Fibers and Polymers 2021, Vol.22, No.

11, 3203-3211 ISSN 1229-9197 (print version)

DOI 10.1007/s12221-021-0843-y ISSN 1875-0052 (electronic version)

Study on Mechanical and Thermal Properties of Amazon Fibers on the

Polymeric Biocomposites: Malva and Tucum
Juliana dos Santos Carneiro da Cunha1, Hilton Eduardo de Oliveira Neto1, Virginia Mansanares Giacon1,2,
Lizandro Manzato1,3, and Cristina Gomes da Silva1,4*
1
Postgraduate Program in Materials Science and Engineering, Federal University of Amazonas, 69080-900, Brazil
2
Materials Engineering Department, Federal University of Amazonas, 69080-900, Brazil
3
Federal Institute of Education, Science and Technology of Amazonas, 69075-351, Brazil
4
Department of Physics, Federal University of Amazonas, Manaus, 69080-900, Brazil
(Received July 20, 2020; Revised February 24, 2021; Accepted March 1, 2021)

Abstract: Amazon region found abundant vegetal fibers with diversified properties to the application. Tucum and malva
fibers regularly obtained in this region were applied as reinforcement in the polymeric biomatrix and as a substitute for
synthetic materials. Castor oil was used as the polyol to prepare the polyurethane biomatrix (PU). Amazon fibers were
incorporated in this biomatrix using high proportions (30, 50, and 70 wt.%; 30 mm length), TPU (tucum polyurethane
composite), and MPU (malva polyurethane composite). This study valorized regional materials and substituted synthetic
products by renewable source materials. The fibers’ characterization results showed a high cellulose percentage, promoting
high crystallinity values by XRD (X-ray diffraction) results (67.5 % for malva and 60.0 % for tucum). SEM (Scanning
Electron Microscopy) images revealed the arrangement/thickness of the fibers, as well as the composite morphology.
Thermolysis and mechanical properties investigate the composites in which the natural fibers were incorporated into the
polyurethane matrix in large percentages, maintaining the main properties. The composites presented high impact Izod
values, as 550 J m-1 for TPU-70 wt.% and 452 J m-1 for MPU-70 wt.%. In general, composites prepared with a high content
of natural products from renewable sources showed promising performances in the applied tests, with excellent potential for
replacing engineering materials.
Keywords: Malva, Tucum, Castor oil, Polyurethane, Composite

Introduction propitious to the grown of this plant, humid and hot. Malva
is a similar plant to ramie; both are cultivated together in this
The vegetal fibers are diversified and abundant in the region. It is an essential plant in the economics of the local
Amazon Region, and their acquisition was relatively easy at people and the market. Previous works present promising
Ong’s (non-governmental organization) or popular markets. results, with excellent properties, chemical and mechanical
These fibers have a diversified property, which is an resistance [4-6].
attraction to the science and technology areas. Comprehending Renewable natural resources are a source of energy and a
these fibers’ main components and structure facilitates their feedstock to produce new materials, and it has been
direct application in engineering materials (as reinforcement increasing in considerable proportions every year [7,8].
fibers) or extraction of the major components (cellulose and Sustainable materials have been the research centers’
lignin) for later applications. Based on these arguments, this motivation due to the scarcity of nonrenewable resources,
study with composites applied malva and tucum fibers from bio-friendly, and bio-degradability products [7,8]. The
the Amazon region. vegetal fibers widely used as a reinforcement in polymer
Tucum fibers grow into the Amazon rainforest in the matrices it is constituted by two main macromolecules:
western region, from Venezuela to Peru and western Brazil; cellulose and lignin. In this study, tucum and malva fibers
their scientific name is Astrocaryum chambira Burret [1,2]. [2,9], typically from the Amazon region (purchased in the
However, the fibers are manually extracted from the palm municipal market of Manaus), were used as reinforcement of
tree, separated by the leaf vein, and being forcefully pulled polyurethane/castor oil polymer [10,11].
out at a bending point [1]. In Brazil, native indians from the Several researchers have studies composites reinforced
Tikunas tribe (localized between the county of Tabatinga and with natural fibers [12-15]. The substitution of the synthetic
São Paulo de Olivença on Amazonas state and at the border fibers and matrices by natural products, maintaining their
with Acre State) cultivate the tucum trees [3,4]. properties, is relevant to obtaining biomaterials with easy
Malva is a fibrous plant from the Malvaceae family biodegradation [4]. Mechanical properties are the studies'
(Urena Lobata Linn) and is easily found in the Amazon principal focus, influenced by other factors, such as tenacity,
Region, Pará, and the Amazonas States, where the clime is tension fibers, interface interactions (between fibers and
matrix), impact resistance, and others [3,16-18].
*Corresponding author: [email protected] The rich nature of the hydroxyl groups presents in the

