the nature
of the student for which the programme is being designed and the subject
matter to be worked on.
 The thoughtful teacher should understand something of the different
concepts of programming.
Characteristics of Teaching Machines
The following are the characteristics of teaching machines:
 These are used to present instructional material systematically.
 Teaching machine provides the opportunities to respond or answer overtly.
 It provides the situation to check and confirm the response. There is no
scope to copy down the response.
 Teaching machines can provide the continuous reinforcement to the student.
 These machines also prepare the record of the students learning and
responses.
 The content can be presented systematically through the teaching machines
and feedback is given for the student responses.
 Teaching machines can present the form of programmed instruction in which
student cannot copy down the correct response. There is an interaction
between the student and the teaching machine that results in the formation
of new knowledge.
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Programmed Instruction Teaching Machines and Teacher
Teaching machines serve different functions which no teacher can accomplish it.
Teacher’s functions cannot be rendered by any teaching machine. The following
NOTES points clarify this issue:
 The instructional material can only be developed by the teacher. No teaching
machine can prepare instruction.
 Teacher and student interaction help in developing cognitive, affective and
psychomotor aspects of a learner. Not teaching machine can develop
affective aspect of the learner.
 The teacher can only provide the social motivation to the learner for
developing attitudes and values, but a teaching machine can provide
psychological motivation to the learner.
 Teaching machine can create well-defined and well-structured learning
situation which cannot be generated by the teacher.
 Teaching machines cannot compensate the individual differences in the
learning process which can be compensated by the teacher.
 The continuous reinforcement can be provided by teaching machine but
can only be given by a teacher.
Uses of Teaching Machine
Psychologist, Stolurow conducted a study to ascertain the effectiveness of teaching
machines and programmed text and scrambled book. He found out that there is
no difference in presenting the instructional material through teaching machines
and programmed text a scrambled textbook. Even then teaching machines have
their importance in education and they have the following advantages:
 Teaching machine orient towards the automation of the teaching-learning
process.
 Teaching machines function light tutorial instructions. These machines
compensate the individual differences in the process of learning.
 They provide well-defined and well-structured learning situation for desired
behaviour change or modification.
 Teaching machines provide the continuous reinforcement to the learner while
he or she reads the material.
 They create the situation in which a student learns by doing.
 A learner cannot copy down the correct response while the material is
presented through teaching machines.
 Teaching machines assist the teacher and make his or her task simpler.
 Teaching machines are also used for testing the students learning outcomes
or their achievement.
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Teaching machines are used in conducting the fundamental research in the Programmed Instruction
field or programmed instruction because they provide the real data. The findings
based on teaching machines are more authentic and reliable. The various schedules
of reinforcement can be employed in presenting the instructional materials through
the teaching machines. The experiment studies in area reinforcement and instruction NOTES
are only possible teaching machines in human learning.
Check Your Progress

7. State any one use of teaching machine.
8. What are the characteristics of teaching machine?

QUESTIONS
1. The basic idea of programmed learning is that most efficient, pleasant and
permanent learning takes place.
2. Empirical testing is used for programme development and validation. The
programme instruction material is prepared, modified and evaluated in terms
of learner performances.
3. In programmed instruction, the presentation of the instructional material of
subject matter to the learner in a suitable form is termed as programming.
4. The following are the merits of linear programming:
(a) A good linear programme is accompanied with the self-explained set
of instructions to use it, precisely written statements of entering and
terminal behaviour and an assessment test.
(b) It provides a clear understanding of the concepts and sufficient practice
of the skill.
(c) It provides the learning by doing situation. The learner can learn without
the physical presence of the teacher.
5. The purpose of educational games is only to provide intellectual challenge,
stimulation of curiosity and serve as a source of motivation to the individual
learner.
6. Stimulation type of instruction is used as a technique for providing training
to the students. Such type of instructional activities provides the most
powerful learning tools to them. With the carefully prepared programmes,
the students are made to face real or idealized situations.
7. Teaching machines are used in conducting the fundamental research in the
field or programmed instruction because they provide the real data. The
findings based on teaching machines are more authentic and reliable.
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Programmed Instruction 8. The characteristics of teaching machine are as follows:
(a) These are used to present instructional material systematically.
(b) Teaching machine provides the opportunities to respond or answer
NOTES overtly.
(c) It provides the situation to check and confirm the response. There is
no scope to copy down the response.
(d) Teaching machines can provide the continuous reinforcement to the
student.
7.7 SUMMARY
 The instructions provided by a teaching machine or programmed textbook

is referred to as programmed instruction or programmed learning.
 Programmed instruction is a method or technique of giving or receiving
individualized instruction from a variety of sources like programmed
textbook, teaching machine and computers with or without the help of a
teacher.
 Programmed instruction is a strategy of teaching and learning than a medium
which operates through any device like radio, television, tape recorder,
language laboratory and a teacher.
 The principles of programmed learning were identified first about learning
programming and were formulated by an American psychologist, B F
Skinner.
 Good programmed instruction merely incorporates good principles of
learning. In programmed learning, the subject matter is broken down into a
sequence of steps.
 The basic idea of programmed learning is that most efficient, pleasant and
permanent learning takes place.
 The mandatory principles of programming are those which are critical and
essential for distinguishing it from other forms of instruction such as
conventional classroom teaching, instruction by the use of textbooks and
so on.
 A programmed learning sequence is discovered by objective defined terminal
behaviour. Its effectiveness is evaluated in terms of learner’s performance
and the learner can proceed at his own pace.
 In programmed instruction, the presentation of the instructional material of
subject matter to the learner in a suitable form is termed as programming.
 The credit for propagating the linear programming style goes to B F Skinner
(1955). It is directly related with his theory of operant conditioning and is
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based on the assumption that human behaviour can be shaped or conditioned Programmed Instruction
gradually.
 The linear programming lays great emphasis on making the sequence of
response error less.
NOTES
 The credit for developing the branching program goes to an American
psychologist Norman A. Crowder (1954).
 Programmed instruction is not educational technology, but it is one of the
aspects of instructional technology or software approach.
 A good linear programme is accompanied with the self-explained set of
instructions to use it, precisely written statements of entering and terminal
behaviour and an assessment test.
 In linear programming, every learner has to follow the same linear path. The
needs of the learner are not considered adequately.
 Computer-assisted instruction (CAI) as the name suggests stands for the
type of instruction aided or carried out with the help of a computer as a
machine.
 Computer-assisted instruction, for this reason, is relatively a new and
developed concept as compared to the teaching machine and programmed
learning oriented instructional technology.
 Computer assisted instruction may be defined as a method of instruction in
which there is a purposeful interaction between a learner and computer
device (having useful instructional material as software) for helping the
individual learner to achieve the desired instruction objective with his own
pace and abilities at his command.
 The teaching machine is essential a technology aid which can provide easily
continuous reinforcement for the modification of desirable behaviour.
 Teaching machines serve different functions which no teacher can accomplish
it. Teacher’s functions cannot be rendered by any teaching machine.
 Teaching machines are used in conducting the fundamental research in the
field or programmed instruction because they provide the real data.
7.8 KEY WORDS
 Programmed learning: It refers to the instructions provided by a teaching

machine or programmed textbook.
 Objective specification: It refers to identifying the terminal behaviours so
that the learners will be able to perform when he or she will complete the
programming.
 Teaching machine: It refers to a form of apparatus designed to be operated
by an individual student.
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Programmed Instruction  Programmed learning sequence: It refers to a method of effectiveness
and is evaluated in terms of learner’s performance and the learner can proceed
at his or her own pace.
NOTES
EXERCISES
1. What are the main characteristics of programmed instruction?
2. What are the principles based on programmed learning?
3. List the principles of branching programme.
4. Write a short note on computer-assisted instruction (CAI).
5. What are the characteristics of teaching machines?
1. Discuss the principles related to programmed instruction.
2. Analyse the types of programmed instructions.
3. Compare the merits and demerits of linear programming.
4. Discuss the steps related to the designing of programmed material.
5. Interpret the types of computer assisted instruction.

Kingdom: Routledge.
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Modernization
UNIT 8 MODERNIZATION
Structure NOTES
8.0 Introduction
8.1 Objectives
8.2 Meaning and Concept of Modernization
8.3 Education and Modernization
8.3.1 Difference between Modernity and Modernization
8.5 Summary
8.6 Key Words
8.0 INTRODUCTION
Education plays the most important role in the society as it fosters knowledge
among the students and promotes innovation through new ideas and concepts.
Modernization can be defined as a process of socio-cultural transformation which
involves changes in values, norms and structures.
In a changing society, it becomes important for education to transmit
knowledge in such a way that the traditional and cultural heritage must be kept
intact and at the same time, prepare the students to adjust to changes which may
take place in the future. Modernization plays an important role with respect to this
point and it thus, becomes necessary that importance must be given to the concept
of modernization.
In this unit, the concept of modernization and the importance of innovation
in educational system has been discussed. The relation between education and
modernization and the difference between modernity and modernization has been
dealt in the unit.
8.1 OBJECTIVES

 Discuss the concept of modernization
 Explain the importance of innovation in education
 Interpret the role of education and its main principles
 Analyse the relationship between education and modernization
 Explain the difference between modernity and modernization
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Modernization
8.2 MEANING AND CONCEPT OF
MODERNIZATION
NOTES In the words of sociologist, S N Eisenstadt, ‘Historically, modernization is the process

of change towards those special types of social, economic and political systems that
have developed in western Europe and North America from the seventeenth century
to the nineteenth and twentieth centuries to the American, Asian, and African
continents’. Modernization is the characteristic feature of modern society.
The most important function of education is modernization. Modernization
according to some sociologists is based upon European and American models.
As compared to urbanization, industrialization and westernization, modernization
provides a more complex process and a more complex result. In the intellectual
sphere, it is awareness that it is possible to see a rational explanation of a physical
and social phenomenon.
Thus, it is presented by positivism, empiricism and rationalism. In the field
of religion, it is expressed in secularism. Thus, its approach is this worldly. In the
field of philosophy, it is expressed in humanistic thought. It includes social
mobilizations and differentiation and specialization in individual and institutional
activities. In political field, it stands for democratization in ecology it is characterized
by advancing degree of urbanization. However, the most important feature of
modernization as related to education is cultural.
Role of Education in Modernisation
Education is the most important instrument of modernization since modernization
includes:
 Directed change in the system of attitudes, beliefs and values, and also
in the institutional complex, to enhance acceptability of modern
technology and its organization and operational framework.
 Growth of the infrastructure essential to the adaptation to technology of
foreign origin to specific national needs.
 Laying the foundation of institutions and organizations which could, in
time, assume responsibility for independent innovation and technological
growth to the country’s needs and problems.
Modernization is a comprehensive concept aimed at capturing, describing
the transition of a society from medieval to modern culture. It stands for progress
beyond tradition.
Modernization through Education
Education is the most important instrument of modernization since modernization
includes the following:
 Directed change in the system of attitudes, beliefs and values and also in the
institutional complex, to enhance the acceptability of modern technology
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114 Material
 Growth of the infrastructure essential to the adaptation to technology of Modernization
foreign origin to specific needs.

A renowned philosopher, Eric Hoffer believed that in a time of drastic change, it is NOTES
the learners who inherit the future. The learned find themselves equipped to live in
a world that no longer exists.
Innovation is a broad concept, addressed by many definitions depending
on the specific area of application. According to sociologists, Kirkland and Such
(2009), ‘Innovation is the application of new resource or approach that changes
social practice, creating some value’.
According to sociologist and educational reformer, Fullan (2007), significant
educational innovation must include the following three elements:
 Use of new revised materials (curriculum materials or technologies)
 Use of new teaching approaches (teaching strategies or activities)
 Alteration of beliefs (pedagogical assumptions)
Fullan says that, developing innovation as a process requires the necessary
skills, the approach which aims at empowerment, a climate of faith and a bond of
trust, and a lot of energy to implement new ways of organizing and structuring the
things in the desired order, rewarding people and communicating.
Sociologist Kozma (2003), said ‘ICT supported innovation in education is
defined as the pedagogical situations and means of supporting a shift from traditional
paradigms towards emerging pedagogical approaches based on our current
understanding of learning, such as fostering learner centered and constructivist
approaches, and the acquisition of life-long learning skills’.
Innovation is a major driving force for economic and social progress. If
absent, innovation growth stalls, economies, and communities stagnate. Innovation
in education is always seeking knowledge that would support new and unique
ideas in the instructional techniques and will reach the students in a more effective
and exciting ways. However, it is important to note the fact that innovation does
not happen in a vacuum. Bringing about change, requires team, goals, and an
examination of the methodologies used and values at play along with the
commitment from all the aspects. Innovative ideas often meet resistance always
from the fear of failure or a push to not to rock the boat, but there can be new
processes, models, or ways to create and manage knowledge and new cultures.
Innovation requires conversation with yourself and surroundings around you.
Innovation has been a topic of considerable interest in the education sector.
For innovation to be successful, human creativity, knowledge, skills, and talents
are to be nurtured in a large part through the system of education.
When most people think innovation as a new product of the world. However,
much innovation is a fact at the product level, and some of the most important level
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Modernization of innovation starts right from the platform level. We must understand that we are
not concerned with innovation merely for the sake of novelty. Innovation is the
successful ingredient for creating and prospering the culture of performance in the
field of education, one that is based on the kind of continuous improvement that is
NOTES necessary to resolve the challenges and issues that we are facing in the present
world, to increase the student achievement results.
Recent Innovations: Technological charge, Industrialisation and
Modernisation
Some of the recent innovations in the education system include the introduction of
computers in the classrooms, which is often referred to as the most significant
innovation. However, the physical structure of the classroom has not changed
much since chalkboards were introduced in the late 18th century, the arrival of
computers, tablets, internet, e-learning, project-based learning, learning in groups
has led to re-orientation of many traditional teaching practices and is generally
seen as an opportunity for improvement (The Economist, 2013).
The Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD)
(2007) has defined major principles, to be looked at interactively, as building
blocks in educational innovation design are as follows:
 Learning environment should make learning and engagement central
 Innovation must be a social process
 Innovation must be highly attuned to learner’s emotions
 Innovation must reflect individual differences
 Innovation must be demanding for all while avoiding overload
 Use of broad assessments and feedback
 Promote horizontal connectedness
Some of the Guiding Principles of Innovation in Education as defined by
Michigan, Department of Education are as follows:
 Innovation in education must use outcome-based strategies and practices
that are new, unique or creative and that have the likelihood of having
significant impact on the student(s).
 Innovation in education must involve risk, creativity, and challenge our
basic assumptions and beliefs underlying traditional education system.
 Innovation in education must engage students to use novel ideas,
products, or processes.
 Innovation in education must prepare the students globally to be
competitive, to think out of the box, solve problems, and to assimilate
and apply the knowledge learnt.
 Innovation in education must be focused on individual student and student
competency and should have data-proven relevance.
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 Innovation in education must reduce barriers to student success and Modernization
must include instruction presented and delivered in a form that is different

from traditional classroom setting.
 Innovation in education must include the mechanisms through which
NOTES
schools can be creative in developing new and unique products with
both student and fiscal accountability as included in parameters.
Innovation is thus, creation of new, improved products and new
methodologies of production that increase efficiency and are the driving force for
the economic growth. Therefore, the education system should be capable of
producing students who are capable of being innovative at the workplace. Since,
innovation is often related to new, improved and quality-oriented products;
therefore, high-quality engineers, scientists, and doctors are often regarded to be
crucial. Therefore, school must be a place where knowledge and values are
translated into action.
8.3 EDUCATION AND MODERNIZATION
In view of the mentioned changes required by the modernization the functions of

