Nota Imc

Research Methodology
Chapter 1
The Nature of Research
authored by Stephanie Fleischer © SAGE publications Ltd 2014

Topics covered
• Definition of research
• Reasons for doing research
• Applications of research
• Characteristics and requirements of research
process
• Types of research
• Differences between qualitative, quantitative
and mixed methods approaches
Research: What does it mean?
• “Research is a structured inquiry that utilises
acceptable scientific methodology to solve
problems and creates new knowledge that is
generally applicable.” (Grinnell 1993:4)
• “a systematic investigation to find answers to

a problem” (Burns, 1997:2)

Reasons for doing research
• To understand a field you are
studying/working in
• To explain and find answers in relation to what
you perceive
• To critically examine certain aspects
• To make changes
• To find answers to theoretical questions

Application of research
• Examine your own field
• Methodologists have developed research
methods to understand your specific area
• There are many different procedures and
techniques
• Reliability and validity depends on the
soundness of the research methods adopted

Figure 1.1 The applications of research

Characteristics and requirements of
research process
Collecting, analysing and interpretation of information to
answer questions must require certain characteristics:
• Controlled
• Rigorous-Ensure that procedure to find answers to
questions are relevant, appropriate and justify
• Systematic
• Valid and verifiable
• Empirical-conclusion drawn are based upon hard
evidence
• Critical-critical scrutiny of the procedure used and
methods employed.
Types of research
• Mode of enquiry to find answers to a research
problem underpinned by different philosophies:
– Quantitative approach or the structured approach
– Qualitative approach or the unstructured approach
– Mixed methods approach
• The choice of approach depends on
– Aim of enquiry – exploration, confirmation or
quantification.
– Use of the findings – policy formulation or process
understanding.
Figure 1.2 Types of research

The mixed methods approach
Combine multiple methods of different paradigms
(quantitative /qualitative ) to improve findings
• Advantages:
– Enhances research possibilities
– Better for more complex situations
– Enrichment of data
– Collecting additional research evidence
• Disadvantages:
– More data means more work and resources
– Requires additional and diverse skills
– Contacting two study populations
– Resolving disagreements in data
Paradigms of research
Form the basis of research methodology
• Quantitative approach (systematic, scientific
or positivist approach to social enquiry)
• Qualitative approach (ethnographic, ecological
or naturalistic approach)
• Mixed methods approach (combination of
quantitative and qualitative approach)

Table 1.2 Differences between qualitative,
quantitative and mixed methods
approaches

The Research Onion
(Saunders, 2006)
Chapter 2
The Research Process:

A Quick Glance

Topics covered
The eight step model for carrying out research:
Phase I: DECIDING what to research
Step I: Formulating a research problem
Phase II: PLANNING a research study
Step II: Conceptualising a research design
Step III: Constructing an instrument for data collection
Step IV: Selecting a sample
Step V: Writing a research proposal
Phase III: CONDUCTING a research study
Step VI: Collecting data
Step VII: Processing and displaying data
Step VIII: Writing a research report
© SAGE publications Ltd 2014
Figure 2.1 The research journey

The research process
• Methodologies differ due to underpinning
philosophy
• The process is the same for quantitative and
qualitative research
• Each approach uses different research
methods for data collection, data processing,
analysis and style of communicating the
findings
Figure 2.2 The research journey

Figure 2.3 The chapters in the book in
relation to the operational steps

Phase I: DECIDING what to do
Step I: Formulating a research problem
• Most important step, because the following steps
are influenced by the research problem
• What do you want to find out about?
 Have you got sufficient funds to do the research?
 Have you got the time available to conduct the study?
 Have you got knowledge of relevant disciplines?
 Do you have sufficient knowledge of skills needed?

Phase II: PLANNING a research study
Step II: Conceptualising a research design
What you find depends on how it was found
• Select an appropriate research design:
– Quantitative
– Qualitative
– Mixed methods
• The design has to be
• Valid
• Workable
• Manageable
• Be aware of its strengths and weaknesses
Phase II: PLANNING - continued
Step III: Constructing an instrument for data
collection
How will you collect your data?
• Construct a research instrument or research tool
to collect data (interview schedules,
questionnaires, notes on observations, diaries,
interview guides, etc.)
• Or use secondary data (information already
collected for other purposes)
• Do a pre-testing of your research tool (pilot
study)
Phase II: PLANNING – continued
Step IV: Selecting a sample
Who will take part in your research?
• Select appropriate sample/participants to
represent the study population
• Avoid bias
• Random / probability samples
• Non-random / non probability samples
• Be aware of strengths and weaknesses of
different sampling methods
Phase II: PLANNING - continued
Step V: Writing a research proposal
Write a detailed plan about your research:
• What are you proposing to do?
• How you plan to proceed?
• Why you select the proposed strategy?

Phase III: CONDUCTING a research study
Step VI: Collecting data
Doing the data gathering using one or more data
collection method, such as:
– conducting interviews
– mailing out questionnaires
– conducting nominal/focus groups discussions
– making an observation
Be aware of ethical issues!