3203
3204 Fibers and Polymers 2021, Vol.22, No.11 Juliana dos Santos Carneiro da Cunha et al.

vegetal fibers’ structure is a relevant point to interact with and MPU (malva polyurethane composite), were prepared
the matrices with different chemical structures [19]. The by mixing the PU prepolymer and castor oil (CO) firstly, in
matrix used in this study uses isocyanate and polyol from the proportion of 1:2 (MDI:OH - w/w, respectively). Next,
castor oil, resulting in a polyurethane matrix with high polar the prepolymer (PU-CO) impregnated the fibers in different
group content. In this case, castor oil is a derivative of proportions 30, 50, and 70 wt.% dry fibers. The mixture was
natural and renewable sources [6]. Besides, a vegetable made by hand and laboratory tweezers for a few minutes (no
triglyceride, which has hydroxyl groups in its structure, is more than 8 minutes), resulting in a homogeneous mixture,
currently used as a try-functional polyol [15]. Both matrix and quickly distributed into the metallic mold (coated with a
and fibers have a high content of the polar and compatible Teflon film, 0.2 mm), and it was kept in a hydraulic press at
groups, favoring the interaction in the interface region. 120 bars/120 oC, during 20 min. Before demolding, the
This study mainly aggregates the value of the vegetal composite was maintained in the mold at room temperature
products cultivated by the local population of north Brazil for 15 minutes, around 75 oC. After demolding, all composites
and their contribution to the polyurethane resin’s contribution were kept 48 h at room temperature before analysis.
to producing biocomposites. Amazonian fibers reinforcing
polyurethane composites based on castor vegetable oil were Malva and Tucum Fibers Analysis
studied, varying the fibers type and percentages. Malva and Chemical Composition
tucum vegetable fibers, regularly found in the Amazon The chemical characterizations results correspond to the
region, were used as a substitute for the synthetic products total composition of the fibers. The three samples’ average
and reinforce the matrix, to prepare bio polyurethane values, humidity free, and the extractives were removed
composites. In this same proposal, the castor oil was before characterizations. All TAPPI Standards were adapted
partially substituted for the synthetic polyurethane polymer. to characterize the lignocellulosic fibers. TAPPI 413 om-02
The fiber’ proportion was variated from 30 to 70 wt.% for method was applied to determine the ash content by
both fibers. Mechanical, thermal, morphological, and considering the calcination at 800 oC for 4 h.
chemical properties characterized the fibers and composites. TAPPI T13-m-54, TAPPI T19m-54, and ABNT (Brazilian
In general, the composites exhibited to employ as a Association for Technical Standard, NBR9656) standards
substitute for the total synthetic composite planes. determined the total amount of lignin (soluble and
insoluble), holocellulose and α-cellulose, and moisture
Experimental content of the fibers.
Attenuated Total Reflectance Fourier Transform Infrared
Materials and Methods (FTIR) Spectroscopy
For this study, tucum and malva fibers, purchased in the Powder samples (fibers and composites, 100 mg) were
municipal market of Manaus, were previously collected performed to FTIR spectroscopy using a Shimadzu
from native forests by local communities. Both fibers were spectrometer (IRAffinity-1s) equipped with a prism ZnSe
used to reinforce the polyurethane/castor oil polymer (1:2) attachment. Scanning was conducted from 4000 cm-1 to
(kindly provided by Plural Química Industry, São Carlos, SP, 500 cm-1, with 32 scans on average for each spectrum. All
Brazil). powder patterns were previously dried at 105 oC for 4 h.
Crystallinity Index
Fibers Preparation Both fibers were analyzed by XRD (X-ray diffraction)
The fibers were washed in the hot water bath, 70 oC/1 h, using Panalytical equipment (model Emperyan), under the
to remove the impurities and sugar. After the extractives conditions: Cu-kα, 1.54056 Å, 40 kV, 30 mA, 3 o < 2θ <
were extracted by the reflux system (balloon reaction and 50 o, 0.015 o and a counting time of 100 s at each 1.05 o. The
Soxhlet), directly in a solution of ethylic alcohol (92.6 %) crystallinity index (CI %) was calculated by equation (1),
and acetone (P.A.), 95:5 v/v proportion; enough volume to according to Segal method:
cover the fibers. The system was heated at 70 oC/1 h under a
 I200  –  Iam 
magnetic stir to remove the grace acid and residual sugars. % CI = ---------------------------
-  100 (1)
This pretreatment is relevant to clean the fibers and improve I200
the interface interaction with the resin. The fibers were where I200 represents the maximum peak intensity
washed with distilled water and dried in an air-circulated corresponding at (200) plane, and Iam is the value of the
stove (80 oC) until constant weight. Previously to incorporated minimum intensity for the amorphous cellulose (valley
in the resin, the fibers were cut at around 30 mm and dried at between (200) and (110) planes).
105 oC for 4 h. Thermal Analysis
Thermogravimetry (TGA) and differential scanning
Composite Preparation calorimetry (DSC) were carried out using a TA Instruments,
The composites, TPU (tucum polyurethane composite) model SDT Q600 with module DSC-TGA Standard. The
Biocomposites of Amazon Fibers: Malva and Tucum Fibers and Polymers 2021, Vol.22, No.11 3205