education in this direction may be achieved by the following:
1. By enlarging the cognitive map of those getting exposed to it, education
suggests alternative to tradition, brings into focus the rewards, implicit in
them, and indicates-roughly at least the paths through which the new goals
with their attendant regards can be achieved. It broadens mental horizons,
raises expectations and predisposes people to make experiments.
2. As an instrument of socialization, it can project new images and values.
Purposively used, it can help in obliterating attitudes and behaviour patterns
that are dysfunctional to programmes of modernization.
3. By providing ideological articulations, it can promote the development of
national consciousness and can help people see their needs and their
problems from a national perspective. It can stimulate the creation of a
national consensus at least on major issues.
4. Education provides a highway to the elite status of the educand. They provide
a reference model to the masses, who in imitation of the former, take the
first steps away from tradition. Modernization elites are almost always the
products of modern or semi-modern school or university systems.
5. Education is mobility multiplier. Although its impact is on the immobility of
thought-ways, in the long run, it does alter the rigid forms of social stratification.
Modernization requires both types of mobility.
The latest study in this connection was however made by Dr S N Sharma
published by ICSSR (1979) under the title ‘Modernizing Effects of University
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Modernization Education’ on the basis of study; he reached the following important conclusion
concerning the relationship of modernization and education:
 The level of higher education is of no consequence as an explanatory
variable of student modernity.
NOTES
 The lowest percentage of moderns is in the field of humanities, followed
by Social Sciences and professionals with the highest percentage in
science faculty.
 Males are more modern as compared to females.
 High-status students are more modern as compared to students belonging
to the lower strata of the society.
 There is a significant and positive correspondence between the level of
student modernity and that of reference teachers, provided the latter
preferred character building role over other roles favored no social
distance in their relationship with the students and reported greater
interpersonal introduction with students.
 Family type has no association with modernity.
 Caste has no bearing on modernity.
 The initial exposure to cosmopolitan city like Chandigarh makes not
much difference in modernity.
 There is no relationship between parental modernity and student
modernity.
 Duration of urban exposure is positively associated with modernity.
 There is a positive significant relationship between modernity and media
exposure.
 There is a strong positive relationship between extent of exposure to the
other cultures and the level of modernity.
 The type of schooling is the best predictor of modernity and the students
who are taught in convent or public school are modern.
 Early socialization variable account for greater variance in student
modernity as compared to the later socialization variables.
 An education variable, particularly student background in schooling,
tops the list of explanatory variables.
In sum, with proper planning and under efficient direction, education can
make a meaningful contribution to the attainment of modernization. It can be
harnessed to defuse attitude and ideologies required for the adoption of modern
technology and its associated values and organization premises, to provide personnel
to operate and sustain the programs of modernization and to create capabilities
for adaptation and origination of new technology.
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8.3.1 Difference between Modernity and Modernization Modernization
Modernity has indeed expanded to most of the world and has given rise to civilization
patterns which share some central core characteristics, but which unfold differently
even if with cognate ideological and institutional dynamics. Moreover, far-reaching NOTES
changes, beyond the original premises of modernity, have also been taking place
in Western societies.
At its most general, modernity may serve as a broad synonym for capitalism,
or industrialization, or whatever institutional and ideological features are held to
mark off the modern West from other, traditional societies. With the political demise
of Marxism in Eastern Europe in the late 1980s, and the academic ascendancy of
postmodernism, ‘modernity’ has become an increasingly fashionable term in
revisionist social theory.
Paradoxically, because most theorizing about modernity and the modern
has been conducted at a lofty level of generalization, the possibilities for an
anthropological approach to modernity are extremely rich. Since the late 1970s
there has been a growing number of ethnographic studies of quintessentially modern
institutions and practices, scientific laboratories, capitalist corporations, consumer
cultures, as well as the studies of architecture and planning already mentioned –
both within and outside the ‘West’. Empirical scrutiny reveals that supposedly
modern institutions fail to live up to Weberian expectations of impersonality and
rationality, and the anthropology of modernity might go no further than repetitive,
if amusing, empirical challenge to Western self-images of modern life. As such it
would remain parasitic on those self-images, rather as much other anthropology
has remained dependent on Occidentalism stereotypes of ‘the West’, ‘Western
thought’ and ‘Western institutions’.
There is, however, another more radical possibility. Developing his own
empirical research in the history and ethnography of science, Bruno Latour (1991)
has argued that the very idea of the modern world is based on a set of impossible
intellectual distinctions – between the objective knowledge of nature and the
subjective world of culture, between science and politics, between the modern
and the traditional.
Empirical research swiftly shows these distinctions to be untenable: science
and politics are connected in complex social networks, while our public life is
increasingly concerned with hybrids, objects and problems which are at once
social and natural. An anthropology of modernity would employ ethnographic holism
to dissolve the illusions that convince us that ‘we’ are modern, unprecedented but
objective observers of other people’s cultural worlds. As yet such an anthropology
hardly exists, and it is difficult to imagine quite what an ‘a modern’ (rather than
postmodern) intellectual landscape would look like, except to say that it would be
far more empirically challenging and far more genuinely ‘decentred’ than any of
the oddly Eurocentric products of scholastic postmodernism.
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Modernization
Check Your Progress

1. State any one important function of innovation in education.
NOTES 2. State the main aim of modernization.
3. What is the most important function of education?
4. How does innovation act as an instrument of socialization?

QUESTIONS
1. The most important function of innovation in education is to reduce barriers

to student success and must include instruction presented and delivered in a
form that is different from traditional classroom setting.
2. Modernization is a comprehensive concept aimed at capturing, describing
the transition of a society from medieval to modern culture. It stands for
progress beyond tradition.
3. The most important function of education is modernization. It is awareness
that it is possible to see a rational explanation of a physical and social
phenomenon.
4. Innovation acts as an instrument of socializationn as it can project new
images and values. Purposively used, it can help in obliterating attitudes and
behaviour patterns that are dysfunctional to programmes of modernization.
8.5 SUMMARY
 The most important function of education is modernization. Modernization

according to some sociologists is based upon European and American
models.
 As compared to urbanization, industrialization and westernization,
modernization provides a more complex process and a more complex result.
 Modernization is a comprehensive concept aimed at capturing, describing
the transition of a society from medieval to modern culture.
 A renowned philosopher, Eric Hoffer believed that in a time of drastic change,
it is the learners who inherit the future.
 Innovation is a broad concept, addressed by many definitions depending
on the specific area of application.
 Innovation is a major driving force for economic and social progress. If
absent, innovation growth stalls, economies, and communities stagnate.
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 Innovation in education is always seeking knowledge that would support Modernization
new and unique ideas in the instructional techniques and will reach the
students in a more effective and exciting ways.
 Innovative ideas often meet resistance always from the fear of failure or a
NOTES
push to not to rock the boat, but there can be new processes, models, or
ways to create and manage knowledge and new cultures.
 For innovation to be successful, human creativity, knowledge, skills, and
talents are to be nurtured in a large part through the system of education.
 Innovation is the successful ingredient for creating and prospering the culture
of performance in the field of education, one that is based on the kind of
continuous improvement that is necessary to resolve the challenges and
issues that we are facing in the present world, to increase the student
achievement results.
 Some of the recent innovations in the education system include the
introduction of computers in the classrooms, which is often referred to as
the most significant innovation.
 The Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD)
(2007) has defined major principles, to be looked at interactively, as building
blocks in educational innovation design.
 Innovation in education must use outcome-based strategies and practices
that are new, unique or creative and that have the likelihood of having
significant impact on the student(s).
 Innovation in education must involve risk, creativity, and challenge our basic
assumptions and beliefs underlying traditional education system.
 Innovation in education must prepare the students globally to be competitive,
to think out of the box, solve problems, and to assimilate and apply the
knowledge learnt.
 Innovation in education must reduce barriers to student success and must
include instruction presented and delivered in a form that is different from
traditional classroom setting.
 Innovation is thus, creation of new, improved products and new
methodologies of production that increase efficiency and are the driving
force for the economic growth.
 By enlarging the cognitive map of those getting exposed to it, education
suggests alternative to tradition, brings into focus the rewards, implicit in
them, and indicates-roughly at least the paths through which the new goals
with their attendant regards can be achieved.
 In sum, with proper planning and under efficient direction, education can
make a meaningful contribution to the attainment of modernization.
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Modernization  Modernity has indeed expanded to most of the world and has given rise to
civilization patterns which share some central core characteristics, but which
unfold differently even if with cognate ideological and institutional dynamics.
NOTES
8.6 KEY WORDS
 Empiricism: It refers to a theory which states that all knowledge is based

on experience and is derived from senses.
 Modernization: It refers to a comprehensive concept which aims at
capturing and describing the transition of a society from medieval to modern
culture.
 Positivism: It refers to a theory which states that a specific knowledge is
based on natural phenomena and their relations.
 Rationalism: It refers to a theory which bases its opinions on reason and
knowledge rather than basing opinions on religious beliefs.

EXERCISES
1. How is modernization represented in the various fields of knowledge?
2. What are the three main elements of innovation?
3. Why is education considered as the most important instrument in
modernization?
4. What are the main constituents of modernization?
5. List the principles related to educational innovation design.
1. Discuss the concept of modernization in the field of education.
2. Analyse the role of innovation in education.
3. Differentiate between modernity and modernization in detail.
4. ‘Innovation is a major driving force for economic and social progress’.
Elucidate the statement.
5. Interpret the main functions of education.
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Modernization

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Freedom for Innovation
BLOCK - III
FREEDOM, ALTERNATIVE SCHOOLS
AND DISTANCE EDUCATION
NOTES
UNIT 9 FREEDOM FOR

INNOVATION
Structure
9.0 Introduction
9.1 Objectives
9.2 Autonomy in Institutional Structure
9.3 Teacher Autonomy
9.5 Summary
9.6 Key Words
9.0 INTRODUCTION
In the field of education, the concept of autonomy is the most common and important
topic of discussion as it deals with the freedom of professional independence in
schools and universities. Autonomy can be defined as a situation in which the
student is responsible for all the decision he or she makes and the implementation
of the decisions made by them.
Teacher autonomy on the other hand refers to the professional independence
which is given to the teachers and it is primarily concerned with what they teach
and how they teach it. It is important to give teacher autonomy as they play a
major role in developing the personality of his or her students.
In this unit, the concept of autonomy in education has been highlighted. The
meaning of student and teacher autonomy has been discussed in detail. The function
of student autonomy bodies and the importance of teacher autonomy have also
been explained.
9.1 OBJECTIVES

 Discuss the meaning of autonomy in institutional structure
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 Explain the concept of student autonomy
124 Material
 Interpret the function of students self-government bodies Freedom for Innovation
 Analyse the importance of teacher autonomy
9.2 AUTONOMY IN INSTITUTIONAL STRUCTURE NOTES
Autonomy means self-norms; it is the condition or quality of being autonomous;

independence, self-government or the right of self-government and self-
determination. Autonomy is supposed to provide a better de-centralized system
of management. Therefore, it is necessary to delegate authority for the academic
as well as management purposes so as to get a better autonomical structure.
Academic autonomy provides freedom to the teachers in deciding the
curriculum, formulation of objectives, selection of teaching-learning resources and
evaluation of the student learning outcomes.
Autonomy means the right to regulate institutions in all areas of it management,
under the status set by the government, Indian University Board and University
Grant Commission. There are two observations regarding granting autonomy to
universities. In the first case, universities are denied autonomy and are made to
function under official control. Political pressure politicizes all the matters of
academics and administration from admission of students to the appointment of
teachers leading to sustained pandemonium and total turmoil in the institutions.
Institutional autonomy: Freedom is learning situations
Institutional autonomy provides freedom to the administration as well as the teachers
to govern the system of any institution in an organized manner. The institution gets
complete right to undertake the work expected by community and they support
only if freedom of choice and action is provided. However, this does not exempt
the public interest, nor does it mean that policies should not be under review by
themselves and by others.
Purpose and Need of Institutional Autonomy
The purpose of institutional autonomy is the selection of staff and teachers based
upon their academic credentials, prior knowledge and experiences in their subject
and pedagogy. The pay scales and the environmental conditions of employment
requires government approval and the individuals posted to a higher level of authority
they may even require government approval.
The students are admitted on the basis of advice of UGC but the decision of
acceptance and rejection of candidates based upon the entrance test or their course
content knowledge that is to be done by the institution only.
Red tapism in the organization and Institutions hampers the pace of decision
making execution of decision and planning of further growth. Universities apply all
their efforts just to fulfill the official formalities and in teaching the tendency of
innovations and experiments in curbed. Curriculum becomes a limitation and very
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Freedom for Innovation often it remains to be useless, outdated and impractical. It is hardly rationalized
and restructured as per the need of the hour. There remains no inspiration, facilities
and yearn for good, hard and commendable work. All benefits are time based and
not performance based.
NOTES
On the other hand, if universities are granted autonomy and are allowed to
manage their matters independently, there remains no uniformity in any of the
academic or administrative matters of Universities. Selfish motives bring baseless
norms in institutional administration. Curriculum is either changed frequently or
remains static for years. Examination and evaluation loses consistency and reliability,
hence the standard of studies deteriorates. No proper use of allotted money is
seen or funds may not be used in desired manner or for the intended purposes.
Looking at the causes of problem it may be noted that due to misuse of
power due to non-sincerity and lack of honesty is the foremost reason of the
crisis. On the other hand, the politics of the vote, Anarchy and mess in the campuses
due to political motives, frequent changes in government and subsequently in the
administration also make the situation bad to worse. Fanatic and groundless
ambitions of high placed officers and politicians also add manual to the problem.
To find a workable solution to the problem status of autonomy may be
provided along with the set of accountability. Freedom to administer internal affairs
should have checks and balances from the concerned authorities. UGC should
ensure that the curriculum and research work in university should be of high or
International standard. The jurisdiction of UGC in fixing the minimum qualification
should be maintained along with the universities, as far as the rights of selection
and promotion of teachers is concerned. Examination and evaluation should have
more precision, transparency and objectivity; and lastly the academic and
administrative bodies should work independently in close cooperation with each
other.
Autonomy is the inner enforcement of one’s actions that are derived from oneself
and are one’s own. When autonomous, student’s goals and action flow out of an
internal stimulus a sense of volition and an experience of choice.
Student Autonomy
Student autonomy is a form of management in which students have the right to
decide the internal control. The main objective of the autonomy is primarily to
create conditions of young people in self-interest of the individual, society and the
state in protecting the rights of students.
The Sheffield Hallam provides a definition of learner autonomy that starts
with the premise that an autonomous learner takes responsibility of his or her own
learning. It can be achieved through:
 Identification of learning goals and the processes to evaluate the learning
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 Development of concepts of learning for enhancement of their knowledge. Freedom for Innovation
 Provides wide variety and scope for the development of learning

approaches and skills.
 Organization of better learning objectives for their overall development NOTES
of personality.
 Organization of learning strategy.
 Enhancement of information processing skills by conducting brain
storming sessions and analytical skills.
 Development of inquiry based approach and motivational skills in the
students.
How to Enhance Autonomous Learning Environment?
The following steps can help to enhance the autonomous learning environment.
 Protect the rights and legitimate interests of students, both inside the school
and outside.
 Provide the execution of student’s obligations and promoting harmonious
development of personalities of students, forming the organizational and
leadership skills of students.
 The activities of the bodies of students self-administration is focused on the
improvement of the educational process, quality of education, forming of
students’ culture, increasing of the social activity and the responsibilities for
assigned tacks of student youth.
 Within its powers to encourage the students in the practical realization of
human rights and freedoms.
 Students are full and equal members of the School .The members of the
student self- government shall plan its activities and bring them to life taking
into account the fundamental role of student clubs The priority of the student
self-government is to expand students’ participation in activities, create
independent student councils, student exchange and projects on partnership
with teachers and students of other schools.
The main functions of the bodies of student’s self-government are:
 To provide and to protect the rights and interests of students, in particular
towards the organization of the educational process.
 To provide execution students obligations.
 To promote educational, scientific and creative activities of students.
 To assist creation of the proper conditions of living and rest of students.
 To assist the activities of the different types of student’s associations.
 To organize cooperation with students of the other schools and youth
organizations.
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Freedom for Innovation  To take part in the realization of the mission and vision of the school.
 To involve students into amateur performances.
In order to prepare the students, so that they can operate autonomously, it
NOTES is important for them to develop an approach so as to manage their learning
procedure as well as themselves and their relationships in different ways so that
they can maximize their ability to succeed in their academic life. This can be
encapsulated intuitively in the notions of personal effectiveness; reflections on the
nature and degree of personal autonomy; and informed agency in the context of a
complex academic environment. For many students, this can be seen as and
involving capability in relation to different demand and challenges presented by
different learning experiences and goals.
Specifically, this will involve the student to develop effective study planning
problem-solving time and project management skills demonstrating focus and
resilience being able to balance social work and learning needs thereby enhancing
the self-enhancement and evaluation of learning procedure.
Example of Student Autonomy
Indian Springs School, Alabama, United States
The mission of Indian Springs School is to develop in students a love of learning,
a sense of integrity and moral courage, and an ethic of participatory citizenship.
Inspired by the motto Learning Through Living, the school is a community of
talented boarding and day students and dedicated faculty committed to the belief
that in learning to balance individual achievement with the values and principles of
democracy, the student can develop to his or her full stature.
Indian Springs is very unique in that we run the school as a small town with
a student government that reflects our belief that student involvement is critical to
the running of the school. In accordance with the school’s Constitution, students
have real authority to effect change through the Student Government.
The student government is headed by the Mayor, who along with six
Commissioners and the Judiciary, meet weekly to tackle issues, embracing our
motto of “Learning Through Living”. Student self-governance is at the heart of
Indian Springs School and its traditions. Elections for student government are held
in the middle and at the end of each year, following speeches given at a Town
Meeting. Our student government consists of several offices:
Mayor: The duty of the mayor is to provide leadership for the community
‘in building a greater understanding of the aims and purposes of the community’.
He or she is also responsible for running student government meetings, making
sure that the commissioners are doing their jobs, leading Town Meetings, and
dealing with problems within the community.
Commissioners of Protection: The Commissioners of Protection ensure
everyone’s safety while at school. In addition to enforcing the rules in the Read
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and Heed, they serve, along with the proctors, as the student leaders in the Freedom for Innovation
dormitories.
Commissioners of Recreation: The Commissioners of Recreation provide
entertainment on campus, including after-school and weekend activities. They also
NOTES
organize Student Concerts, and recreational activities on D-Day, the school’s semi-
annual day of service.
Commissioners of Services: The Commissioners of Services’s main
responsibility is to run the Student Store throughout the day. They also put up the
flag every morning.
Commissioners of Citizenship: The Commissioners of Citizenship find
speakers and organize projects for D-Day (the school’s semiannual day of service),
and they keep the students informed of any service projects around the school
and community. They also organize orientation at the beginning of the year and are
involved with Washington Day Camp.
Commissioners of Education: The Commissioners of Education run the
tutoring system, as well as the book sale. They also sit in on Academic Committee
meetings and help students with any problems they might have in the classroom.
Class Representatives: Class representatives or the monitors in the school
premises; represent their class and sections in which they are studying. They are
the individuals who represent their grades in student government meetings, organize
class activities and class trips, and help their classmates with any problems they
might have.
Judiciary: With self-government comes responsibility for self-discipline.
The Judiciary is a group of students that hear the cases of students who have
received ‘records’ and decide what punishment or discipline the student should
receive. Only extreme violations of school policy are dealt with by the administration
without the judiciary.
The student self-government, an organization that is by definition
representative of the entire student community, should be playing a key role in
promoting the Bologna Process, both in the student community and in organs of
the higher education institution. However, we must not overlook other organizations,
such as scientific, artistic, tourist, sports and other associations created by students
at the various higher education institutions. Many of these associations find partners
abroad, thus, developing the cultural infrastructure of mutual contacts, exchange
and cooperation among European higher education institutions. The Bologna spirit
goes a long way towards encouraging initiatives of this kind. The effectiveness of
efforts of student’s organizations will be much enhanced if they are properly planned
and consistent, if they work together with the rector and deans on institutional
level, and with the conference of rectors on the national level. In Poland, one can
see this kind of partnership between students and rectors as the most important
element of Bologna implementation efforts.
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Check Your Progress

