Question

1. List at least three engineering problems in which elasticity theories based on continuum
mechanics can be applied. Provide your opinion.
2. How continuum mechanics (elasticity) relates to the finite element analysis of an elastic body?
What is the role of the finite element analysis?
3. How can we apply continuum mechanics to analyze the vibration of a finite elastic body?
4. What is the physical significance of Cauchy’s formula? How Cauchy’s formula relates to
equilibrium equation?
5. What is the physical significance of deviatoric stress (or strain)?
6. Under what circumstances can we assume small deformations for using Cauchy’s infinitesimal
strain
7. How can we calculate the strains for large deformation problem?

Answer
1. Overall, continuum mechanics provide framework on developing prediction model on certain
material behavior. The followings are examples of elasticity theory based on continuum
mechanics applications
 Initially, Cauchy defines stress ‘at a point’ as infinitesimal volume of material. However, soil
strength is defined from interparticle soil interaction, ‘large point’ must be regarded when this
concept is applied to soil (Lambe and Whitman, 1979).
Figure 1 shows such assumption that the direction of force said to be ‘close to’ ψ if the force
direction on wavy sphere surface intersects the same patch P as the arrow for ψ . Thus, forming a
cross-sectional cut that is normal to direction y, summing the forces of the subset, and dividing by
the cross-sectional area of the cut yields an approximately uniaxial stress tensor δ σ ' .
Later, the elasticity based on continuum mechanics concept can be applicable on soil mass. For
example, due to external load on soil mass, let say foundation, the continuum mechanics concept
might be used on determining the elastic settlement and the load distribution with soil depth on
3D case

Figure 1. Left: Integration concept with respect to directions. Patch P of area δ aψ on sphere surface centered on O; Right:
‘Outer stress’ concept (After Dean, 2015)

Reference:
Lambe TW and Whitman RV (1979) Soil Mechanics – SI Version.Wiley, New York, NY, USA.
Dean, E. T. R. 2015. Particle mechanics approach to continuum constitutive modelling. Geotechnical
Research 2(1), 3-34

 Geotechnical structure such as rigid retaining wall, can be analyzed and modeled by using
elastic theory on plane strain and stress. Since usually retaining wall is built with one of the
dimension (z-axis) is assumed to be infinite, thus the body can be modeled as bidimensional
section. Therefore, the assumption on plain stress and strain theory is satisfied on such structure.

Figure 2. Retaining wall (after Das, 2010)

Reference:
Das, B. M. (2010). Principles of geotechnical engineering. Pacific Grove, CA: Thomson/Brooks/Col

 Another geotechnical structure that the elastic theories can be applied to is tunnel.
Similar to retaining wall, tunnel is also modeled as small thickness dimension with
infinite length, rationally symmetric, but in cylindrical coordinates. Therefore, the plane
strain problem is considered in tunnel case.

Figure 3. Set up of the plane strain axially symmetric excavation problem (Vrakas and Anagnostou, 2015)

Reference:
Vrakas, A. & Anagnostou, G. 2015. A simple equation for obtaining finite strain solutions from small
strain analyses of tunnels with very large convergences. Géotechnique 65(11), 936–944.
 2. Elasticity on continuum mechanics highlight the material elastic behavior either on stress
or strain at infinitesimal volume of domain V. While finite element is a method to
approximate some field problems by decomposing domain V into nonoverlapping
subdomain Vn which the procedure is finding the solution of individual subdomain and
combine with other subdomains to finally approximate the behavior of whole domain V.
In conclusion, the role of continuum mechanics is to provide the governing equation
based on behavior and boundary conditions for each infinitesimal subdomain, and finite
element is the method to combine those subdomains by a certain procedure, for instance,
interpolations to determine unknown variables.
Reference:
Pian, T. H. H, and Tong, P. 1972. Finite element methods in continuum mechanics. Advance in Applied
Mechanics 12, 1-58.