samples were heated from room temperature to 600 oC with development of a boundary, and penetration mobility of the
a heating rate of 10 oC min-1 under a nitrogen atmosphere, water into the polymer. The diffusion cases can be
air flowing at 30 ml min-1. distinguished by the experimental values fitted using
Composite Characterizations equation (3):
All composites were characterized by thermal analysis
M
techniques (TGA and DSC) and FTIR, as previously log -------t = log  k  – nlogt (3)
described for the fibers. Besides this, the composites were M
evaluated by Izod impact strength and water absorption, where Mt is the moisture content at time t; M∞ is the moisture
following ASTM D256 (American Society for Testing and content at the equilibrium, and k and n are constants.
Materials - Standard test method for unnotched Izod impact The theoretical model performs the diffusion coefficient
strength) and ASTM D570-98 (Standard Test Method for (D) analysis, which shows the solvent molecules’ ability (in
Water Absorption of Plastics), respectively. Izod impact this case, water molecules) inside the composite structure.
strength was carried out at Tinius Olsen 92T equipment This coefficient is the most crucial parameter of Fick’s law
(kindly carried out by AvanPlas - Polímeros da Amazônia inserted in equation (4):
Ltda, in Manaus - AM, Brazil) with a pendulum (energy M 0.5
5.6 J), and automatic results calculated. Equation (2) -------t = --4-  D
---- t
0.5
(4)
M L   
calculates the water absorption (% WA) test results by the
weight difference. where L is the thickness of the samples.
wfinal – winitial Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM)
% WA = ----------------------------
- (2) All samples, fibers, and composites were surface-
winitial
metalized by a sputter coating (BAL-TEC, SCD 050 Sputter
The diffusion mechanism study and kinetics were Coater) with a thin gold thickness (10 nm) and analyzed by
performed based on Fick’s law. This model is well-described SEM (ZEISS, model Leo 435 VP) at an acceleration voltage
by Megiatto et al., firstly apud by Espert et al. [20,21]. The of 15 kV.
diffusion behavior in polymers can be classified according to
three different categories, following well described by Results and Discussion
Espert et al. [20]. In general, this classification discusses the
relative mobility of the polymer segments, mobility Both fiber composition results, malva and tucum, are