1. What do you understand by the term ‘autonomy in education’?
NOTES 2. State the main objective of student autonomy.
9.3 TEACHER AUTONOMY
Teacher autonomy means providing freedom to the study to teach, study and
learn. The teacher is considered as the controlling figure in the educational system.
He or she plays a critical role in the process of accommodating social change in
the curriculum development process. According to the National Policy of Education,
1986, a teacher must have freedom of innovation, development of teaching-learning
material, device appropriate methods of communication, activities and governing
the teaching-learning process in the classroom. If a teacher has good ability and
quality, they can transmit the same to the students and help them in the creation of
the nation.
Education is the only process to achieve the desired goals. It is a tripolar
process that includes the teacher, curriculum and learning material. According to
the Secondary Education Commission or Mudaliar Commission in 1984, the most
important factor in the contemplative educational reconstruction is the teacher, his
personal qualities, educational qualification and his professional training and place
that he occupies in the school as well as the in the process of communication. The
reputation of the school and its influence on the life of community invariably depends
upon the kind of teacher working in it.
The socio-cultural ethos of the society is reflected in the National policy of
Education, 1986. It is said that no one can rise above the level of the teachers. For
that, the government and the community play a very important role in the overall
development of the child’s personality. Teacher autonomy is therefore, essential to
ensure better teaching and learning environment and addresses individual
differences. As much as the learner requires space, freedom, flexibility and learning
environment the teacher also requires the same.
It is essential to encourage an atmosphere that facilitates collaborative efforts
of the teachers. Teacher autonomy is essential for personal and professional growth
and development and improvement, so that autonomous teacher seek out
opportunities over the course of his career for developing further. Teacher’s
autonomy and professional independence is a process of social construction,
wherein the teachers support and develop groups that act as teacher-learner pools
of diverse knowledge, experience, equal power, and autonomous learning. When
the teachers are provided autonomy in their profession it enhances the status of
the teacher as well.
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Meaning and Definition of Teacher Autonomy Freedom for Innovation
Teacher autonomy is defined by the ability to control one’s own teaching. Teacher
autonomy means providing freedom to study, learn and teach without any kind of
interference from higher authority so that the teacher can perform his or her role NOTES
and duty without any fear.
According to Smith (2001), six very comprehensive characteristics of
teacher’s autonomy are as follows:
 Self-directed professional individual with professional competence and
skills
 Capacity for self-directed professional action and development
 Freedom from control over professional actions and directive activities
 Self-directed professional development and teaching strategies
 Capacity for self-directed professional development
Need of Teacher Autonomy
The concept of teacher autonomy is essential because of the following reasons:
 Teacher autonomy is essential to ensure a learning environment that should
address children’s diverse needs.
 Teacher autonomy is driven by a need for personal and professional
improvement; so that an autonomous teacher may seek out opportunities
over the course of his/her career to develop further.
 An autonomous teacher feels personal responsibilities, attends workshops
& come up with new classroom ideas.
 Teacher autonomy refers to the ability to develop appropriate skills,
knowledge & attitude for oneself as a teacher, in cooperation with other.
 The teacher should have the freedom to innovate, to devise appropriate
methods of communication & activities relevant to the need & capabilities
of the concerns of the community.
 Autonomous teacher feel more confident with virtual learning environment.
 Teacher autonomy is necessary in order to be able to respond to student
needs, interests and motivation and individualize our approach.
Teacher’s role in promotion of own autonomy
The teacher can promote his or her autonomy himself or herself. Some suggestions
to promote the autonomy of teacher are as follows:
 Teacher should read a lot to be familiar with current subjects.
 Teacher should be able to observe themselves and their methods of teaching.
 They must co-operate with others.
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Freedom for Innovation  Teachers must be open to criticism.
 Teacher should make notes at the end of lesson and evaluate them.
 Feedback by students may be given to the teacher.
NOTES  They should be given the opportunity to develop his own autonomy.
 Teacher should observe each other to give feedback (peer observation).
 A very careful lesson plan is required.
 One should be aware of his good and bad points or qualities.
Thus, teacher autonomy plays a major role in the development of the country.
It is necessary to provide autonomy to the students as well as the teachers to
innovate and devise new learning methodologies so as to serve the diverse needs
of the learners according to the different environmental conditions.
Check Your Progress

3. Why is education considered as a tripolar process?
4. What are the six main characteristics of teacher autonomy?

QUESTIONS
1. Autonomy in education means the right to regulate institutions in all areas of

it management, under the status set by the government, Indian University
Board and University Grant Commission.
2. The main objective of the student autonomy is primarily to create conditions
of young people in self-interest of the individual, society and the state in
protecting the rights of students.
3. Education is considered as a tripolar process because it includes the teacher,
curriculum and learning material. Education is the only process which can
be used to achieve the desired goals.
4. The six main characteristics of teachers autonomy are as follows:
(a) Self-directed professional individual with professional competence and
skills
(b) Capacity for self-directed professional action and development
(c) Freedom from control over professional actions and directive activities
(d) Self-directed professional development and teaching strategies
(e) Capacity for self-directed professional development
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9.5 SUMMARY
 Autonomy means self-norms; it is the condition or quality of being

autonomous; independence, self-government or the right of self-government NOTES
and self-determination.
 Academic autonomy provides freedom to the teachers in deciding the
curriculum, formulation of objectives, selection of teaching-learning resources
and evaluation of the student learning outcomes.
 Autonomy means the right to regulate institutions in all areas of it management,
under the status set by the government, Indian University Board and
University Grant Commission.
 Political pressure politicizes all the matters of academics and administration
from admission of students to the appointment of teachers leading to sustained
pandemonium and total turmoil in the institutions.
 Institutional autonomy provides freedom to the administration as well as the
teachers to govern the system of any institution in an organized manner.
 The students are admitted on the basis of advice of UGC but the decision
of acceptance and rejection of candidates based upon the entrance test or
their course content knowledge that is to be done by the institution only.
 The institution gets complete right to undertake the work expected by
community and they support only if freedom of choice and action is provided.
 The purpose of institutional autonomy is the selection of staff and teachers
based upon their academic credentials, prior knowledge and experiences
in their subject and pedagogy.
 On the other hand, if universities are granted autonomy and are allowed to
manage their matters independently, there remains no uniformity in any of
the academic or administrative matters of Universities.
 Autonomy is the inner enforcement of one’s actions that are derived from
oneself and are one’s own.
 The student self-government, an organization that is by definition
representative of the entire student community, should be playing a key role
in promoting the Bologna Process, both in the student community and in
organs of the higher education institution.
 Student’s autonomy is a form of management in which students have the
right to decide the internal control.
 The main objective of the student autonomy is primarily to create conditions
of young people in self-interest of the individual, society and the state in
protecting the rights of students.
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Material 133
Freedom for Innovation  Teacher autonomy means providing freedom to the study to teach, study
and learn. The teacher is considered as the controlling figure in the educational
system.
 Education is the only process to achieve the desired goals. It is a tripolar
NOTES
process that includes the teacher, curriculum and learning material.
 Teacher’s autonomy is therefore, essential to ensure better teaching and
learning environment and addresses individual differences.
 Teacher’s autonomy is essential for personal and professional growth and
development and improvement, so that autonomous teacher seek out
opportunities over the course of his career for developing further.
 Teacher autonomy means providing freedom to study, learn and teach
without any kind of interference from higher authority so that the teacher
can perform his or her role and duty without any fear.
 It is necessary to provide autonomy to the students as well as the teachers
to innovate and devise new learning methodologies so as to serve the diverse
needs of the learners according to the different environmental conditions.
9.6 KEY WORDS
 Academic autonomy: It refers to an autonomy which provides freedom

to the teachers in deciding the curriculum, formulation of objectives, selection
of teaching-learning resources and evaluation of the student learning
outcomes.
 Institutional autonomy: It refers to an autonomy which provides freedom
to the administration as well as the teachers to govern the system of any
institution in an organized manner.
 Student autonomy: It refers to a form of management in which students
have the right to decide the internal control.
 Teacher autonomy: It refers to a form of autonomy which provides freedom
to study, learn and teach without any kind of interference from higher authority
so that the teacher can perform his or her role and duty without any fear.

EXERCISES
1. What do you understand by the term ‘student autonomy’?
2. Write a short note on institutional autonomy.
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134 Material
3. Why are universities not given the status of autonomy? Freedom for Innovation
4. What is the main purpose of institutional autonomy?

5. What are the main functions of bodies of student’s self-government?
Long Answer Questions NOTES
1. Discuss the importance of autonomy in education.

2. Analyse the steps which can be taken to achieve the status of learner
autonomy.
3. Interpret the importance of teacher autonomy in educational institutions.
4. How can autonomous learner’s environment be improved? Discuss in detail.
5. Explain the concept of teacher autonomy.

Kingdom: Routledge.
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Alternative Schools
UNIT 10 ALTERNATIVE SCHOOLS

NOTES Structure
10.0 Introduction
10.1 Objectives
10.2 Alternative Schools: An Introduction and Dalton Plan
10.2.1 Dalton Plan
10.2.3 Howard Plan
10.3 De-Schooling and Ivan Illich: Important Ideas
10.5 Summary
10.6 Key Words
10.0 INTRODUCTION
Alternative schools are designed with a curriculum and methods of education which
are informal and are set up in a non-traditional manner. The American educator,
Helen Parkhurst introduced the concept of Dalton Plan which aimed at reforming
the manner of usual classroom management. It is a method of education in which
pupils work at their own pace and receive individual help from the teachers.
The Winnetka Plan was developed as an educational experiment which
aimed at expanding the educational focus to creative and emotional and social
development of the children. The plan divided the subjects into ‘common essentials’
and ‘creative group activities’. De-schooling refers to a method of education in
which children are taught outside the formal environment of the schools.
In this unit you will learn about the concept of alternative schools. The
Howard programme and Daltons Plan have been explained in detail. The unit will
also discuss the vision of the Winnetka Plan and the concept of de-school. The
importance of learning resources has also been analysed in the unit.
10.1 OBJECTIVES

 Discuss the concept of alternative schools
 Explain the benefits of Dalton Plan
 Analyse the aims of Winnetka Plan and Howard Plan
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136 Material
 Discuss the concept of de-schooling Alternative Schools
 Interpret the importance of learning resources
10.2 ALTERNATIVE SCHOOLS: AN NOTES

INTRODUCTION AND DALTON PLAN
We will in this section discuss about the concept of alternative school and Dalton
Plan.
The alternative schools are majorly designed to incorporate educational,
behavioural, or medical needs of children and adolescents which are difficult to
address in traditional school environment.
Alternative education has long been an option for students who would be
better served in a non-traditional academic setting, from the founding of schools
by leaders in the Transcendentalist movement up to the arrival of Montessori schools
in 1907 and the development of magnet schools in the 1960s.
Today, the concept of alternative education has become broader. In fact,
forty-three different state school systems have their own formal definition of
alternative education, though these programmes are typically for middle and high
school students who need additional services outside of what can be provided in
a traditional school setting or would benefit from different scheduling or instructional
formats than what’s found in your typical school day.
The needs served by alternative schools are as diverse as their student
bodies. There are alternative schools and educational programs for:
 Students with behavioural or emotional difficulties and problems.
 Students with specialized academic interests or talents.
 Students with certain disabilities, medical needs or learning disorders.
 Students who are at risk for dropping out or have dropped out.
 Students who have been suspended or expelled or incarcerated student
parents.
10.2.1 Dalton Plan
The Dalton Plan is an educational concept created by an American educator, Helen
Parkhurst. The Dalton Plan was created to solve didactic organizational problems
in the classroom of different ages of pupils and therefore, Parkhurst wanted to
create a new system that would allow each pupil to have and educational program
adapted to his needs, interests, and abilities. Educator, Roel Roehner wrote in his
book ‘Dalton is neither a method nor a system’.
The main advantage of the Dalton Plan is its flexibility, enabling its application
to all subjects. Through discussion we get complete clarification regarding his ideas
and the plan of procedure.
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Alternative Schools The Dalton Plan education should be associated with autonomous and
progressive style of education. Professor KarelRýdl claims, ‘The Dalton Plan
enables us to make children active in an extreme way and it is “a way of life or an
interpretation of life”’.
NOTES
World Dalton schools in Sydney, Tokyo, Nagoya and New York successfully
raise the level of education in their countries. They are especially famous for their
reputation, for their organization of education and modern technology.
According to author, Stein, ‘The leading educators from the public and
private schools including the universities and from different states of America, visit
Dalton on regular basis to observe the education system, so that they can learn
more about the school’s recognized achievements in the technology.’
The Dalton Plan has already influenced learning processes in many schools
all around the world because of its suitability to every school environment. In
another word, the Dalton organization is not fixed to any national curriculum.
Main Dalton rules and principles
Helen Parkhurst tried to create such a system where a pupil would not be only a
passive receiver of a piece of information which is told to him or her but also an
active one who would use especially responsibility for his behaviour and be free.
The prominent features of the Dalton Plan are responsibility, self-reliance,
cooperation. Parkhurst herself considered that the main principles of the Dalton
Plan freedom of work and cooperation. (R. Roehner, How Actual is Dalton?)
Pupils themselves stand at the centre of an educational process, which has
probably been the strongest value of the Dalton plan. Roel Roehner, the Dutch
Dalton educator, defines the conditions of an effective education. He especially
stresses on the importance of safety, respect, feeling of competency and feeling of
independency: Children must have the feeling of being safe, children must have the
feeling to be competent, children must have the feeling of being independent.
Roel Roehner, whose Dalton teaching practice spans more that 30 years,
takes security as an absolute pre-condition for successful education. In this context
Roehner pertinently uses a well-known Bertrand Russell quotation: ‘What human
beings really want is not knowledge but security’. (R. Roehner, The Effect Of
International Contacts)
Freedom and Responsibility
Helen Parkhurst saw freedom as ‘the first principle of the Dalton Laboratory
Plan’. The idea of freedom incorporates a chance for a pupil to study on his own.
Freedom is expressed as ‘the possibility and necessity to make decisions and be
responsible for them’.
The most significant aspect of the Dalton Plan is the fact that the pupil is
responsible for his or her own work and his or her future development. A child is
taught to understand that learning is their own responsibility.
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A renowned educator, Hans Wenke who puts the Dalton principle into a Alternative Schools
new context changes the term ‘freedom’into the term responsibility. Wenke observed
that:
 It is necessary to give children responsibility.
NOTES
 It is also necessary to make them responsible.
The Winnetka plan was started up as an educational experiment which incorporated
the idea of individualized learning. The Winnetka Plan was developed in 1919
under the leadership of an American educator and reformer, Carleton Washburne
in the elementary school of Winnetka, III, U.S.
Children participating in the Winnetka Plan may undertake many activities
at once. The curriculum is set up in two sections: the common essentials-wherein
the grade work is divided into specific tasks to be learned by each child individually
and through creative activities that includes- art, music, crafts, drama and physical
activities. In this section, the students are free to move on as soon as they master
their skills. On the other hand, the second section had no achievement standards.
The Winnetka Public Schools is a community that honors the whole child,
fosters creativity, inspires lifelong learning, and develops civic responsibility.
Vision
The Winnetka public schools community empowers every student to flourish in an
innovative, experiential environment. We support and challenge all learners to
actively engage in continual growth and achievement to make a meaningful difference
in the world. The following values are taught in the Winnetka public schools:
 Reflection
 Life-long Inquiry
 Whole Child
 Civic Responsibility
 Student Voice
 Creativity and Innovation
 Collaboration
 Meaningful, purposeful, and experiential learning
10.2.3 Howard Plan
The Howard Plan programme helps the students in the following ways:
 By individualizing the instructions and providing children, a supporting
learning environment thereby, improving their reading, language, arts and
mathematical skills.
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Alternative Schools  Development of mutual respect and supportive learning system for the
students and keeping the class size small.
 The parents and the staff monitor the progress of the student daily thereby,
providing ample amount of opportunities to the students so that the get
NOTES
experience of community service as well.
Let us discuss some of the features of the Plantoon plan.
 Once one school in a community has been started on the plan it ‘sells itself’,
that is, the plan is adaptable to any type of community.
 It enables each school system to have an individuality of its own.
 This not only increases the capacity of the school but greatly enriches the
school life of the children.
 It is not necessary that a city be industrial or crowded in order to have this
plan –the plan lends itself to any kind of community.
 The academic work does not suffer but, on the contrary improves under
this plan; and that education seems to be catching in the schools that have
adopted this plan.
Check Your Progress

1. State the main advantage of Dalton Plan.
2. What are the prominent features of Dalton Plan?
10.3 DE-SCHOOLING AND IVAN ILLICH:

IMPORTANT IDEAS
The concept of de-schooling was developed by Ivan Illich, a Croatian-Australian

philosopher which ensures that the idea of self-learning in the child is provided to
the child by the parents and relatives in the school itself. A child is taught in the
comforts of his or her own home and is known as homeschooling. The benefit that
a child gets from homeschooling is that the child can learn as much as he or she
wants to while sitting at home. This method also saves time as well as money.
The most important benefit of de-schooling is that the child does not have
to rush to the market to buy textbooks or learning material, as families can teach
the child in their own way and they therefore, find de-schooling as a better option
than school. It is also useful if a child is suffering from stress, anxiety or bullying at
school. This helps the child to learn at their own pace as child does not to have to
suffer from the stress of examination.
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It also helps in providing an aim to the child. De-schooling is useful for the Alternative Schools
students with low IQ level and feels less confident among his or her classmates.
The child can comfortably discuss his or her problems related to studies with the
parents. He or she can learn by any methodology as it serves individual differences
as well. The child can be taught in multiple ways at the same time. NOTES
Advantages of de-schooling: Arguments for de-schooling society