3.
Figure 4 Equilibrating stress components on infinitesimal parallelpiped (after Fung, 1977)

In case of equilibrium conditions, the first Newton’s law is satisfied where,

F (Ie ) + F IJ =0
Considering an infinitesimal parallelpiped Figure 4,
∂ τ ij
Xi+ =0
∂ xj
In case of vibration, the equilibrium condition is not satisfied. Hence, Newton’s law of motion is
used.
(e )
F I + F IJ =m x¨I
 Therefore, the equation for the infinitesimal parallepiped become,
∂ τ ij
Xi+ =ρ ẍi
∂ xi
Where ρ is unit mass of material.
Expanding the equation,
∂ τ 11 ∂ τ 12 ∂ τ 13
X1+ + + =ρ ẍ 1
∂ x 1 ∂ x 1 ∂ x1
∂τ ∂τ ∂τ
X 2 + 21 + 22 + 23 =ρ x¨2
∂ x 2 ∂ x2 ∂ x 2
∂ τ 31 ∂ τ 32 ∂ τ 33
X3+ + + =ρ x¨3
∂ x 3 ∂ x3 ∂ x 3
Since,
τ ij =τ ji
We have 6 stress tensor and 6 strain tensor that associated with it, also 3 displacements
( x 1 , x 2 , x 3 ). Thus, we need total 15 equations in order to identify all the variables. From the
expanded equation, we have 3 equations, and there are 6 equations of strain depend on
displacement, that is,
∂ xi
ε ij=
∂ xj
And the other 6 equations are from constitutive equations which is based on the material that
might be complicated. For instance, in case of elastic material that follows Hooke’s law,
σ ij=Cijkl ekl

Reference:
Fung, Y.C. (1977) A First Course in Continuum Mechanics. Prentice-Hall, Upper Saddle
Logan, D. L. (1986). A first course in the finite element method. Boston: PWS Engineering.

4.
Figure 5. Cauchy’s postulates (after Fung, 1977)

The Cauchy’s postulates of action and reaction states that the traction vector at a point of a
continuous medium has the same magnitude and opposite direction as the traction vector at the
same point according to a plane with unit normal vector.
 T ¿¿
Another way to interpret the postulate is considering a tetrahedral of infinitesimal volume with
v v
stress vector T =τ . v or T =v τ (Figure 6). If the area of surface normal to unit vector v is dS
i j ji

d S 1=dS cos ( v , x 1) =v1 dS

d S 2=dS cos ( v , x 2 )=v 2 dS

d S 3=dS cos ( v , x 3 )=v 3 dS

And the volume of the tetrahedron is

1
dV = hdS
3
From the equilibrium equation in x 1 direction,
v
T 1 dS−τ 11 d S 1−τ 21 d S 2−τ 31 d S3=0

Substituting the value of d S 1 ,d S 2 , d S3

v
T 1 dS−τ 11 v 1 dS−τ 21 v 2 dS−τ 31 v 3 dS=0
Since limit h → 0, dS can be negligible. Thus,
v
T 1=τ 11 v 1 +τ 21 v 2+ τ 31 v 3
v
The same approach is applicable on other directions, therefore, T =v τ
i j ji
Figure 6. Surface traction on tetrahedron (after Fung, 1977)

Reference:
Fung, Y.C. (1977) A First Course in Continuum Mechanics. Prentice-Hall, Upper Saddle

5. The deviatoric component of the stress tensor indicates how far the current condition is from a
hydrostatic stress state. Basically, the stress tensor can be decomposed into
'
τ ij =σ m δ ij (hydrostatic part)+τ ij (deviatoric part)
The hydrostatic stress state is satisfied when all three principal stresses are the same. Thus, on
every direction on Cartesian coordinate system, the components are the same.
σ =σ 1=σ 2=σ 3
And has the mean stress of

[ ]
σm 0 0
1
σ m= τ kk δ ij ≡ 0 σ m 0
3
0 0 σm
As a result,

[ ][ ]
σ 1 −σ m τ 12 τ 13 σ ' 1 τ ' 12 τ ' 13
1
τ ij =τ ij − τ kk δ ij → τ ' ≡
'
τ 21 σ 2−σ m τ 23 = τ ' 21 σ ' 2 τ ' 23
3
τ 31 τ 32 σ 3−σ m τ ' 31 τ ' 32 σ ' 3
Since it is an isotropic tensor, it remains invariant on every change of orthogonal basis.