Figure 1. Malva and tucum fiber characterizations; (a) standard chemical characterizations, (b) SEM surface morphology, and (c) DRX
results (crystallinity index and main peaks).
3206 Fibers and Polymers 2021, Vol.22, No.11 Juliana dos Santos Carneiro da Cunha et al.

according to lignocellulosic fibers results showed in the the impregnation process, as seen in the studies with other
literature, as reported by Fonseca et al. [22]. The fibers fibers described in the literature [29,30]. The interface
showed results corresponding to the majority components, region's condition is relevant in the composite material,
as listed in Figure 1a. Both fibers presented a high value which occurs the physical and chemical interactions that will
concerning the cellulose content 58.80 % (±2.90) and support the mechanical solicitations.
68.23 % (±0.04), respectively, an excellent result than the Crystallinity index patterns were determined by DRX
values reported in the natural fibers’ literature. Fibers with analysis (Figure 1c), exhibiting mainly intensities at
high cellulose content are desirable properties to the 2θ=18.5 o and 22.6 o, minimum and maximum reflection
extraction and production of nanofibers and nanocrystals. planes, respectively, corresponding to the crystal region of
Moreover, the cellulose content provides high tensile and the fibers. From the spectra results, the crystallinity index
flexural strength to lignocellulosic fibers, which is excellent calculated was 68.56 % and 79.34 %, malva and tucum
for reinforcement in composite materials, as demonstrated in fibers, respectively. The DRX curves were observed subtle
the literature [3,16,23]. peaks at 15 o and 35 o relative to amorphous regions of the
Tucum is a fiber well used in the Amazon region by local lignocellulosic fibers [31-33]. The literature showed the
producers and regularly applied as handicrafts, the reason different parts of the tucum plant, with a crystalline fraction
why it is still rarely mentioned in scientific studies. Malva of 39 to 56 %.
fibers are commonly applied as a reinforcement in composite Malva fibers show only one peak at 15.6 o, which possibly
materials than tucum. Their chemical and mechanical is corresponding to the two overlapping diffraction peaks as
characterization is poorly described in the literature because observed in the tucum curve, at 14.8 o related to (010) or
the malva plant has a relevant pharmacological property (1-10) planes (probably corresponding to cellulose Iα and
[24,25]. Several countries commonly use malva plants in Iβ, respectively). The second peak in this region, at 16.3 o
traditional medicine, as Turkey, Iran, Italy, Bulgaria, Albanian, related to (001) or (110) planes is probably corresponding to
and others. Their relevant properties are antimicrobial, cellulose Iα and Iβ, respectively. This behavior is directly
antioxidants, antidiabetic, anti-inflammatory activities, and related to the amorphous region contribution of cellulose.
others. The malva types M. parviflora and M. sylvestris are Besides the difference, both results exhibited a sharp peak
commonly used to obtain the extractives against anti- at 2θ=22.6 o, with an interatomic distance of 4.835 Å