The following are the advantages listed below of de-schooling:
 Provides opportunity for self-learning.
 Naturalistic learning is possible.
 Child can learn at his or her own pace.
 Enhances family relationships.
 Saves time and money.
 Builds up self-esteem and self-confidence.
 Learning can happen anywhere, at any place.
 Provides opportunity to learn by self-discovery.
 Saves child from stress, anxiety and examination fear.
 Keeps the parents updated about the performance of the child.
 Helps the parents in diagnosing the strengths and weaknesses of the child.
Building family relationships and boosting the child’s self-esteem are far
more important. One will also find that parents themselves need to ‘de-school’.
One must get past the idea that learning only happens in a classroom or
during the duration of 40-minute periods. Education does not start at nine o’clock
in the morning or stop in the afternoon. It is also not necessary that students must
be taught using books and notebooks.
In a sense everything which children do is educational, from the time they
wake up until the time they go to sleep. More formal learning can also happen in
different ways, depending on the child and the circumstances.
Even in the early stages of home education, one can look out for ‘teaching
moments’. This happens when one child is interested in a topic and asks questions.
This is a cue to provide resources, if he or she wants them. Then, parents can help
them develop the skills which he or she needs to research his or her own answers.
One must encourage their children to explore topics in any direction he or she
likes. Learning can take place without any need to write the experience down.
Conclusion
Ivan believes that it is false to claim that most of the learning is the result of teaching.
On the contrary, the teacher in a modern school is in fact acting in three roles as a
custodian of society rituals, as therapist and as a preacher. He also proposes that
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Alternative Schools instead of learning in a society where skill training is widely available and devastated
of the ritualistic elements of schooling, and where citizens freely associate to develop
a critical education, perhaps guided by Masters. He sees in model schools a false
myth of Salvation.
NOTES
He also points out to the fact that however, much amount of money is poured
into public school in it always requires more and more and the outputs do not
increase. It is thus, chasing the myth of unlimited progress. He sees educational
credentials as an element in which one gets credential to enter on the next level but
credential does not measure competence so much as the attendance at a school.
His analysis of manipulative institutions is therefore, concerned to eliminate
spontaneous relating to the point where all relationship are programmed and
managed it sadly all too evident in the recent promotion of technologies of control-
talking CCTV, use of surveillance technologies which would not be out of place in
top security prisons being used completely routinely in schools, and the school
instruments of control which obtain the end by manipulating the criminal justice
system parenting.
The increased influence of different forms of media, especially television, the Internet
as well as Internet communication system along with the intense development of
Science and Technology has reflected and paved the way for a society as a whole
to improve its growth and development this has not only increase the rate of
development of the society but also had involved the sphere of education. This is
why it has become one of the reasons for students as opposed to those of twenty
or even ten years of age who have different interest, priorities and views on education
and educational process. They want education that is fun, dynamic and different,
such as the digital images on television or websites.
Before the development of technology, the teaching process only included
the lecture method which used only a chalk and blackboard to write the teaching
learning material. The entire speech raised the most important asset in the teachers
work, however, in the existing times; it is difficult to imagine teaching children
without the use of different modern teaching and learning resources. These resources
are beneficial not only for students but also for the trainee teachers for their own
overall development of the personality. The teaching learning material has
revolutionized the way of learning thereby, improving the learning capabilities of
the student, enhancing their learning abilities and thus, making the teaching learning
process much more effective and interesting for the students.
The contribution of the teaching learning material aids the teacher in the
organization and quality of conducting the session in the classrooms. Teaching
learning resources includes audio-visual aids, chalk, duster, marker, pen, text-
books, books and any material that can help the child in the improvement of its
learning ability.
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Conclusion Alternative Schools
It is easy to access different teaching and learning resources that can be used in the
teaching learning classrooms. We are reminded of the fact that primarily by using
the textbooks brimming with various teaching learning resources we can enhance NOTES
the learning ability of the students. However, quality teaching is not determined by
using various teaching and learning process instead by the success of students in
academic and co-academic areas. When a teacher encourages the student to gain
knowledge, profile different skills and accept and adopt positive attitude and values
they enhance the complete education system, it is essential for the development of
the nation.
In order to achieve the potential tasks of teaching and learning resources, it
is essential to evaluate and analyse the teaching beliefs which is only possible by
determining the advantages and disadvantages of learning resources.
Check Your Progress

3. What is the most important benefit of de-schooling?
4. What are the advantages of de-schooling?

QUESTIONS
1. The main advantage of the Dalton Plan is its flexibility, enabling its application
to all subjects.
2. The prominent features of the Dalton Plan are responsibility, self-reliance,
cooperation.
3. The most important benefit of de-schooling is that the child does not have
to rush to the market to buy textbooks or learning material, as families can
teach the child in their own way and they therefore, find de-schooling as a
better option than school.
4. The following are the advantages listed below of de-schooling:
(a) Provides opportunity for self-learning.
(b) Naturalistic learning is possible.
(c) Child can learn at his or her own pace.
(d) Enhances family relationships.
(e) Saves time and money.
(f) Builds up self-esteem and self-confidence.
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Alternative Schools (g) Learning can happen anywhere, at any place.
(h) Provides opportunity to learn by self-discovery.
(i) Saves child from stress, anxiety and examination fear.
NOTES
10.5 SUMMARY
 The alternative schools are majorly designed to incorporate educational,

behavioural, or medical needs of children and adolescents which are difficult
to address in traditional school environment.
 Alternative education has long been an option for students who would be
better served in a non-traditional academic setting.
 The Dalton Plan is an educational concept created by an American educator,
Helen Parkhurst. It was created to solve didactic organizational problems
in the classroom of different ages of pupils.
 The main advantage of the Dalton Plan is its flexibility, enabling its application
to all subjects. Through discussion we get complete clarification regarding
his ideas and the plan of procedure.
 The Dalton Plan education should be associated with autonomous and
progressive style of education.
 The Dalton Plan has already influenced learning processes in many schools
all around the world because of its suitability to every school environment.
In another word, the Dalton organization is not fixed to any national
curriculum.
 Helen Parkhurst tried to create such a system where a pupil would not be
only a passive receiver of a piece of information which is told to him but
also an active one who would use especially responsibility for his behaviour
and be free.
 Parkhurst herself considered that the main principles of the Dalton Plan
freedom of work and cooperation.
 Pupils themselves stand at the centre of an educational process, which has
probably been the strongest value of the Dalton plan.
 Roel Roehner, the Dutch Dalton educator, defines the conditions of an
effective education. He especially stresses on the importance of safety,
respect, feeling of competency and feeling of independency.
 Helen Parkhurst saw freedom as ‘the first principle of the Dalton Laboratory
Plan’. The idea of freedom incorporates a chance for a pupil to study on his
own.
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 The most significant aspect of the Dalton Plan is the fact that the pupil is Alternative Schools
responsible for his or her own work and his or her future development.
 A renowned educator, Hans Wenke who puts the Dalton principle into a
new context changes the term ‘freedom’ into the term ‘responsibility’.
NOTES
 The Winnetka plan was started up as an educational experiment which
incorporated the idea of individualized learning.
 Children participating in the Winnetka Plan may undertake many activities
at once. The curriculum is set up in two sections.
 The Winnetka Public Schools is a community that honors the whole child,
fosters creativity, inspires lifelong learning, and develops civic responsibility.
 The Winnetka public schools community empowers every student to flourish
in an innovative, experiential environment.
 The concept of de-schooling was developed by Ivan Illich, a Croatian-
Australian philosopher which ensures that the idea of self-learning in the
child is provided to the child by the parents and relatives in the school itself.
 The most important benefit of de-schooling is that the child does not have
to rush to the market to buy textbooks or learning material, as families can
teach the child in their own way and they therefore, find de-schooling as a
better option than school.
 Ivan believes that it is false to claim that most of the learning is the result of
teaching. On the contrary, the teacher in a modern school is in fact acting in
three roles as a custodian of society rituals, as therapist and as a preacher.
 The contribution of the teaching learning material aids the teacher in the
organization and quality of conducting the session in the classrooms.
 It is easy to access different teaching and learning resources that can be
used in the teaching learning classrooms.
 In order to achieve the potential tasks of teaching and learning resources, it
is essential to evaluate and analyse the teaching beliefs which is only possible
by determining the advantages and disadvantages of learning resources.
10.6 KEY WORDS
 Alternative school: It refers to a type of school in which the curriculum

and method of teaching children are set up in a non-traditional environment.
 Dalton Plan: It refers to a plan which aimed at providing a balance between
the child’s special needs and talents with the needs of the community.
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Alternative Schools  De-schooling: It refers to a method of teaching in which a child is taught in
an informal environment.
 Winnetka plan: It refers to a plan which focused on individualized ungraded
learning and in this method; the curriculum was set up in two different sections.
NOTES

EXERCISES
1. Why are alternative schools set up?
2. How did Hans Wenke viewed Dalton method?
3. List the benefits of the Howard programme.
4. How is the curriculum divided in the Winnetka plan?
5. What are the main of principles of Dalton Plan?
1. Discuss the concept of alternative schools.
2. Explain the importance of Dalton Plan in the education system.
3. Discuss the vision and importance of Winnetka plan.
4. What are learning resources? Discuss in detail.
5. Analyse the concept of de-schooling.

Kingdom: Routledge.
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Distance Education
UNIT 11 DISTANCE EDUCATION

Structure NOTES
11.0 Introduction
11.1 Objectives
11.2 Distance Education: An Introduction
11.2.2 Types of Distance Education
11.3 Distance/Correspondence Education and its Need
11.5 Summary
11.6 Key Words
11.0 INTRODUCTION
The Educational Communications and Technology, defined distance education as

the institution based formal education where the learning group is separated and
interactive communication systems are used to connect the learners, resources
and instructors.
Distance education or distance learning programmes deliver the education
and teaching learning resources without much cost to the students, thus, providing
them flexible learning environment. In order to obtain distance education, the students
need not to be present physically in the traditional classroom settings rather the
student can learn from the material provided by the universities.
Distance education provides access to learning when the source of
information and the learners are separated by time and distance, or both. However,
the distance education courses that require a physical on-site presence of the
teacher for any reason (including taking examinations) are referred to as hybrid or
blended courses.
In this unit, you will discuss the meaning of distance education, its types and
importance. The importance of teacher trainee beliefs and its forms have also
been highlighted. The unit will also explain the different formats and innovative
elements of correspondence courses.
11.1 OBJECTIVES

 Discuss the meaning of distance education
 Explain the teacher trainee beliefs and its forms Self-Instructional
Material 147
Distance Education  Interpret the types of distance education
 Analyse the need of distance education
 Explain the various formats and innovative elements of distance education
NOTES
11.2 DISTANCE EDUCATION: AN INTRODUCTION
Open and distance learning programmes have played a revolutionary role in the
enhancement of teaching and learning programmes. The major role in the online
education system has been credited to the teachers for enhancing the teaching
learning resources and using them for updating the knowledge level of the students.
The online learning system has been initiated since 1960s by United Nations Relief
and Works. These programmes addressed the need for educating the children
belonging to refugee region.
During the first decade of 21st century Open and Distance Learning (ODL)
emerged as a national initial teacher education and training programme in both the
developing as well as developed countries. It has been adopted as a potential
solution to a range of teacher education issues, from cost and supply to access,
diversity and quality.
Majorly ODL are being treated as one of the best strategy to achieve the
World Forums Education for All and the United Nations Millennium Development
Goals.
Distance education has two major components:
1. Distance teaching
2. Distance learning
Distance teaching is the efforts of the educational institutions to design
develop and deliver the instructional experiences to the distant student so that
learning occurs. Education and distance education is therefore, comprised of
teaching and learning.
Pre Service Teacher Education
In the present times, it has been observed that the teaching learning programmes
in the schools is very mechanical and result oriented. It is not able to make student
beliefs, skills and personality of the kind which will enable them to perform their
roles in their job, family and other spheres appropriately.
The root cause for this has been traced to the lack of educational level
among teacher trainees. Where does the teacher acquire knowledge and skill of
reflection? Is it the family or the training institute? When the teacher education
institution takes the task of preparing teachers, it is their responsibility to train the
teacher trainees in the skill of teaching.
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The trainee before entering the teacher education institution already has Distance Education
some beliefs on ‘teaching’, ‘learner’, ‘evaluation’, ‘curricular content’, ‘classroom

environment’. These beliefs are reinforced and shaped by the teacher education
institution through active engagement in its curricula.
NOTES
Much of the teacher’s beliefs come from their own experience as students. Through
their own experience as students, they have formed unconscious beliefs about
themselves and their abilities, about the nature of knowledge, and about how
knowledge is acquired or learned.
Teacher’s beliefs are a part of subjective reality. The beliefs are formed of
what they believe is real and that is true for them. Their beliefs guide their decision-
making, behavior, and interactions with students and, in turn, create an objective
reality in the classroom, what students experience as real and true.
Different Forms of Trainee Teacher Beliefs
Teachers beliefs about students include what it means to be a student, how students
should relate to teachers, and the impact of student differences on classroom
practice and culture. The common teacher beliefs have been discussed as follows:
 Teachers beliefs about learning, classroom and students: It will affect
everything that they do in the classroom, whether these beliefs are implicit
or explicit. We can only be really effective teachers if we are clear in our
minds what we mean by learning, because only then can we know what
kinds of learning outcomes we want our learners to achieve. Teaching well
also means learning well to some extent, and teaching beliefs will impel
them to adopt different teaching-learning methods. When teachers believe
that teaching well primarily depends on making school work interesting,
they will reject as irrelevant parts of the course that focus on reading to
learn.
 Beliefs about Student Activities: Educators, Holt-Reynolds also predicted
about the student teacher beliefs that that many prospective teachers believe
that the academic tasks as well as the activities as less important for learning
than the oral or written text that presented to the learner in the form of the
content to be learned. Activities other than listening to lectures or reading
might be seen as ‘frills’, nice things to do if there is time but not critical for
learning.
 Teachers beliefs about themselves: Teachers hold beliefs about
themselves, who they are in relation to curriculum, colleagues, and students,
perceived strengths and weaknesses, values, and matters about which they
feel responsible. These beliefs may be domain specific; teachers may hold
beliefs about who they are as instructors that are different from their beliefs
about themselves as classroom managers or content experts. These beliefs
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Distance Education may be hierarchically organized in a way that a teacher may believe they
are experts in their fields and they are strong instructors, but they struggle
with classroom management.
A lot of teacher trainees perceive their teaching subjects as intellectually
NOTES
challenging and more closely aligned to their personal interest, hence, the trainees
gets no relevance of teaching practice to their interest except in its assessment
import on their grade point average. They believe that teaching is transmission of
knowledge only. Close monitoring, adequate pacing, classroom management as
well as clarity of presentation, are some of the main beliefs which teacher trainee
believes are essential for student achievement.
Factors Influencing Teacher Trainees Beliefs
The following factors influence teacher trainee beliefs:
 Teacher’s beliefs, practices and attitudes are very important to understand
and improve the educational processes.Teacher’s trainees, as adults, have
already formed professional identity about their profession which are linked
with their experiences of teaching and associated beliefs about learners,
themselves as teachers and of the teaching-learning process.
 A teacher’s beliefs are based on the prior experiences they faced as a
student, the incidents happened in the classroom and outside the classroom
environment.
 We learn most from our friend circle and the kind of environment we are
surrounded by. Observation Learning has powerful influence on formation
of beliefs, values and opinions about the teaching and learning process.
 Some teachers believe that teaching is transmission of timeless facts, that
learning sole depends on teaching and that learning is acquisition of
knowledge. These are preconceptions influencing teacher and learners
interactions in the classroom environment.
Historical Development
While distance learning may seem like a relatively new phenomenon, given its
increased popularity in the online format, in reality people have been taking courses
offered by non-local instructors for hundreds of years. Some of the earliest distance
learning on record dates back to 1728 and offered to teach students how to write
in short hand through lessons sent to their home weekly. These simple, practical
lessons were commonly taught through the mail throughout the 1700’s and 1800’s
and allowed anyone to gain valuable job skills even if they lived well-away from
major centers of education and commerce.
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11.2.2 Types of Distance Education Distance Education
The mode of distance education has two major types, mentioned as follows:
1. Synchronous mode of distance education
NOTES
Through the synchronous mode of distance education programmes, learning is
provided through conventional methods of teaching. Therefore, this method of
teaching and learning resembles the traditional classroom based teaching learning
methodology despite the participants being located remotely. This methodology
of teaching requires the organized development of the timetable.
The different modes of distance education includes Web conferencing,
television, instructional television and direct broadcast satellite based technology,
it also includes the use of Internet radio, live streaming , telephone and Web based
VoIP. The rough synchronous mode of distance education participants can get
distance education theories their flexible timings and can learn at their own pace
and comfort.
2. Asynchronous mode of distance education
Mail correspondence is the oldest form of distance education system. This is the
asynchronous delivery of distance education as there are message forums, email,
video and audio recordings.
When these two methods are combined they offer a blend of technologies
and a blend of learning modalities that includes face to face distance and hybrid
and all under the rubric of distance learning and education.
Distance learning also uses interactive radio instruction, interactive audio
instruction, online virtual worlds, digital games, webinars and web casts.
Check Your Progress

1. What are the two main components of distance education?
2. What are some of the main trainee teacher beliefs?
11.3 DISTANCE/CORRESPONDENCE EDUCATION