Reference:
Fung, Y.C.1977. A First Course in Continuum Mechanics. Prentice-Hall, Upper Saddle
Xavier, O., and Agelet de Saracibar, C. 2017. Continuum Mechanics for Engineers. Theory and
Problems, 2nd edition. doi:10.13140/RG.2.2.25821.20961
6. The infinitesimal strain theory is based on simplifying hypothesis on general theory, that is, a
very small displacement in continuous medium compared to the typical dimensions, and the
displacement gradient is very small. From Figure 7, the initial state Ω0 and after displacement
state Ω t are indistinguishable from one another since both are very close to each other. As a
result, the material and spatial coordinates merge, making it impossible to distinguish between
material and spatial descriptions.
x=X + u ≅ X
The second hypothesis can be mathematically written as follows

| |
∂ ui
∂ xj
≪ 1; ∀ i , j∈ {1,2,3 }

Figure 7. Infinitesimal strain in the continuous medium (After Xavier and Agelet de Saracibar, 2017)

Reference:
Fung, Y.C.1977. A First Course in Continuum Mechanics. Prentice-Hall, Upper Saddle
Xavier, O., and Agelet de Saracibar, C. 2017. Continuum Mechanics for Engineers. Theory and
Problems, 2nd edition. doi:10.13140/RG.2.2.25821.20961

7. If small deformation problem is called infinitesimal strain, then the large deformation problem is
commonly known as finite strain. From Figure 8, considering initial state of a continuous particle
that occupies point P and Q separated by segment d X , and after deformation the separating
segment become d x , both differential vectors are related to the gradient tensor F(X) or can be
written as
 ∂ xi
d x i=Fik d X k = d X k ( Mapping¿initial state)
∂ Xk

−1 ∂ Xi
d X i=F ik d x k = d x ( Mapping¿initial state)
∂ xk k

The magnitude of the separating segment of the initial ( dS ) and post-deformation states are ( ds ¿
are as follows.
dS=√ d X 1 +d X 2 +d X 3 ↔d S = X 1+ d X 2+ d X 3=d X i d X i
2 2 3 2 2 2 3

ds=√ d x1 + d x 2+ d x 3 ↔d s =x 1 +d x 2 +d x 3=d xi d xi
2 2 3 2 2 2 3

Using Kronecker delta, these equations can be written as,

2
d S =d X i d X i=δ ij d X i d X j
2
d s =δ ij d x i d x j
Substituting the mapping function,
2 ∂ Xi ∂Xj ∂ Xi ∂ X j
d S =δ ij d xk d x l=δ ij d xk d xl
∂ xk ∂ xl ∂ x k ∂ xl
2 ∂ xi ∂ xj ∂ xi ∂ x j
d s =δ ij d xk d x l=δ ij d Xk d Xl
∂ Xk ∂ Xl ∂ Xk ∂ Xl
Therefore, the change in distance in terms of initial state is

∂ xi ∂ x j
d s 2−d S 2=δ ij d X k d X l −δ ij d X i d X j
∂ Xk ∂ Xl
To avoid confusion due to similar index, the equation is modified as follows,

d s 2−d S 2=δ αβ
∂ xα ∂ xβ
∂ Xi ∂ X j
d X i d X j−δ ij d X i d X j = δ αβ α
(
∂ x ∂ xβ
∂ Xi ∂ X j )
−δ ij d X i d X j=2 Eij d X i d X j

Eij is also known as material strain tensor or Green-Lagrange strain tensor which the value is
1
Eij = δ αβ α
2
∂x ∂xβ
∂ Xi ∂ X j(−δ ij
)
If using different approach, that is the change in distance in terms of after deformation,
2 2
d s −d S =δ ij d x i d x i−δ αβ
∂ Xα ∂ Xβ
∂ xi ∂ x j (
d x i d x j= δ ij −δ αβ
∂ Xα ∂ X β
∂ xi ∂ x j )
d x i d x j=2 eij d x i d x j

Where e ij is also known as spatial strain tensor or Almansi strain tensor which value is

e ij =
1
2 (
δ ij −δ αβ
∂ Xα ∂ Xβ
∂ xi ∂ x j )
Reference:
Fung, Y.C.1977. A First Course in Continuum Mechanics. Prentice-Hall, Upper Saddle
Xavier, O., and Agelet de Saracibar, C. 2017. Continuum Mechanics for Engineers. Theory and
Problems, 2nd edition. doi:10.13140/RG.2.2.25821.20961
Figure 8. Differential segments in a continuous medium (After Xavier and Agelet de Saracibar, 2017)