inflammatory and wound healing activity [26,27]. (following Bragg Law), corresponding to the (011) or (200)
Fonseca et al. [22] report scientific studies about tucum lattice plane if the cellulose is the type Iα or the type Iβ,
fibers; the results showed that this fiber presents 75.5 wt.% respectively, indicating higher crystallinity [33].
of the cellulose and only 3.8 wt.% insoluble lignin. The TGA analysis (Figure 2) for both lignocellulosic fibers
difference observed between fibers and their chemical started with a loss mass at around 45-60 oC, due to moisture
compositions can be mainly related to the species, weather content corresponding to superficial and intermolecular
conditions, soil type, and other fibers’ characteristics (age or water. Intra or structural-molecular water evaporates above
extractives). All fibers cultivated in the Amazon region are 200 oC, which are present between the molecular chains,
considered seasonal plants; the clime is very intense and strongly bound to the structure chains. TGA and DSC
defined, alternating between rain and intense drought periods. analysis indicated the thermal stability of all fibers around
Morphological studies of the fiber surfaces have been 250 oC. From 270 oC, the onset temperature of thermal
available by SEM. The images displayed in Figure 1b are decomposition of the holocellulose (both hemicellulose and
revealing the arrangement and medium fiber’s thickness cellulose) until around 370 oC, approximately. From 400 oC,
118.9±3.5 µm and 82.3±2.3 µm, malva and tucum fibers, the last peak was observed, above 500 oC, corresponding to
respectively. Following Fonseca et al. [22], microfibrils the protolignin decomposition (lignin present in the natural
diameter measured was 19.8±4.3 µm, which presents a high fibers); DSC confirms these events already well described in
mechanical performance in concerning tension strength the literature Silva et al. [12,13,34,35].
360±146 MPa, elongation of break 11.0±3.6 %, and modulus In general, the fibers’ thermal characterization incorporated
elongation 4.3±2.7 GPa. Similar properties about the malva into the polymer matrix presents the events that correspond
fibers are listed in the literature by Branco et al. [28], to the fibers superposed by the matrix’s events. This result
concerning tension strength 297±89 MPa, elongation 5±2 %, occurs because structures are present at both materials,
diameter 45±15 µm, specific gravity 1.48±0.01 g/cm3, and matrix and fibers, carbon long chains, hydrogens, and
moisture 11.0±0.5 % [28]. All results are relevant to oxygens, besides the different structures. When the
compare and complement this study proposed. polymeric resin well involves the fibers, the fusion of both
Images show similar superficial morphology, smoothly, structures simultaneously occurs, according to the temperature
and a longitudinal section with slots. The relevant properties increases.
that favor their application as a reinforcement in composites, Generally, a polyurethane structure is composed of
due to the easy interaction with pre-polymers matrix, during hydrogen bonds and the chain extension with NH, CO
Biocomposites of Amazon Fibers: Malva and Tucum Fibers and Polymers 2021, Vol.22, No.11 3207