AND ITS NEED
Distance education is defined as an independent study which consists of various

forms of teaching-learning arrangement, in which teachers and learners carry out
their essential tasks and responsibilities apart from one another communicating in
a variety of ways.
Its purposes is to provide free education on campus to all the internal learners
in appropriate class placing or pattern, to provide off campus or external learners
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Distance Education with the opportunity to continue learning in their own environment and develop in
all the learners the ability to carry on self-directed learning that is the ultimate
majority required for all the educated individuals.
Educator, Moore opined that distance teaching may be defined as the family
NOTES
of instructional methods in which the teaching behavior, including those that are in
contiguous situation would be performed in the learner’s presence. The
communication between the teacher and learner is facilitated by Print electronic or
other media device.
Another renowned educator, Peters (1973), defined distance education as
a method of imparting knowledge skills and attitude to the learners which is
rationalized by the application of division of labor and organizational principle as
well as by the extensive use of technical media, especially for the purpose of
reproducing high quality material, which makes it possible to instruct great number
of students at the same time wherever they live and construct the knowledge it is
an industrial form of teaching and learning experiences that is to be provided to the
students.
Educator, Holmberg (1981), defines distance education as the kind of
education which cover various forms of education at all the levels which are not
under continuous immediate supervision of tutor present with the study in the lecture
rooms on the same premise, but which benefit from the guided and tuition of a
tutorial organization.
Need of Distance Education
Distance education programmes are most effective when they include careful planning
and consistency among the courses. These courses are periodically reviewed and
evaluated to ensure the quality and consistency with the curriculum currency and
advancement of the student learning outcomes. It is important that the faculty who
are engaged in the delivery of distance learning courses to take the advantage of
appropriate professional developmental experiences.
Faculty must ensure that the incentives and reward for distance learning
course development and delivery are clearly defined and understood. An
assessment plan has to be adapted or developed in order to achieve the effectiveness
continuity and sustainability of the assessment procedure. Course outcome
assessment activities are to be integrated in the assessment plan. Learning activities
must be organized around demonstrable learning outcomes embedded in the course
components.
The development of content for distance learning courses must comply with
the copyright law. The medium chosen to deliver the distance education courses
or programmes must be pedagogically effectual, accessible to all the students and
receptive to different learning styles and sensitive to the time and place limitation
of the students.
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Faculty members involved in the content development must be bewaring of Distance Education
the Institutions policies with regard to the content ownership. The institution must
provide the appropriate sport services for the distance education students so that
the equivalent services are provided for its on campus students. It is important to
provide the appropriate developmental experiences for the faculty members who NOTES
are engaged in the delivery of distance learning resources and management of
distance learning education providing the students with different learning
experiences.
Distance education is thus, needed because of the following reasons:
 Increased access to learning as well as training opportunities.
 Increased opportunities for updating, retaining and personal enrichment.
 Improved cost effectiveness of educational resources.
 Support the quality and variety of educational structures.
 Enhance Co-operative capacity.
 Balance the inequalities between all the age groups.
 Extend geographical access to education.
 Delivery of educational campaigns and other education for educational
resources.
 Providing speedy and efficient training for the people of all the age groups.
 Expanding the capacity of education in new and multidisciplinary subjects.
 Offers the combination of education with family and work life.
Scope of Open and Distance Education Programmes
The scope of distance education programmes can be summed up in the following
points:
 Informatics education and digital literacy.
 Professional development of teachers as well as faculty members.
 The provision of pre-service and in-service teacher education so as to enable
the teacher educators to use and contribute for the development of digital
resources including professional learning network.
 Enhancement of professional development among the teacher trainees.
 Integration of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) knowledge
and practice with other vocational and professional education.
 The use of computer is training methods was to deliver the professional and
vocational education.
 The ongoing professional development and lifelong learning programmes of
ICT practitioners.
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Distance Education  Establishment of models for Informatics curricular, training programmes,
and teaching methodologies.
 Promotion of ongoing education for ICT professionals and doors in the
workplace whose employment involves the use of information communication
NOTES
and technology.
 Consideration of relationship between ICT and the curriculum students.
 Examine the impact of ICT on the whole educational environment so as to
enhance the teaching and learning process.
We will discuss about the formats and innovative elements of distance education
in this section.
 Audio based distance education: Audio based instruction for teacher
education includes radio broadcast, interactive radio instruction, one and
two way audio instruction and increasingly podcast. Like print based
education, radio broadcast have been directly connected with the teachers.
Content is created for the learners, and formal teacher learning occurs outside
the classroom. The advantages of using audio based distance education
resources are as follows:
 Highly scaffold just-in-time professional development: Radio provides
structured, in class, job embedded teacher professional development.
Teacher and student can react both verbally as well as physically to the
prompts, commands, questions, and exercises posed by the different radio
characters. The approach is highly behaviorist, overtime teachers, through
ongoing the playoff broadcast call learn how to perform a set of instructional
activities properly.
 Use of formative assessment: The evaluation procedure becomes easier
and it occurs as a part through the process of audience research during
piloting faces and through periodic interviews, observations.
 Multimedia based distance education: Multimedia based distance
education is extensively used to support the student learning outcomes has
been historically used less for the teacher learning, that disparity is now
changing. In particular, at this point of time digital learning games have been
completely overlooked as a teacher learning tool. Yes multimedia offers a
wide range of benefits to all the learners as well as teachers as well as open
and distance education learning programmes so as to enhance the teaching
learning process.
First, the combination of text, audio, video, colour, animation, and various
other ways of learning afforded by the multimedia are effectively used to address
the needs of the teachers as well as individual differences among the learners so as
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to inculcate motivation for the teaching learning process. Multimedia helps both Distance Education
the teacher as well as the student. It helps the student in learning the material in a
proper way as well as the teacher in updating their knowledge and enhances the
teaching learning process. The different kinds of teaching learning resources that
are being used as a multimedia for distance education programme are as follows: NOTES
(a) CD ROMs, DVDs and VCD
(b) Group teaching and learning software
(c) Web based models- web 2.0 Technology
(d) Immersive environment
(e) Virtual Worlds
(f) Multi user virtual environment
Conclusion
Teacher education is an important anterior wherein distance education has been
used extensively to promote the pre-service teacher preparation, up-gradation of
academic qualification and in-service continuing professional development,
especially for the subject, content area and instructional material. Many examples,
particularly from both the developing as well as developed countries shows that
the teacher training institution at a distance may reach a large number of teachers
as well as the student and have an profound impact on the development of national
education system. Distance education plays an important role during this decade
in helping to address the issues of growing shortage of teachers education,
administrator and other educational professionals experience in both the developing
and developed countries. There is a growing number of high quality web and
professional development resources available for the educator globally. These web
based professional development resources available offer online degree programmes
and courses for the educator across the globe which has been exponentially rising
in the recent years.
Distance education has also played a major role in up-gradation of
knowledge and skills of the teacher educators both in the higher education system
as well as in schooling, research and educational agencies. Weber stitching facility
helps the teacher in up-gradation of the knowledge and skills in the areas of new
technology tools for learning in order so that they may infuse this technology in the
courses they offered to the future teachers.
Finally, distance education and the new tools for learning act as a massive
catalyst for changing teaching practices, the roles of teachers as well as the students
as a part of an overall strategy for system exchange of the educational system to
reflect the current knowledge on human learning and to help the educational system
to be more responsive towards the local as well as national needs and so the
global trend.
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Distance Education
Check Your Progress

3. Why is assessment plan developed in distance education?
NOTES 4. What are the various forms of multimedia used in distance education
programmes?

QUESTIONS
1. The two main components of distance education are distance teaching and
distance learning.
2. Close monitoring, adequate pacing, classroom management as well as clarity
of presentation, are some of the main beliefs which teacher trainee believes
are essential for student achievement.
3. An assessment plan has to be developed in distance education in order to
achieve the effectiveness continuity and sustainability of the assessment
procedure. Course outcome assessment activities are to be integrated in
the assessment plan.
4. The various forms of multimedia used in distance education programmes
are as follows:
(a) CD ROMs, DVDs and VCD
(b) Group teaching and learning software
(c) Web based models- web 2.0 Technology
(d) Immersive environment
(e) Virtual Worlds
(f) Multi user virtual environment
11.5 SUMMARY
 Open and distance learning programmes have played a revolutionary role

in the enhancement of teaching and learning programmes.
 The major role in the online education system has been credited to the
teachers for enhancing the teaching learning resources and using them for
updating the knowledge level of the students.
 During the first decade of 21st century Open and Distance Learning (ODL)
emerged as a national initial teacher education and training programme in
both the developing as well as developed countries.
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 Distance teaching is the efforts of the educational institutions to design Distance Education
develop and deliver the instructional experiences to the distant student so

that learning occurs.
 Much of the teacher’s beliefs come from their own experience as students.
NOTES
Through their own experience as students, they have formed unconscious
beliefs about themselves and their abilities, about the nature of knowledge,
and about how knowledge is acquired or learned.
 Teacher’s beliefs are a part of subjective reality. The beliefs are formed of
what they believe is real and that is true for them.
 Teachers beliefs about students include what it means to be a student, how
students should relate to teachers, and the impact of student differences on
classroom practice and culture.
 A lot of teacher trainees perceive their teaching subjects as intellectually
challenging and more closely aligned to their personal interest, hence, the
trainees gets no relevance of teaching practice to their interest except in its
assessment import on their grade point average.
 Close monitoring, adequate pacing, classroom management as well as clarity
of presentation, are some of the main beliefs which teacher trainee believes
are essential for student achievement.
 Teacher’s beliefs, practices and attitudes are very important to understand
and improve the educational processes.
 A teacher’s beliefs are based on the prior experiences they faced as a student,
the incidents happened in the classroom and outside the classroom
environment.
 Through the synchronous mode of distance education programmes, learning
is provided through conventional methods of teaching.
 Mail correspondence is the oldest form of distance education system. This
is the asynchronous delivery of distance education as there are message
forums, email, video and audio recordings.
 Distance education is defined as an independent study which consists of
various forms of teaching-learning arrangement, in which teachers and
learners carry out their essential tasks and responsibilities apart from one
another communicating in a variety of ways.
 Distance education programmes are most effective when they include careful
planning and consistency among the courses.
 Faculty must ensure that the incentives and reward for distance learning
course development and delivery are clearly defined and understood.
 An assessment plan has to be adapted or developed in order to achieve the
effectiveness continuity and sustainability of the assessment procedure.
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Distance Education  Faculty members involved in the content development must be bewaring of
the Institutions policies with regard to the content ownership.
 Audio based instruction for teacher education includes radio broadcast,
interactive radio instruction, one and two way audio instruction and
NOTES
increasingly podcast.
 Multimedia based distance education is extensively used to support the
student learning outcomes has been historically used less for the teacher
learning, that disparity is now changing.
 Teacher education is a an important anterior where in distance education
has been used extensively to promote the pre-service teacher preparation,
up-gradation of academic qualification and in-service continuing professional
development, especially for the subject, content area and instructional
material.
 Distance education play an important role during this decade in helping to
address the issues of growing shortage of teachers education administrator
and other educational professionals experience in both the developing and
developed countries.
 Distance education has also played a major role in up-gradation of
knowledge and skills of the teacher educators both in the higher education
system as well as in schooling, research and educational agencies.
11.6 KEY WORDS
 Distance education: It refers to an independent study which consists of

various forms of teaching-learning arrangement, in which teachers and
learners carry out their essential tasks and responsibilities apart from one
another communicating in a variety of ways.
 Distance teaching: It refers to the efforts made by the educational
institutions to design develop and deliver the instructional experiences to
the distant student so that learning occurs.
 Synchronous mode of distance education: It refers to a mode of distance
education programmes in which learning is provided through conventional
methods of teaching
 Trainee teachers beliefs: It refers to beliefs which a teacher has about
students, such as what it means to be a student, how students should relate
to teachers, and the impact of student differences on classroom practice
and culture.
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Distance Education
EXERCISES
Short-Answer Questions NOTES
1. What is pre-service teacher education?

2. Why is distance education a necessary form of education?
3. What are the factors which influence trainee teacher beliefs?
4. What are the different types of formats in distance education?
5. How has distance education changed the teaching practices?
1. Explain the concept of distance education.
2. Discuss the common trainee teacher beliefs in detail.
3. Analyse the types of distance education.
4. Discuss the scope of distance education programmes.
5. Why is teacher education an important part of distance education? Explain
in detail.

Kingdom: Routledge.
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System Approach
BLOCK - IV
SYSTEM APPROACH, LANGUAGE
LABORATORY AND NETWORK
NOTES
UNIT 12 SYSTEM APPROACH

Structure
12.0 Introduction
12.1 Objectives
12.2 Instructional Design and its Functions: Developing the Model
12.3 Criteria for Evaluating System Analysis Project
12.3.1 Application of System Analysis in Education
12.5 Summary
12.6 Key Words
12.0 INTRODUCTION
Instructional design is defined as the process in which creation of learning

experiences and materials take place in such a way that acquisition of knowledge
and skills take place. A system can be defined as a collection of interrelated parts
which constitutes a larger whole.
The systems approach provides a basis to the learning and teaching solutions
which is related to the development of modern education. System approach must
be planned, designed, developed, installed and managed so that it can yield great
results in the field of education.
In this unit, the meaning of instructional design and system approach has
been discussed in detail. The procedure and the steps of system approach have
been explained. The unit will also help you to analyse the criteria to evaluate the
system approach of a project.
12.1 OBJECTIVES

 Discuss the functions of instructional design
 Explain the concept of system approach
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 Analyse the procedure of system approach System Approach
 Discuss the criteria related to the evaluation of system analysis projecton

 Explain the uses of system analysis in the field of educat
NOTES
12.2 INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN AND ITS
FUNCTIONS: DEVELOPING THE MODEL
Instructional design is concerned with an application of modern skills and techniques

for the requirement of education and training. It includes facilitation of learning by
manipulation of media, methods and the control of environment so far as this reflects
on learning.
Functions of Instructional Design
Instructional design provides the scientific basis for the instructional system. It
develops the professional skill and efficiency of teachers. The sequence of teaching
acts or events that a teacher plans, organizes and carries out to create a learning
environment for the students is called instructional design. Instructional design is
created because of the following reasons:
 The instructional task is analysed for the structure of content.
 Learners responses are analysed in terms of objectives and level of learning.
The entry behaviours of the students are studied and appropriate stimuli are
given for better performance.
 Teaching strategies, techniques and approaches are selected by the teachers
for presenting the content so that the desired learning structure results.
 The performance of student is assessed to find out if the objective of learning
has been realized.
Instructional design is therefore, concerned with the structuring of the content
to create a suitable learning environment, the selection of appropriate teaching
strategies and methods, and the assessment of the performance level of the students.
The different phases in instructional design are as follows:
 Stimulating motivation
 Informing the learners the objectives of learning
 Gaining and directing attention
 Enhancing retention and transfer
 Providing learning guidance
 Eliciting performance
 Providing feedback
 Assessing performance
 Reviewing the process on the basis of assessment Self-Instructional
Material 161
System Approach When a teacher designs his or her instructional hours, he or she should be
conscious of the need to motivate the students not only at the beginning of the
class but right through, whenever the opportunity arises. Through motivation,
attention is sought, and the teacher adopts several ways to maintain it. Some of
NOTES these steps may include listing the objective of learning for a particular topic,
enhancing retention of material learnt during the class by active questioning and
providing feedback on the responses given by the students. The questions should
not only aim at recall responses but also include reflective thinking, reviewing,
generalizing and reasoning. Selected instructional aids and media can also be used
for better learning outcomes. The learning experiences thus, provided may be
assessed for replanning the instructional design.
The special meaning of the term ‘systems’ and such related terms as ‘systems
concept’, and ‘systems approach’ and ‘systems analysis’, emerged during and
after World War II as a result of research and development in problem solving,
efficiency analysis and most important, the development of complex man-machine
systems.
A classic example of this is the development of combat aircraft during World
War II. In building such aircraft, designers realized that they could not simply take
an existing airplane and add communications and detection equipment, weapons,
bomb and fuel storage space. Adding such equipment at random restricted the
plane’s carrying capacity, range of flight, and other vital functions. Thus, a new
methodology of planning and development emerged, in which designers learned
that they first had to identify the purpose and performance expectations of the
system before developing the component parts of the whole system. It is the system
as a whole - and not its separate parts - that must be planned, designed, developed,
installed and managed. What is really important is not how the individual
components function separately, but the way they are integrated into the system to
achieve its goal.
The concept of system analysis has emerged during Second World War. It
has greatly influenced management decision making in business, industry,
government and military. Known by several terms, system analysis had gained
considerable standardization.
Meaning of System Analysis
The word system has been derived from the field to engineering. A system is the
sum total of agents working independently and dependently together to achieve
the required goals. The term ‘system’ conveys the meaning of analysis and
development.
The term ‘system analysis’ emerged from the scientific management concept.
In general, it involves utilization of scientific mathematical techniques applied to
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organizational operation as a part of management decision making activities. It System Approach
assumes that no comprehensive system development can take place without prior
system analysis. It enables the administrators to use more scientific and quantitative
methods for analyzing management problems.
NOTES
The field of educational administration is becoming with the set quantitative-
scientific techniques that helps the educational administrators in the decision making
process. System technology brings to educational management a scientific-
quantitative approach for solving complex educational administrative problems.
The system analyst gives a system development project meaning and direction.
A candidate system is approached after the analyst has a thorough understanding
of user needs and problems. A viable solution is worked out and then communicates
the same. Candidate systems often cut across the boundaries of users in the
organization. For example, a billing system may involve users in the sales order
department, the credit department, the warehouse and the accounting department.
To make sure that all users’ needs are met, a project from that represents each
user works with the analysis to carry out a system development project.
The following steps must be utilized for conducting system analysis study:
 First Step: Formulation of objectives: To formulate the specific objectives
to be achieved. To state objectives in general terms an objective may be
written in behavioral terms of fiscal functions.
 Second Step: Review of System operation: It includes a comprehensive
review of the system operation. System analysis is problem-oriented. It is
necessary to understand the system operation. The administrators do not
always understand the main problem. Comprehensive review of the whole
system is necessary to isolate the main problem to the solved.
 Third Step: Collection of data: The review of system for identifying the
main problem yields the data within the problem area. It involves the statistical
techniques and procedure. In many situations, the aspects of system analysis
are the application of classical statistical procedure.
 Fourth Step: Analysis of data: It is done to make data meaningful. It is
employed to experimental paradigms to study the effect of independent
variable upon dependent variable. An objective analysis is made for
determining the influence of variables. The investigator is concerned with
interaction of many variables. This primary concern is to obtain correlation
not to establish cause and effect.
 Fifth Step: Isolation of the problem: In order to isolate specific problem
of the system, it is necessary to follow earlier steps. The collection and
analysis of data helps in identifying and defining the problem.
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System Approach  Sixth Step: Specify operations in the problem: After identifying the
specific problem, it is necessary to review the operations within problem
area. It is much more comprehensive than the original review of the total
operations. It helps to understand the relationship of all facts of the problem
NOTES to the total operation system.
 Seventh Step: Block Diagram: In the final step, the problem is in the
analytical stage of the system analysis; a block diagram is prepared for all
functions of the sub-system that make up problem area. It denotes logical
structure of the sub-system operations and similar to the block diagram.
Procedure of System Anlaysis: Selecting and Designing
We will in this section discuss the procedure of system analysis.
1. Design: After the system analysis, the investigator attempts to design and
tentative solution of the problem. A new solution of the problem is subjected
to testing. A tentative solution and retesting the tentative solution continues
until an analyst reaches to an optimal solution. Once optimal solution is
obtained, the analyst departs that loop.
2. Evaluation: The formal evaluation of the new solution is made for checking
out its workability. It involves implementation of tentative solution in some
aspect of the system. The analyst proceeds through the same steps of loop
as mentioned earlier. It is advisable to evaluate all new system solutions in
small scale of the required operations.
3. System operations: The new design has been implemented within the
system for formal evaluation and acceptance for the solution of the problem.
It involves two aspects-
(a) It is concerned with implementation of new system operations.
(b) It requires the maintenance of the system where a new system is
designed. It continues as monitory of the system in order to check the
effectiveness of the system.
In designing the system there are four functions that need to be accomplished.
They are as follows:
(a) Selection and organization of the content
(b) Selection and organization of the learning experiences
(c) Managing the learners
(d) Evaluation
Let us now discuss these aspects in detail.
 Selection and organization of the content: Most subjects provide
unlimited scope for choice of content. Selection is, therefore, a decision-
making operation demanding a sound rational basis. Characterization
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of the learning task is a primary basis for content selection as is information System Approach
on the type of learning represented by a task.

For example, in the field of foreign languages, appropriate considerations
affecting and influencing the selection of content include frequency of
NOTES
occurrence, availability of the item, its flexibility of expression and its
learnability. The content selected has to be in line with the academic
achievement and aptitude of each individual. The span and type of interest
of the learner, his needs, his ability to comprehend the abstract or concrete
and the specific level and style of his learning must also be considered.
This rationale emphasizes the need for available alternatives in the content.
 Organization must follow selection: The most important strategies
here are sequencing, arrangement and presentation. Two factors
determine the sequences:
(a) The type of learning that a learning task represents and
(b) The notion of a logical sequence.
The characterization of certain learning tasks should be established. Within
the domain of a subject matter, learning tasks that represent response
learning should be pursued before tasks of the chain or multiple-
discrimination type. The learning of specific concepts should precede
the learning of any principle comprised of these concepts. Problem solving
cannot be attempted until the principles to be used in the solution of the
problem are established or mastered.
Within the realm of a specific kind of learning, tasks should be further
ordered in a logical sequence. The designer should determine what should
be known by the learner to undertake the learning of this specific task.
To supply this information, arrangement of the learning priorities can be
constructed. These learning priorities will state, for example, that the
learning of task A is prerequisite to the learning of task Â and the learning
of task Â to task Ñ etc.
The arrangement of course content is a complex operation which requires
appraisal of the compatibility of content units with the types and amount
of learning that a selected content requires. Presentation is the final phase
in the selection and organization of the content. During this operation the
content selected as a result of the strategies described above, will be
integrated into specific learning sequences, and specific learning units to
be presented for the next phase of instructional systems development.
 The management of learners: It is process of identifying and affecting
the functions that keep the learner participating productively in the learning
activities. In developing a design for management of the learner’s
adequate data about the learner is needed to introduce short term and
long-term incentives and to meet the individual requirements so that he
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System Approach can be kept optimally involved in learning. This management also includes
the design of procedures and strategies to provide the teacher with an
appropriate selection of suitable curriculum alternatives.
 Monitoring of the learner and of the system: It poses a continuous
NOTES
inquiry into the learner’s achievements and into the effectiveness and
efficiency of the system. More specifically, the designer of the system
must find answers to the following questions. On the basis of the progress
the learner is making, is he likely to attain his terminal objectives? If not,
what adjustments ought to be made? Are the functions provided by the
system the best to achieve the system’s goals. What are some of the
shortcomings? It could be by pursuing these inquiries and monitoring
the learner and the system continuously.
Check Your Progress

1. State any one use of system analysis.
2. What are the two main aspects of system analysis?
12.3 CRITERIA FOR EVALUATING SYSTEM

ANALYSIS PROJECT
Performance, cost, utility and time are included in any evaluation system. The total
system should operate in an optimal fashion. These criteria are as follows:
1. Performance: The effectiveness of a system evaluated on the basis of
performance. The design of the problem solution ascertains how far the
new system is effective in achieving the objectives. The performance criterion
is the concept of validity of the new system. The system is valid if it does
what it is supposed to do. Thus, much of the evaluation of the performance
is quantitative.
2. Cost: Analysis of system is influenced by cost function. The amount of
resources is put into the system function in terms of money, staff and facilities.
Comparisons are made regarding the investment resources in the new and
old system of education. This is valuable criterion for evaluation system
analysis projects.
3. Utility: The ultimate criterion for evaluating system project is utility of the
system. The return on investment represents the utility of a given function.
Many educational functions require an assignment of a numerical utility.
4. Time: Time factor as an evaluative criterion is closely associated with
effectiveness. It is particularly relevant criterion in evaluating system projects.
There is high correlation between time and cost. Much of the contribution
of modern electronic data processing involves time.
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12.3.1 Application of System Analysis in Education System Approach
The purpose of the system analysis is to get the ‘Best environment in the best
place, for the best people, at the best time and in the best price’. ‘The system
approach in instruction is an integrated, programmed complex of instructional media, NOTES
hardware and personal whose components are structured as single unit with a
schedule of time and sequential phasing’.
The system analysis greatly influences the educational administration and
organization. It provides scientific and quantitative basis for studying the problems
of educational system. The educational implication of system analysis has been
found in the following areas of education:
1. Approach: It brings to educational management a scientific-quantitative
approach for solving complex education administrative problems.
2. Problems: It enables educational administrator to identify the actual
problem and abstains a verified solution of the problem.
3. Training: The training programmes can also be improved with the help
of system analysis. The new concept of management may be implemented
in training programs.
4. Sub-systems: The sub-systems of education are analysed to understand
the actual problem and tentative solutions can be verified or tested on a
segment of the system.
5. Change: Any change in the educational system can be brought
objectively, empirically and economically with great utility with the help
of system analysis.
Conclusion
The basis of a system for learning is its purpose from which systems objectives
can be derived. From this the designer has to determine the variables to be learned
to ensure the attainment of these pre-stated objectives.
Input competence for the learner can be assessed to see if he has already
acquired capabilities relevant to his learning task. The differential analysis of learning
tasks as opposed to input competence provides a set of actual learning experiences.
Once the learning tasks have been identified and characterized the design of the
system can commence.
It is essential to consider the functions of the system to ensure the mastery
of learning tasks. Functions have to be distributed among components; decisions
made on this basis lead to the design of the system. After evaluation and training
for the system, installation should follow. Finally, the feedback gained from output
testing and system monitoring is used to introduce adjustment and improvements
in the system.
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System Approach
Check Your Progress

3. How is analysis of system influenced by cost function?
NOTES 4. What is the main use of system analysis?

QUESTIONS
1. It enables the administrators to use more scientific and quantitative methods

for analysing management problems.
2. The two main aspects of system analysis are as follows:
(a) It is concerned with implementation of new system operations.
(b) It requires the maintenance of the system where a new system is
designed. It continues as monitory of the system in order to check the
effectiveness of the system.
3. Analysis of system is influenced by cost function. The amount of resources
is put into the system function in terms of money, staff and facilities.
Comparisons are made regarding the investment resources in the new and
old system of education.
4. The system analysis greatly influences the educational administration and
organization. It provides scientific and quantitative basis for studying the
problems of educational system.
12.5 SUMMARY
 Instructional design is concerned with an application of modern skills and

techniques for the requirement of education and training.
 Instructional design provides the scientific basis for the instructional system.
It develops the professional skill and efficiency of teachers.
 Instructional design is therefore, concerned with the structuring of the content
to create a suitable learning environment, the selection of appropriate
teaching strategies and methods, and the assessment of the performance
level of the students.
 When a teacher designs his or her instructional hours, he or she should be
conscious of the need to motivate the students not only at the beginning of
the class but right through, whenever the opportunity arises.
 The concept of system analysis has emerged during Second World War. It
has greatly influenced management decision making in business, industry,
Self-Instructional
government and military.
168 Material
 A system is the sum total of agents working independently and dependently System Approach
together to achieve the required goals. The term ‘system’ conveys the meaning
of analysis and development.
 The term ‘system analysis’ emerged from the scientific management concept.
NOTES
In general, it involves utilization of scientific mathematical techniques applied
to organizational operation as a part of management decision making
activities.
 System technology brings to educational management a scientific-quantitative
approach for solving complex educational administrative problems.
 The system analyst gives a system development project meaning and direction.
A candidate system is approached after the analyst has a thorough
understanding of user needs and problems.
 After the system analysis, the investigator attempts to design and tentative
solution of the problem.
 The formal evaluation of the new solution is made for checking out its
workability. It involves implementation of tentative solution in some aspect
of the system.
 Most subjects provide unlimited scope for choice of content. Selection is,
therefore, a decision-making operation demanding a sound rational basis.
 The characterization of certain learning tasks should be established. Within
the domain of a subject matter, learning tasks that represent response learning
should be pursued before tasks of the chain or multiple-discrimination type.
 Within the realm of a specific kind of learning, tasks should be further ordered
in a logical sequence.
 The arrangement of course content is a complex operation which requires
appraisal of the compatibility of content units with the types and amount of
learning that a selected content requires.
 The management of learners is a process of identifying and affecting the
functions that keep the learner participating productively in the learning
activities.
 The effectiveness of a system evaluated on the basis of performance. The
design of the problem solution ascertains how far the new system is effective
in achieving the objectives.
 Analysis of system is influenced by cost function. The amount of resources
is put into the system function in terms of money, staff and facilities.
 The ultimate criterion for evaluating system project is utility of the system.
The return on investment represents the utility of a given function.
 Time factor as an evaluative criterion is closely associated with effectiveness.
It is particularly relevant criterion in evaluating system projects.
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System Approach  The system analysis greatly influences the educational administration and
organization. It provides scientific and quantitative basis for studying the
problems of educational system.
 The basis of a system for learning is its purpose from which systems
NOTES
objectives can be derived. From this the designer has to determine the
variables to be learned to ensure the attainment of these pre-stated objectives.
 Input competence for the learner can be assessed to see if he has already
acquired capabilities relevant to his learning task.
 The differential analysis of learning tasks as opposed to input competence
provides a set of actual learning experiences.
 Functions have to be distributed among components; decisions made on
this basis lead to the design of the system.
12.6 KEY WORDS
 Instructional design: It refers to a design which is concerned with an

application of modern skills and techniques for the requirement of education
and training.
 System: It refers to the sum total of agents working independently and
dependently together to achieve the required goals.
 System analysis: It refers to analyses which involve utilization of scientific
mathematical techniques applied to organizational operation as a part of
management decision making activities.

EXERCISES
1. Why is instructional design created?
2. What are the different phases of instructional design?
3. Write a short note on the role of a system analyst.
4. What are the various steps involved in the process of system analysis?
5. Why is the arrangement of course content a complex operation?
1. Discuss the concept of system approaches.
2. Interpret the procedure of system analysis.
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3. ‘It is essential to consider the functions of the system to ensure the mastery System Approach
of learning tasks’. Explain the statement.

4. Discuss the function related to the designing of system operations.
5. Analyse the criteria related to the evaluation of system analysis project. NOTES

Kingdom: Routledge.
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Language Laboratory
UNIT 13 LANGUAGE LABORATORY

NOTES Structure
13.0 Introduction
13.1 Objectives
13.2 Language Laboratory and its Need
13.3 Method of Providing Training and Language Operation Procedures
13.4 Audio Cards, CCTVs, Compact Disc, Tele-Lecture and Tele-Conferencing
13.6 Summary
13.7 Key Words
13.0 INTRODUCTION
The word ‘laboratory’ originated in the late 15th century. It refers to a specific
structure or a room for mixing chemicals and preparing medicines by science
experts. Scientists used to follow structured steps to perform their experiments
and research purpose. With the progress of science few types of mechanical and
electronic equipments were added to this structure.
Later on this structure was introduced for teaching-learning process. Any
learner can develop one’s subject knowledge practically in controlled conditions.
Observe and improve through own experience is the key concern of any laboratory.
Today specific requirements of subjects and technology have changed the form of
laboratories. It has transcended the boundaries of various subjects. Nowadays
laboratory is been used by engineering and language students as well. Popularly it
is abbreviated as lab.
In this unit, we will understand the concept of language laboratory and its
need. The uses of a laboratory, the points to be considered while constructing a
laboratory and criteria related to the equipments in a laboratory have been
discussed. The unit will also help you to analyse the advantages of a laboratory
and the various forms of media which are used in a laboratory.
13.1 OBJECTIVES

 Discuss the meaning and importance of language laboratory
 Analyse the importance of language laboratory
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 Interpret the steps to be considered while constructing a laboratory Language Laboratory
 Explain the criteria related to equipment in a laboratory

 Discuss the methods related to training for working in a language laboratory
 Analyse the advantages of a language laboratory NOTES
 Discuss the various forms of communication modes used in a language
laboratory
13.2 LANGUAGE LABORATORY AND ITS NEED
We will in this section discuss the meaning and importance of language laboratory.
A language laboratory is a classroom or other area containing electronic
and mechanical equipment designed and arranged to make foreign-language learning
more effective than is usually possible without it.
Language laboratories may be very broadly classified into two groups
according to the way they fit into the school’s plan of operation. One group includes
all class systems; according to this plan of operation, laboratory work is scheduled
by classes. The second group includes all library systems; according to this plan of
operation, laboratory work is conceived as comparable to library work, students
attending at their own convenience, or scheduled at times unrelated to their language
class meetings. Functional and budgetary considerations make, it necessary that
many different features in many different physical arrangements be available to
either type of system. So that the reader may become generally familiar with typical
installations, a representative .system from each group is described here, and some
common terms are defined.
In both class and library systems, students sit at tables, and may be partially
isolated from one another by dividing partitions. The space allotted to a single
student is called a student position or student station; if dividing partitions are
used, the resulting semi closed-individual space is called a booth.
Change is the law of nature. With the needs of time, a number of changes in
the methods and processes of language teaching in schools as well as in the training
in the colleges of education. It has been resulted on account of the some or other
innovations introduced recently in the task of teaching of the student and training
of the pupil teachers.
The study of language is not possible without a laboratory. The student can obtain
proper and complete knowledge of the subject when the student works in the
laboratory by himself, observes and based on these, he or she deduces conclusions
and reaches the result. The word, ‘laboratory’ word is used for large room where
practical classes are conducted.
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Language Laboratory The aims and objectives of language cannot be achieved without laboratory.
There should be no distinction in practical and theoretical work in fact both should
complement each other.
The objectives of laboratory work and the learning outcomes of laboratory
NOTES
experience are as follows:
 Awakening and maintenance of curiosity in the environment
 Illustration and verification of abstract ideas
 Development of skills, using hearing booths, console and adviser’s booth
 Control Room
 Prepare students for higher studies and careers
 Develop habit of speaking, reading, writing and listening
 Have a clear understanding of concept
 Improve observation and critical thinking
Language Laboratory Construction
A good laboratory should be designed in keeping in view the following points:
 It must be spacious so that students can work and moved easily
 Quite and conducive for hard work
 Should have fresh air, ventilation, light and heat
 Flexible for effective teaching and demonstration
 Must permit teachers supervision
 Storage space for chemicals and equipment’s
 Must have water, gas and electric points
 Emergency exit
 Must have hearing booths, console booth and control room
Planning for infrastructure
The following points must be considered while constructing a biology laboratory.
 The number of pupils working at a time
 Minimum space required for each pupil
 Place for storage
 Complete teacher supervision
 Each student can see the demonstration
 Blackboard is visible to each student
 Master switches for water, gas and electricity
 Available finance
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Similarly, the following points must be considered while constructing a Language Laboratory
laboratory:
 Location: Preferable located at the ground floor away from playground.
 Flexibility: Suitable for different types of activities in language club. NOTES
 Furniture: Should be portable and adaptable almirah with glass panel.
 Ventilation: Proper ventilation should be provided exhaust fan must be
provided.
 Supervision: The class should be in visual control of teacher.
 Safety: Master controls and first date should be readily available.
 Weight bench area: Separate area for distribution, intercom and
monitoring switches
 Pupil working area: Enough space, acid resistant table, stool, water
supply, bookshelf, wall clock and All-call switches.
 Teacher working area: Demonstration table with a blackboard. A fixed
screen for projections, films and diagrams. Blackboard 10' x 4’ dark
green or brown.
 Preparation area: Preparations equipped with all services like light,
gas, electric points, waste disposal shelving and cupboards.
 Storage room: Storage space for prepared materials, equipment’s,
apparatus, charts, and models, audio visual aids, almirah, racks and
sink.
 Reference room: Consult books.
 Display Board: Arouse curiosity and stimulate interest and raise
questions.
 Fire extinguisher: In bio laboratory there is less chance of fire. It should
have 1 fire extinguisher and one fire blanket.
Importance of a Laboratory
The following are the points which highlight the main uses of a laboratory:
 In a laboratory, the student learns different languages.
 The student learns from his or her experience. They develop the power of
thinking, observation and decision-making.
 The students develop self-discipline and self-confidence.
 The student understands the topic clearly and easily.
 Favorable atmosphere is created for science teaching.
 Working collectively, they develop the spirit of sociability.
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Language Laboratory Criteria for Equipment Selection
The criteria for selecting the equipment in a laboratory has been explained in the
following section.
NOTES  The criterion of adequate practice time: In view of the indispensable
requirement of frequent, regular practice, equipment should be provided to
allow at least twenty minutes use per class day per student. This means
that, considering the number of students involved and the funds and space
available, it may be advisable to install equipment that is far simpler. Effective
use of good materials can begin with a single tape recorder or disk playback
in each classroom at any level.
 The criterion of evaluation of progress: In view of the nature and
importance of our grading system, provision should be made for tests of
speaking ability. Students cannot be expected to learn to speak the foreign
language if that skill is not to be evaluated regularly by tests. This means that
there must be access to several tape recorders, enough to permit testing
without serious disturbance of class schedules.
 The criterion of extended practice: In view of the requirement of frequent,
regular practice, provision should be made for more work with recorded
native models than can be supplied in the presence of the teacher. This
criterion of outside-of-class or homework stems again from the close analogy
between learning a foreign language and learning to play a musical instrument.
In neither case are we doing complete justice to the student’s need for
practice if we confine his efforts to the time we can afford in the presence of
his teacher.
Check Your Progress

1. What are the main uses of a laboratory?
2. Why is the study of language not possible without a laboratory?
13.3 METHOD OF PROVIDING TRAINING AND

LANGUAGE OPERATION PROCEDURES
A detailed consideration of the nature of language and language learning, the teaching
methods consistent with it, and the kinds of teaching materials most likely to
implement these methods effectively, lead to certain assumptions which are basic
to the planning, use, and maximum exploitation of language-laboratory equipment.
The points to be considered are as follows:
1. Optimum learning requires native or near-native models of the foreign
language for imitation.
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2. Optimum learning calls for frequent, regular practice with these models, Language Laboratory
with overlearning to the point of automatic behavior in the foreign language.