Figure 2. TGA/DTG and DSC curves of the results; (a) malva fiber and (b) tucum fiber (N2 atmosphere rate: 20 ml min-1; heating rate: 10 oC
min-1).

Figure 3. Thermal analysis (TGA/DTG and DSC) of the composites, PU-CO (polyurethane with castor oil) reinforced with (a) malva and
(b) tucum fibers (50 wt.%); from room temperature to 800 oC; the rate of 10 oC min-1; N2 atmosphere: 30 ml min-1.

groups of the urethane bond or oxygen present in another degradation occurs, corresponds to amines, phenol groups,
flexible segment [29]. Figure 3 presents the thermal analysis and aromatic ring structures from both fibers and matrix.
(TGA/DTG and DSC) curves of the composites. The results All composites reinforced with tucum and malva fibers
showed that the degradation temperature occurred at 342 oC were characterized by Izod impact strength, presenting a
(TPU 50 wt.%) and 352 oC (MPU 50 wt.%). In comparison, gradual increase in the values, according to the increase of
the onset temperature for both biocomposites is around percentage fibers, as presented in Figure 4.
264 oC, a few degrees below the fibers’ onset temperature. Composites reinforced with tucum presented the best
This result is indicative that the process does not degrade the results for all compositions concerning the composites with
fiber structure considerably when in the polymeric matrix. malva. Impact strength values were 21, 26, and 18 % higher
All events were detected by the DSC analysis, as observed in for TPU than MPU, between the composites 30, 50, and
the curves of both graphs in Figure 3. 70 wt.%, respectively.
Following the literature, the results described by Oliveira Evaluating all results previously showed, the tucum fibers
et al. [29] corresponding to the PU-OM matrix show the reported a difference in their chemical composition about the
peak of the thermal degradation between 320-350 oC. These malva fibers. The relevant difference showed cellulose
results confirmed that until around 300 oC the composite percentage and their crystallinity index, 12.6 and 13.2 %
stability was maintained due to the natural fibers were well- higher for tucum than malva fiber (Figure 1). When
covered by the polymer matrix preserving the materials, do combined, both properties confer more resistance to natural
not decrease the temperature. fibers, consequently improving the transference energy
Besides, the events above 400 oC correspond to flexible mechanism between fiber/matrix, and hence the mechanical
segments and polyol residual from the degradation step and properties, as seen in this case (Figure 4).
the partial lignin degradation. After 600 oC, the total thermal It is essential to highlight some points about composites
3208 Fibers and Polymers 2021, Vol.22, No.11 Juliana dos Santos Carneiro da Cunha et al.

Figure 4. Izod impact strength and SEM images (interface of the composites) results of the PU composites reinforced with tucum and malva
fibers (30, 50, and 70 wt.%, 30 mm). Malva: the lowest standard deviation was ±27 Jm-1 (at 50 wt.%) and the highest was ±39 Jm-1 (at
70 wt.%), tucum: the lowest standard deviation was ±23 Jm-1 (at 30 wt.%) and the highest was ±2.0 Jm-1 (at 50 wt.%).

reinforced with natural fibers, that in general, the composites almost a green material, having less than 20 wt.% of the
do not present homogenous results. Comparatively, the synthetic material, into the composite with 70 wt.% fibers.
impact strength results increased and showed excellent All samples showed a fiber bridge after the Izod impact
values to composites with 50 and 70 wt.%. This quantity of test, then the fibers were carefully separated, prepared for
the natural fibers reinforcing a polymeric matrix is relevant SEM analysis, and this region performs the images. Figure 4
to substitute the synthetic material, maintain or improve shows the SEM images of this fractured region. Images
mechanical properties. Also, the polymeric matrix, show the covering of the resins’ fibers, and the interface
polyurethane, used in this study, has around 66 wt.% of the region was easily seen in the composites with fibers 30 and
castor oil from a renewable source. They turn this composite, 50 wt.% (TPU and MPU). The composites prepared with
Biocomposites of Amazon Fibers: Malva and Tucum Fibers and Polymers 2021, Vol.22, No.11 3209