3. Optimum teaching emphasizes extensive imitation and memorization of
authentic, productive patterns of speech, extensive structure drills designed
NOTES
to foster the students’ powers of analogy, immediate confirmation of correct
responses, and immediate correction of incorrect responses.
4. The teaching materials, therefore, must provide authentic speech patterns,
arranged in some form which permits them to be used as models for imitation
and memorization. The dialogue is a powerful tool for the presentation and
learning of model or pattern sentences, since it emphasizes that communication
ordinarily involves at least two people and teaches the appropriate
grammatical structures. Each pattern sentence, of necessity, contains one
or more such structures, which occur repeatedly in the language. The
materials must also provide the drills by means of which the structures learned
in the pattern sentences are manipulated, highlighting necessary form and
order changes, in enough quantity so that the student can, by analogy,
automatically extend his use of these structures by the simple substitution of
new vocabulary.
5. There is usually an initial period of exclusively audio-lingual (understanding-
speaking) instruction; books and other printed materials are not used, and
no reference is made to the written forms of what the student is learning to
understand and say. The reasons for thus, postponing the use of printed
materials derive from the need to allot all available time at the beginning of
the course to the difficult primary skills of understanding and speaking, and
from the need to avoid interference from written symbols until a proper
foundation for good audio-lingual habits has been laid. The mechanics of
subsequently learning to read and write are simplified by this order of
presentation, since the number of simultaneous new learning tasks is thereby
reduced at every point in the instructional sequence. Explicit procedures for
teaching reading and writing in an audio-lingual course are required, of course,
just as a child is not expected to learn to read and write his own language by
himself. After this exclusively audio-lingual period and throughout the first
350 hours of instruction, new material is presented so that the student learns
to understand and speak it before dealing with its written form.
6. The audio-lingual skills can be maintained and increased only by continued
practice throughout all the years of foreign-language study. The level of
difficulty of audio-lingual practice materials should increase in keeping with
the difficulty of the reading and writing materials.
A language laboratory has three sections:
1. Hearing Booth: A language laboratory has generally sixteen to twenty
hearing booths. In each hearing booth, there is a chair and a table at which
a student can sit and work. It is provided with the telephone connected with
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Language Laboratory an adviser’s booth, earphones and switches for selecting the tape from the
control room for playing and hearing the same, allows the student to record
his own voice, and provides for stopping, rewinding and replaying the tape.
Each booth has four-foot high walls or partitions so that each student can
NOTES work without disturbing others. The students indicate the lesson by pressing
a key. If needed, he can communicate directly with the adviser and seek his
or her assistance.
2. The Console: The Console or adviser’s room has one or more tapes and
special equipment to monitor any student, thereby ensuring two-way
communication. The console has the following switches:
 Distribution switches for directing the recorded programmes for the
students sitting in different booths.
 Monitoring switches for enabling the teacher to listen and interact with
any student as he works with the tape. This is necessary for correcting
the errors in procedure, linguistic errors and evaluating and grading the
students.
 Intercom switches for two-way communication with any individual
student.
 Group call switches for making announcements to all the students in the
laboratory, who are listening to a tape.
 All call switches for making announcements for all the students in the
laboratory, regardless of the programme they are working on.
3. Control Room: The Control Room has all the tapes, records and other
equipment’s of the language laboratory properly indexed and stored so that
it can be readily made available to the student upon its request.
There are some certain specific advantages related to language laboratory and are
as follows:
 In a language laboratory, all students present can practice aloud
simultaneously, yet individually. In a class of 30 students, 29 are not idle
while one is busy.
 The teacher is free to focus his attention on three individual student’s
performance without interrupting the work of the group C.
 Certain language laboratory facilities can provide for differences in learning
rates.
 The language laboratory provides authentic, consistent, untiring models of
speech for imitation and drill.
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 The use of headphones gives a sense of isolation, intimate contact with the Language Laboratory
language, equal clarity of sound to all students, and facilitates complete

concentration.
 Recordings provide many native voices. Without such variety it is common
NOTES
for students to be able to understand only the teacher.
 The language laboratory facilitates testing of each student for listening
comprehension. It has generally been impracticable for the unaided teacher
to test this skill.
 The language laboratory facilitates testing of the speaking ability of each
student in a class. It has generally been impracticable for the unaided teacher
to test this skill.
 Some teachers, for reasons beyond their control, do not themselves have
enough preparation in understanding and speaking the foreign language.
The language laboratory provides these teachers with an opportunity to
improve their own proficiency.
 The language laboratory makes it possible to divide a class into teacher-
directed and machine-directed groups.
 Certain language-laboratory facilities can enhance the student’s potential
for evaluating his own performance.
 Given specially-designed instructional materials, the language laboratory can
provide technical facilities for efficient self-instruction.
Uses of Language Laboratory
The following are the main uses of language laboratory:
 To think and speak in English
 To improve phonetics skills
 To develop effective communication skills
 To develop confidence to carry out a simple conversation
 To conduct a focused discussion
 To be attentive, alert and a careful listener
 To be able to handle conflict situation with ease
Check Your Progress

3. What are the uses of a language laboratory?
4. How can we maintain audio-lingual skills?
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Language Laboratory
13.4 AUDIO CARDS, CCTVS, COMPACT DISC,
TELE-LECTURE AND TELE-CONFERENCING
NOTES We will in this section discuss the various modes which can be used in a language
laboratory.
Audio Cards
A sound card (also referred to as an audio card) is a peripheral device that attaches
to the ISA or PCI slot on a motherboard to enable the computer to input, process,
and deliver sound. The sound card’s four main functions are: as a synthesizer
(generating sounds), as a MIDI interface, analog-to-digital conversion (used, for
example, in recording sound from a microphone), and digital-to-analog conversion
(used, for example, to reproduce sound for a speaker).
The three methods of sound synthesis are through frequency modulation
(FM) technology, wavetable, and physical modeling. FM synthesis is the least
expensive and least effective method. Sounds are simulated by using algorithms to
create sine waves that are as close to the sound as possible. For example, the
sound of a guitar can be simulated, although the result does not really sound very
much like a guitar. Wavetable uses actual, digitally recorded sound samples stored
on the card for the highest performance. Physical modeling is a new type of
synthesizing, in which sounds are simulated through a complex programming
procedure. Some sound cards can also have sounds downloaded to them.
Creative Lab’s Sound Blaster is the de facto standard sound card, to the
extent that some people use the name as a generic term. Most sound cards in the
past have been Sound Blaster-compatible, because most programmes that use
the sound card have been designed that way. Sound cards were once all connected
to the ISA slot. However, because connection to the PCI bus offers advantages
such as improved signal-to-noise ratio and decreased demand on the CPU, sound
cards being produced today are intended for use with a PCI bus.
Some sound cards, such as Diamond MX300 and Sound Blaster Live!
have 3-D capabilities enabled by processors on the card that use mathematical
formulas to create greater depth, complexity, and realism of sound. High quality
audio can be produced through a system that uses the Universal Serial Bus (USB)
and does not require a sound card. Processing is left to the CPU, and digital-to-
audio conversion to the speakers.
CCTV
Understanding the immense importance of CCTV Security Cameras for video
security systems, we manufacture our range using the best quality instruments.
These CCTV cameras can keep a track of student, classroom, playground,
reception, employees, locations, entry ways, and other areas in an efficient manner.
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We offer efficiently designed high quality CCTV cameras with true to life Language Laboratory
specification factors, offering excellent video images and audio quality. we have
installed new range of CCTV in various school & college.
Compact disc NOTES
If any school or educational institute is in its initial stage Multimedia Lab is for
them. Apart from computer it also uses CD-ROM, a projector and a set of speakers
for common and controlled listening. Multimedia is used for presenting images,
audio, video and text at one place and mostly on common screen. It is very helpful
for those learners who are not comfortable with computer and technology or for
kids.
Characteristics of Multimedia
The following are the characteristics of multimedia:
 Use of multimedia helps to inculcate language skills in learners.
 It provides more reliable and real learning situation.
 Functionality of language is emphasized over functions of language.
 Learners get a stream line learning of language which provides command
over target language.
Teleconferencing and Tele-lectures
With the development of computer technology, lab got updated. At the end of
1980 communication technology was full-fledged. Common people could
communicate faster with technology but the condition was to learn English as
computer provides English language which is common to all. Many people started
language learning with a view to communicate with others. Communicative Lab
types started in 1980 and lasted up to 1990. In Communicative Lab the language
is taught for interaction. Language is to communicate that’s why priority is given to
communication. Most people of the world are fluent of speaking their mother
tongue though one has no knowledge of grammar. It means that without the
knowledge of grammar and structure one can speak any language with practice.
Anyone who is fluent in speaking can use the language well, so fluency is the target
of communicative lab.
Tele-conferencing and tele-lectures has become a medium for communicating
effectively. In communicative lab, all the computer-based exercises are also
communicative one. communicative lab teaches English language rather teaching
about language. Rather teaching rules and structure directly if we start teaching a
foreign language with communicative practice it improves learner’s willingness to
learn an unfamiliar language. It also saves time, money and space. It helps the
students in recording the lecture so that they can hear the same lecture after a
certain period.
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Language Laboratory
Check Your Progress

5. State any one use of multimedia.
NOTES 6. What are the three methods of sound synthesis?

QUESTIONS
1. The following are the main uses of a laboratory:

(a) In a laboratory, the student learns different languages.
(b) The student learns from his or her experience. They develop the power
of thinking, observation and decision-making.
(c) The students develop self-discipline and self-confidence.
(d) The student understands the topic clearly and easily.
(e) Favorable atmosphere is created for science teaching.
2. The study of language is not possible without a laboratory because the
student can obtain proper and complete knowledge of the subject when
the student works in the laboratory by himself, observes and based on
these, he or she deduces conclusions and reaches the result.
3. The following are the uses of a language laboratory:
(a) To think and speak in English
(b) To improve phonetics skills
(c) To develop effective communication skills
(d) To develop confidence to carry out a simple conversation
4. The audio-lingual skills can be maintained and increased only by continued
practice throughout all the years of foreign-language study. The level of
difficulty of audio-lingual practice materials should increase in keeping with
the difficulty of the reading and writing materials.
5. Multimedia is used for presenting images, audio, video and text at one place
and mostly on common screen.
6. The three methods of sound synthesis are through frequency modulation
(FM) technology, wavetable, and physical modeling.
13.6 SUMMARY
 A language laboratory is a classroom or other area containing electronic

and mechanical equipment designed and arranged to make foreign-language
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learning more effective than is usually possible without it.
182 Material
 Language laboratories may be very broadly classified into two groups Language Laboratory
according to the way they fit into the school’s plan of operation.
 The student can obtain proper and complete knowledge of the subject when
the student works in the laboratory by himself, observes and based on
NOTES
these, he or she deduces conclusions and reaches the result.
 The aims and objectives of language cannot be achieved without laboratory.
There should be no distinction in practical and theoretical work in fact both
should complement each other.
 In view of the indispensable requirement of frequent, regular practice,
equipment should be provided to allow at least twenty minutes use per
class day per student.
 In view of the nature and importance of our grading system, provision should
be made for tests of speaking ability.
 In view of the requirement of frequent, regular practice, provision should be
made for more work with recorded native models than can be supplied in
the presence of the teacher.
 Optimum learning requires native or near-native models of the foreign
language for imitation.
 Optimum learning calls for frequent, regular practice with these models,
with overlearning to the point of automatic behavior in the foreign language.
 The teaching materials, therefore, must provide authentic speech patterns,
arranged in some form which permits them to be used as models for imitation
and memorization.
 There is usually an initial period of exclusively audio-lingual (understanding-
speaking) instruction; books and other printed materials are not used, and
no reference is made to the written forms of what the student is learning to
understand and say.
 The audio-lingual skills can be maintained and increased only by continued
practice throughout all the years of foreign-language study.
 A language laboratory has generally sixteen to twenty hearing booths. In
each hearing booth, there is a chair and a table at which a student can sit
and work.
 The Console or adviser’s room has one or more tapes and special equipment
to monitor any student, thereby ensuring two-way communication.
 The Control Room has all the tapes, records and other equipment’s of the
language laboratory properly indexed and stored so that it can be readily
made available to the student upon its request.
 Certain language-laboratory facilities can enhance the student’s potential
for evaluating his own performance.
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Language Laboratory  A sound card (also referred to as an audio card) is a peripheral device that
attaches to the ISA or PCI slot on a motherboard to enable the computer
to input, process, and deliver sound.
 The three methods of sound synthesis are through frequency modulation
NOTES
(FM) technology, wavetable, and physical modeling.
 Multimedia is used for presenting images, audio, video and text at one place
and mostly on common screen.
13.7 KEY WORDS
 Control Room: It refers to a room which has all the tapes, records and
other equipment’s of the language laboratory properly indexed and stored
so that it can be readily made available to the student upon its request.
 Laboratory: It refers to a large room where practical classes are conducted.
 Language laboratory: It refers to a classroom or other area containing
electronic and mechanical equipment designed and arranged to make foreign-
language learning more effective than is usually possible without it.
 Sound card: It refers to a peripheral device that attaches to the ISA or
PCI slot on a motherboard to enable the computer to input, process, and
deliver sound.

EXERCISES
1. What are the two main types of language laboratory?
2. What are the three sections of a language laboratory?
3. Write a short note on the importance of CCTV.
4. What is physical modeling?
5. List the switches related to a console room.
6. What are the main functions of a sound card?
7. What are the characteristics of multimedia?
1. What are the main objectives of a laboratory work? Explain in detail.
2. Discuss the points to be considered while making a laboratory.
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3. Interpret the advantages of a language laboratory. Language Laboratory
4. Explain the various forms of communication modes which can be used in a

language laboratory.
NOTES

Kingdom: Routledge.
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Network
UNIT 14 NETWORK
NOTES Structure
14.0 Introduction
14.1 Objectives
14.2 Network: An Introduction
14.3 Educational Technology for Exceptional Children
14.3.1 Importance of Educational Technology for Exceptional Children
14.3.3 The Effective Use of Teaching Aids
14.5 Summary
14.6 Key Words
14.0 INTRODUCTION
Computer network is defined as a set of computers which is connected to share

resources. There are two main forms of computer networks that is WAN and
LAN. A wide area network (WAN) is defined as computer network which extends
over a large geographical area. On the other hand, a local area network (LAN)
refers to a network in which a group of computers share a common communication
line.
Educational technology is defined as the practice in which learning is
facilitated by creating, and managing the approaches related to various technological
processes. Instructional medium refers to a medium in which learning is imparted.
It thus, means the way in which education is imparted through a computer.
In this unit, the concept of computer network, its aims and uses have been
discussed. The meaning of educational technology and types of instructional medium
have been explained. The unit will also help one to analyse the meaning of teaching
aids and its main principles.
14.1 OBJECTIVES

 Discuss the meaning of computer network and its uses
 Identify the types of computer networks
 Explain the meaning of educational technology
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 Analyse the various types of instructional aids Network
 Discuss the forms of computer-assisted instruction

 Interpret the principles of teaching aids
NOTES
14.2 NETWORK: AN INTRODUCTION
When two or more computer systems are linked together they form a network
there are different types of computer network such as Local area network, wide
area network, campus area network, Metropolitan Area Network and home area
network. It helps in the process of communication as it is comprised of several
different computer systems which are being joined together to complete a network
operation. The network helps in building up of Information and sharing the
information through available resources. The applications/uses of network are as
follows:
 It helps in sharing and communication of resources such as printers.
 Software and database sharing resource.
 Health in communication from one computer to another.
 Exchange of data and information among different users at the same time.
 Sharing of information over geographical large areas.
 Exchange of business applications such as online purchase of items.
 Useful for home applications such as email, chat.
 Supports mobile users through wireless networks such as PDA, mobile
complain
 Helps in resolving social issues.
 Helps in sharing of hardware and software
 Centralization of administration and support so that everyone can have the
access to the same administrative or support applications from their computer
system.
There are some other uses of computer network which are as follows:
 Increased speed
 Reduced cost
 Improved security
 Centralized software management system
 Electronic mails
 Flexible
 Access
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Material 187
Network Disadvantages of Computer Networks
The disadvantages of computer networks are as follows:
 High cost of installation
NOTES  Required time for administration
 Server failure
 Cable faults
 Connectivity issues
Local area network (LAN) is a network that is designed to operate a small range
or a physical area such as an office, home, factory or a group of buildings. They
are easy to design and troubleshoot the problems. They help in the exchange of
Information and sharing of resources easily from one computer system to the
other operating system.
Wide area network (WAN) can span large geographical area example
multiple cities, countries or continents. The local area network can be wired or
wireless or twisted pair cable or fibre radio or infrared. It can send data to only
one computer at a time. It has a bit rate or speed usually from 1Mbps ~ 1 Gbps.
Check Your Progress

1. What are the disadvantages of computer networks?
2. State any two uses of computer network.
14.3 EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY FOR

EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN
When technology is used for accelerating and facilitating educational processes

with certain objective in view, that technology is called as educational technology.
As it has already been stated that technology is not limited to the construction of
machines and other devices. Designing, modelling and organization of hardware
are needed before the construction which are primarily based on the well testified
laws and principles. In educational technology, humans and machine both have
their respective roles and both work as complements to each other in the process
of education. It means that man uses his or her intellect and experiences along with
the machine and devices and by using his or her arts he or she organizes the
teaching learning process in the best possible manner.
According to a renowned author, G O M Leith, educational technology is
the application of scientific knowledge about learning and conditions of learning to
improve the effectiveness of teaching and training.
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188 Material
According to another author, Richmond, educational technology is concerned Network
providing appropriately designed learning situations which holding in view the

objectives of teaching or training bring to bear the best means of instruction.
According to author and educator, R A Cox, educational technology is an
NOTES
application of practical study which aims at maximizing educational effect by
controlling such relevant facts and educational purposes, content, teaching materials,
methods, educational requirement, conduct of students, behavior of instruction
and interrelation between student and instruction.
14.3.1 Importance of Educational Technology for Exceptional
Children
The following are the characteristics of educational technology:
 The inputs are integrated and assimilated to the output in such a manner that
the application of Science and Technology in education becomes an automatic
process.
 Hear learning theories, art and science of teaching both go hand in hand.
Thus, it removes the defects of educational psychology.
 It and sizes on the development of new strategies and techniques for an
effective and result oriented learning. Thus, it is a constant process of research
which can benefit all the future teachers of the society.
 It first defines the objectives in behavioral terms. Then it creates suitable
teaching learning environment to realize those objectives.
 To evaluate the learning objectives, construct the relevant so that the efforts
will go in the direction of goals only.
In early years, the only term used for teaching aids was audio-visual aids but with
the advancement and opening of new horizons in the field of electronic technology
and communication media, new and improved equipments and aids for teaching
and learning are developed, instead of mere teaching aids improved terms were
used i.e. educational or instructional technology.
The present situation calls for a change at almost every level of education,
so that practical and dynamic approach can be given to the existing and new field
of education. The crux of this modern education is to awaken the hidden curiosity
and interest of the learner, nourishing his behaviors, to develop basic and essential
skills of lifelong learning as well as ability to think critically and to judge himself and
others in a more beneficial manner.
There are different types of audio-visual equipments ranging from simple
hand-made charts to highly sophisticated projectors available in the markets. In
the broadest sense, teaching aids can be categorized under two heads according
to authors, Sampath Pannneerselvam and Santhan, (1998) as under: 1. Projected
Aids 2. Non-Projected Aids Self-Instructional
Material 189
Network These aids have been discussed in detail in the previous units.
Teaching aids may be classified as audio aids, visual aid, audio visual aids
and activity aids.
NOTES Instructional Medium: Definition
Instructional Medium or computer assisted instructional technology as the name
suggests stands for the type of instruction aided or carried out with the help of
computer as a machine. It is just one step ahead to the use of teaching machine
and probably two, to the use of programmed text books in making the instructional
process as self-directed and individualized as possible. The computer is said to be
ahead of the teaching machine because of its unlimited capacity of doing more
work and multiple type of works at the same time for unlimited number of individual
learners than the teaching machine.
The definition brings into lime light the following things:
 In computer assisted instruction there is an interaction between an
individual student and the computer just as happens in tutorial system
between the teacher and individual student.
 Computer can display the instructional material to the individual student.
 The individual student takes benefit of the displayed material and respond
to it. These responses are attended by the computer for deciding the
future course of instruction displayed to the learner.
 The interaction between the individual learner and computer device helps
in the realization of the set instruction objectives.
Types or modes of computer assisted instruction (CAI)
CAI can take a variety of forms as detailed below for providing self-individualized
instruction to a learner depending upon the variety of uses to which computers
services can be availed.
 Informational computer assisted instruction: This type of computer
assisted instruction help the learners to get the desired information needed
by him or her. The sole purpose of this type of CAI is to provide essential
information for the acquisition of concept and skills. However, individual
learner can learn a lot by adopting an enquiry or Discovery approach towards
learning through such instruction.
 Drill and practice programmes: This type of computer assisted instruction
provides the learner different types of drill and practice programs covering
specific topics related with a subject. Through such drill and practice
programs of CAI, the services of computers can be properly availed for
providing practice in something already learned in some other way.
 Tutorial type computer assisted instruction: This type of computer
assisted instruction the computers are engaged in actual teaching. Here,
Self-Instructional
190 Material
they can play effectively the role of a tutor by maintaining a perfect interaction Network
and dialogue with the individual students.

 Educational games types: This type of computer assisted instruction the
learners are provided with the variety of well-designed computer games.
NOTES
These games should not be confused with academic type games. The purpose
of such type of games is only to provide intellectual challenge, stimulation of
curiosity and serve as a source of motivation to the individual learner.
 Stimulation type of instruction: This type of computer assisted instruction,
stimulation is used as a technique for providing training to the students.
Such type of instructional activities provides the most powerful learning
tools to them. With the carefully prepared programs the students are made
to face real or idealized situations. They must play an active role and are
required to take decisions that have consequences.
Teaching aids are the means as well as the helping hand of a teacher for the
realization of the stipulated teaching learning of instructional objectives of his or
her lesson. A teacher must know to make use of an appropriate teaching aid most
suitable for his or her teaching at a teaching-learning situation. As a matter of
guidance, a teacher of a biological sciences, must take care of the following principle.
 Relevance: The aid used should be quite relevant to the topic in hand.
 Suitability: It should suit the topic as the best as possible by making it
study quite comprehensive, interesting, permanent and effective.
 Educative: The aid should have specific educational value besides being
interesting and motivating. In no case it should be confined to mere
entertainment.
 Best substitute for the firsthand experience: The aid should be so
chosen as to prove a best possible substitute in terms of reality, accuracy
and truthful representation of object or the first-hand experiences.
 Learner centred: The aid material selected should be such that it suits
the age level, grade level, basic instinct, urges, interest and other unique
characteristic of the students of the class.
 Simplicity: The aid material should be quite simple in its construction
and use. It must also be able to convey it sense as simply as possible.
 Environment centred: The aid material should suit the requirement of
the physical, social and cultural environment of the students.
 Practicability: The aid material should be selected in view of prevailing
circumstances available resources and purpose to be served. It should
not be too costly in its purchase and collection or in terms of its use and
demonstration in the class. It should meet the needs of available
circumstances in terms of weather conditions, climatic requirement,
handing by the teacher and students and other resources readily available
in the Institution and classroom.
Self-Instructional
Material 191
Network  Objectives attainment: The aid material should be so selected as to
help in the proper realization of the stipulated learning or instructional
objectives of the topic in hand.
NOTES 14.3.3 The Effective Use of Teaching Aids

The task of teacher is not just finished by making the selection of the teaching aid
for his or her topic. The selection however, judicially it may be made can prove
truthful only when due to attention is paid over their wise use. The principles to be
kept in mind can be summarized as follows:
1. Principle of preparation: According to this principle, the use of a material
should have well chalked program concerning pre- preparation on the part
of teacher as well as students. In other words, there should be proper
planning as well as advance preparation of the utilization of the aid materials.
In brief, the principle demand attention on the following points from the
teacher and students:
On the part of teacher
 The full knowledge about the nature of the aid material, and the definite
purpose to be served by it use.
 The linkage of the aid materials with the contents or learning experiences.
 Necessary skill of the training for the handling of the aid material and
equipments.
 Proper planning and visualization the use of aid material before it actual
use.
 Adequate rehearsal for the utilization of the aid material.
On the part of students
 Acquisition of the basic background in terms of previous learning attitudes
and interest for receiving what is being presented to them through aid
material.
 Clarity about the objectives of their participation the teaching learning
activities involving the use of aid material
 Clarity about certain things like what they must observe, or know how
it is being done, what specific roles they must play and how can they be
most benefited by the use of the aid material.
 Essential skills and techniques for helping them in preparation and utilizing
the material.
2. Principle of proper presentation: According to this principle for the effective
use, the teacher aid and materials should be presented adequately as possible.
Usually it demands attention to the following points on the part of the teacher:
 Observance of the precaution for the safe and proper use of the aid
material.
Self-Instructional
192 Material
 To keep in control the physical facilities and conditions for the use of aid Network
material and equipment.

 Using aid material at the proper time in a proper sequence by integrating
with it the subject matter of learning experiences.
NOTES
 Displaying or utilizing the aid in a proper way for enabling all the students
of the class to derive maximum advantages out of it.
 Helping the students to observe, record and participate in the use of aid
material as adequately as possible.
3. The principal of follow-up and evaluation: The principle demands that
an adequate follow up and appraisal of the use and consequences of the
use of aid material should be made by the teacher through the help of the
students. For example, after listening and educational program on radio or
watching it on TV teachers should essentially have a follow-up program.
There should be a lively discussion over the learning objectives achieved
through such broadcasting or telecast. The student should also be given
proper time to remove their doubts, difficulties and learning gaps. They can
also be given due guidance in enhancing the spam of knowledge and carrying
out the ideas in actions. In addition to such follow up proper measures
should also be taken for the assessment, of the adequacy of the material,
the way of presentation and advantages drawn by its use.
Check Your Progress

3. What is tutorial type computer assisted instruction?
4. State the premises of principle of preparation.
5. What is the purpose of informational computer assisted instruction?

QUESTIONS
1. The disadvantages of computer networks are as follows:

(a) High cost of installation
(b) Required time for administration
(c) Server failure
(d) Cable faults
(e) Connectivity issues
2. The following are the uses of computer networks:
(a) It helps in sharing and communication of resources such as printers.
Self-Instructional
Material 193
Network (b) Centralization of administration and support so that everyone can have
the access to the same administrative or support applications from
their computer system.
3. Tutorial type computer assisted instruction can be defined as the computer
NOTES
assisted instruction the computers are engaged in actual teaching. Here,
they can play effectively the role of a tutor by maintaining a perfect interaction
and dialogue with the individual students.
4. The principle of preparation states the use of a material should have well
chalked program concerning pre- preparation on the part of teacher as
well as students. In other words, there should be proper planning as well as
advance preparation of the utilization of the aid materials.
5. The purpose of informational computer assisted instruction type is to provide
essential information for the acquisition of concept and skills. However,
individual learner can learn a lot by adopting an enquiry or Discovery
approach towards learning through such instruction.
14.5 SUMMARY
 When two or more computer systems are linked together they form a network
there are different types of computer network such as Local area network,
wide area network, campus area network, Metropolitan Area Network
and home area network.
 The network helps in building up of Information and sharing the information
through available resources.
 Local area network (LAN) is a network that is designed to operate a small
range or a physical area such as an office, home, factory or a group of
buildings.
 Wide area network (WAN) can span large geographical area example
multiple cities, countries or continents.
 When technology is used for accelerating and facilitating educational
processes with certain objective in view, that technology is called as
educational technology.
 In educational technology, humans and machine both have their respective
roles and both work as complements to each other in the process of
education.
 According to a renowned author, G O M Leith, educational technology is
the application of scientific knowledge about learning and conditions of
learning to improve the effectiveness of teaching and training.
 The inputs are integrated and assimilated to the output in such a manner that
the application of Science and Technology in education becomes an automatic
Self-Instructional
process.
194 Material
 The present situation calls for a change at almost every level of education, Network
so that practical and dynamic approach can be given to the existing and
new field of education.
 Instructional Medium or computer assisted instructional technology as the
NOTES
name suggests stands for the type of instruction aided or carried out with
the help of computer as a machine.
 The computer is said to be ahead of the teaching machine because of its
unlimited capacity of doing more work and multiple type of works at the
same time for unlimited number of individual learners than the teaching
machine.
 CAI can take a variety of forms as detailed below for providing self-
individualized instruction to a learner depending upon the variety of uses to
which computers services can be availed.
 The sole purpose of Informational computer assisted instruction of CAI is
to provide essential information for the acquisition of concept and skills.
 The purpose of educational games is only to provide intellectual challenge,
stimulation of curiosity and serve as a source of motivation to the individual
learner.
 Teaching aids are the means as well as the helping hand of a teacher for the
realization of the stipulated teaching learning of instructional objectives of
his or her lesson.
 The aid material should be selected in view of prevailing circumstances
available resources and purpose to be served.
 The aid material should be so selected as to help in the proper realization of
the stipulated learning or instructional objectives of the topic in hand.
 The task of teacher is not just finished by making the selection of the teaching
aid for his or her topic.
 According to the principle of preparation, the use of a material should have
well chalked program concerning pre- preparation on the part of teacher as
well as students.
 According to principle of presentation, the teacher aid and materials should
be presented adequately as possible.
 The principle of follow-up and evaluation demands that an adequate follow
up and appraisal of the use and consequences of the use of aid material
should be made by the teacher through the help of the students.
14.6 KEY WORDS
 Network: It refers to a connection which is formed when two or more

computer systems are linked together.
Self-Instructional
Material 195
Network  Local area network (LAN): It refers to a network that is designed to
operate a small range or a physical area such as an office, home, factory or
a group of buildings.
 Wide area network (WAN): It refers to a network that can span large
NOTES
geographical area example multiple cities, countries or continents.
 Educational technology: It refers to a technology which is used for
accelerating and facilitating educational processes with certain objectives in
view.

EXERCISES
1. What are the uses of a network?
2. Why is educational technology important for exceptional children?
3. What are teaching aids?
4. How has G O M Leith defined education technology?
5. State the premises of principle of proper presentation.
1. Discuss the concept of instructional medium and its aids.
2. Differentiate between WAN and LAN.
3. Explain the importance of educational technology.
4. Analyse the important characteristics of computer-assisted instruction (CAI).
5. Explain any one principle related to teaching aids.

Kingdom: Routledge.
Self-Instructional
196 Material

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ALAGAPPA UNIVERSITY

[Accredited with ‘A+’ Grade by NAAC (CGPA:3.64) in the Third Cycle

Directorate of Distance Education

"The copyright shall be vested with Alagappa University"

Vikas® is the registered trademark of Vikas® Publishing House Pvt. Ltd.

BLOCK 1: INNOVATION, CULTURE AND

UNIT - II: Emergence of School Unit 2: Emergence of School

UNIT - IV: Factors on Innovations Unit 4: Factors of Innovations

BLOCK 2: NATIONAL TRENDS AND

UNIT - VI: Educational Technology Unit 6: Educational Technology

UNIT - VIII: Modernization Unit 8: Modernization

BLOCK 3: FREEDOM,ALTERNATIVE SCHOOLS

UNIT - X: Alternative Schools

UNIT - XI: Distance Education Unit 11: Distance Education

BLOCK 4: SYSTEM APPROACH, LANGUAGE

UNIT - XIV: Network Unit 14: Network

UNIT 2 EMERGENCE OF SCHOOL 13-28

UNIT 4 FACTORS OF INNOVATIONS 49-61

BLOCK II: NATIONAL TRENDS AND EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY

UNIT 6 EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY 80-94

UNIT 7 PROGRAMMED INSTRUCTION 95-112

UNIT 8 MODERNIZATION 113-123

BLOCK III: FREEDOM, ALTERNATIVE SCHOOLS AND

UNIT 10 ALTERNATIVE SCHOOLS 136-146

UNIT 11 DISTANCE EDUCATION 147-159

BLOCK IV: SYSTEM APPROACH, LANGUAGE LABORATORY

UNIT 13 LANGUAGE LABORATORY 172-185

After going through this unit, you will be able to:

Check Your Progress

1.3 INSTRUCTIONAL MEDIA

According to author Romizowski (1988), instructional media refers to the devices

Check Your Progress

1.4 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1. Innovations are rarely transformed into policy changes because policy is

 Education is a social institution which serves the needs of the country by

or text projected on a screen and which is at a distance from the projector.

1.6 KEY WORDS

1.7 SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS AND

1.8 FURTHER READINGS

Linton, Ralph. 1998. The Cultural Background of Personality, Volume 1. United

UNIT 2 EMERGENCE OF SCHOOL

After going through this unit, you will be able to:

2.2 CULTURE SETTING

process of the child, it is almost essential to get an understanding of the culture in

Check Your Progress

2.3 CHARACTERISTICS OF CULTURE

the systems of industry’.

Check Your Progress

 Recognizing and attention behaviour

Check Your Progress

2.5 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1. Ralph Linton, an American anthropologist has defined culture as the

ordinary language, culture means good manners and good taste.

2.7 KEY WORDS

 Acculturation: It refers to the context between one culture and another to

2.8 SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS AND

2.9 FURTHER READINGS

Linton, Ralph. 1998. The Cultural Background of Personality, Volume 1. United

UNIT 3 INNOVATIONS FROM Educational Experiments