more fibers, 70 wt.%, it was not easy to observe the interface strongly influencing the k values, as seen in Table 1. The
region between matrix and fibers. Arrows indicated the variation in the proportion of sisal fibers in the composites
central regions in the SEM images. When the percentage of did not influence their water molecules’ affinity. The
the fibers increases, consequently, the resin’s presence chemical nature of the composite components reflects in the
decreases, and the interaction fiber-fiber increases. material affinity for water. As in this study, the components’
In this case, fibers’ increase did not negatively influence chemical nature was not modified, then the value of k
the mechanical properties’ results, as observed in the Izod remained unchanged.
impact results (Figure 4). The fibers’ thickness is probably Values of k are indicative of the affinity between the
relevant in this result, facilitating the fibers’ wettability polymeric matrix and water molecules [38]. The higher
during the impregnation process and promoting the values of the k to composites reinforced with malva fibers
minimum resin between the fibers. (MPU) than tucum (TPU) indicate more water affinity. In
The literature presents that the composite materials’ this case, the matrix applied is the same, changing the
results improve due to increased fibers percentage or length. reinforcement only. The results show an indication of the
This increase leads to a maximum point in the mechanical character of both fibers when used as reinforcement of the
properties of the composites. After this point, the properties composites. Malva fibers have more strong interaction, or
decrease considerably, depending on the matrix or the fibers hygroscopicity, with water molecular than tucum fibers. The
used. This effect is due to fiber-fiber interaction and poor presence of the polar groups exposed in the MPU is more
adhesion in the interface region (fiber-matrix), caused by the than TPU, promoting interactions between the materials and
decrease in the amount of resin [36,37]. water molecules efficiently. The relative values of k that
Applying Fick’s law for diffusion (equation (3) and refer to the interaction between the materials consequently
equation (4)) in the data obtained in the water absorption influenced the mobility speed results (diffusion coefficient,
test, enabling the assessment of the water diffusion process D) of the composite’s water molecules. The higher k values
in the biocomposites, Figure 5 reports the D values indicate a higher affinity of the composite for water
(diffusion coefficient). The parameter k is related to the molecules; therefore, the relative mobility speed (D) will be
interaction behavior between the composites’ components lower. Table 1 lists the correlations, where the D values for
and the water molecules, and Table 1 lists the values. TPU composites are higher than MPU; consequently, the k
In this case, the composite compositions did not change, values are lower for TPU than MPU.
only the fibers’ proportion as reinforcement, therefore not Water absorption tests indicated that the composites
reinforced with 70 wt% fibers (both tucum and malva fibers)
presented a low diffusion coefficient of the water compared
to all the composites in this study, 8.3×10-8 mm2·h-1 (TPU)
and 1.3×10-8 mm2·h-1 (MPU). Despite the many fibers
(70 wt.%) reinforcing the polymeric matrix, the water
diffusion coefficient was lower than the other composites,
indicating the interaction intensified of the interface region
(fiber/matrix). This increase, regardless of the fiber type, has
relative importance to replacing synthetic materials with
natural products and renewable sources, lignocellulosic
fibers and castor oil, and maintaining or improving the final
materials’ thermal stability properties. Additionally, the
water absorption test presented consistent results than Izod
Figure 5. Water absorption results of the composites: TPU and impact strength values, indicating that the composite with
MPU (30, 50, 70 wt.%) in function of the D (diffusion coefficient, 70 wt.% fibers had a better adhesion at the fiber/matrix
mm2 h-1). interface than the others.
The results reported in the literature correlated to
thermoset composites reinforced with lignocellulosic fibers
Table 1. Water absorption results of the composites with malva and show a profile similar to the one observed in this study. The
tucum fibers. Diffusion coefficients D (mm2 h-1)×10-8 and k values k values are constant, and D values increase according to the
Composites D (mm2·h-1)×10-8 k percentage of the fibers increase. It is relevant to highlight
(wt. %) TPU MPU TPU MPU that the D values increase is correlated to the excellent
30 20.8 1.4 0.38 1.47
adhesion and covered of the fibers by polymeric matrix.
When the fibers, hydrophilic, are well covered by the
50 13.0 5.7 0.13 1.34
resin, with few voids present, the water molecules’ diffusion
70 8.3 1.3 0.36 1.80 will probably occur through the matrix. In the interface
3210 Fibers and Polymers 2021, Vol.22, No.11 Juliana dos Santos Carneiro da Cunha et al.

region, the intensity of fiber-matrix interaction determines Acknowledgments

the speed of diffusion of water molecules. The higher the
interaction in the interface region, the smaller the number of The authors gratefully acknowledge UFAM (Universidade
free polar groups to interact with water molecules, justifying Federal do Amazonas) and IFAM (Instituto Federal do
the diffusion coefficient’s increase. On the other hand, the Amazonas) for the infrastructure and CNPq for the financial
increase in free polar groups provides interaction with water support (# 426530/2016-0) and fellowship to J.S.C.C. The
molecules, decreasing their diffusion through the material. authors gratefully acknowledge the LAMAC (Amazon
This behavior can be correlated with the impact results due Materials and Composites Laboratory) facilities.
to increased or decreased resistance values, better resistance
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