Phase III: CONDUCTING - continued
Step VII: Processing and displaying data
What did you find how?
• Analysing the data depends on the type of
information and how to communicate the
findings
• Distinguish between
– Descriptive having a percentage
– Quantitative (statistical procedures)

– Qualitative (narrative, content analysis)
– Attitudinal skills or impact or result that you achieve from the research

Phase III: CONDUCTING - continued
Step VIII: Writing a research report involve having a discussion
What have you done? What conclusions have

you drawn from the findings?
• Different format for quantitative and
• Structure using main themes of study
• Use academic conventions

Research Methodology : Chapter 3
Reviewing the literature
Prepared by Stephanie Fleischer

Topics covered
• Function of literature review
• What is literature review?
• Types of literature review sources
• How to review the literature
• Searching for existing literature
• Reviewing selected literature
• Developing theoretical and conceptual
frameworks
• How to write a literature review
What is literature review?
• It is a critical description of the literature relevant to a
particular research.
• A Literature Review (LR) should
never be just a list of previous work
contain the works that you consulted in order to
develop your research provide
justification/background for the research undertaken:
- The LR guides the reader to understanding the
contribution of the work by pointing out the
shortcomings/gaps of the state of the art
- If you leave this task to the reader, your paper may be
rejected
Function of literature review
• A literature review is an integral part of the
research process
• Providing a theoretical background to a study:
– Bringing clarity and focus to the research problem
– Improving research methodology
– Broadening knowledge base in the research area
of interest
– Contextualizing findings by integrating with the
existing body of knowledge
Types of literature review sources
• Journal articles (surveys, research papers). Provide technical up-
to-date information (last 2 years) about a research topic.
• Books. Recent research monographs can be useful in your
literature review. Do not include citations of textbooks not in
your LR, but you can use them in later sections of your paper.
• Conference proceedings. They provide information about the
latest/unpublished research. In general, less reliable than a
journal paper. Always cite the journal paper version if available.
• Government or corporate reports. Depending on your field of
study can be a useful source of information. They may outline
general research lines a particular organization is interested in
funding.
Types of literature review sources
• Theses and dissertations. Can be useful sources of
information. However they can be difficult to obtain, parts of
the research presented may have to be treated with caution.
• Specialized magazines. Sometimes these are considered as
reputable as a journal. Other types of magazines can provide
a good starting point to find more reputed work.
• Other sources include newspapers and the Internet. These
can point you to the more reputed sources; in general avoid
citing them directly in your LR.
LR should answer…
1. What do we already know in the immediate
area concerned?
2. What are the characteristics of the key concepts
or the main factors or variables?
3. What are the relationships between these key
concepts, factors or variables?
4. What are the complementary existing
theories/approaches?
5. Where are the inconsistencies or other
shortcomings in our knowledge which these
works have not solved?
LR should answer…
6. What views need to be (further) tested?
7. What evidence is lacking, inconclusive,
contradictory or too limited?
8. Why study (further) the research problem?
9. What contribution can the present study be
expected to make?
10.What research designs or methods seem
unsatisfactory?
How to review the literature
• Start with broad area of interest if research problem is not
known and narrow down
• Focused around the research problem
– What is already known in the area?
– What is not known or what are the gaps in the existing body of
knowledge?
– What questions have remained unanswered?
– Are there any areas of professional conflict?
– What theories have been put forward relevant to the area of
research?
– What suggestions have been made for further research?
– What research strategies have been employed by others
undertaking similar research?
Four steps of doing a literature review
1. Searching for the existing literature in the

area of interest
2. Reviewing the selected literature
3. Developing a theoretical framework
4. Developing a conceptual framework

Reviewing selected literature
• Read existing literature and examine critically:
– Note whether the knowledge relevant to a theoretical
framework has been confirmed beyond doubt
– Note the theories put forward, the criticisms of these and their
basis, the methodologies adopted (study design, sample size
and its characteristics, measurement procedures, etc.) and the
criticisms of them
– Examine to what extent the findings can be generalised to other
situations
– Notice where there are significant differences of opinion among
researchers, giving an opinion about their validity in addition to
putting forward a position with reasons
– Ascertain the areas in which little or nothing is known – the gaps
that exist in the body of knowledge

Developing theoretical and conceptual
frameworks
• Read with focus in mind
• Sort information into main themes and
theories
• Literature fits in two categories:
– Universal or general
– More specific
• Conceptual framework is the basis of enquiry
and stems from the theoretical framework
How to write a literature review
Write about the literature reviewed to provide a
theoretical background and contextualise findings
to existing body of literature:
• Describe various theories
• Specify gaps in the existing knowledge area
• Write about recent advances in the area of study
• State current trends
• Refine own methodology
• Quote findings from existing studies
authored by Stephanie Fleisher © SAGE publications Ltd 2014
Writing a literature review
• Thematic, based on the main theme of
enquiry
• Following a logical order
• Arguments referenced with supporting
evidence from the existing literature
• Use academic referencing style

A bad example of LR
Until recently many researchers have shown interest in the field of coastal
erosion and the resulting beach profiles. They have carried out numerous
laboratory experiments and field observations to illuminate the darkness of
this field. Their findings and suggestions are reviewed here.
JACHOWSKI (1964) developed a model investigation conducted on the
interlocking precast concrete block seawall. After a result of a survey of
damages caused by the severe storm at the coast of USA, a new and
especially shaped concrete block was developed for use in shore protection.
This block was designed to be used in a revetment type seawall that would be
both durable and economical as well as reduce wave run-up and overtopping,
and scour at its base or toe. It was proved that effective shore protection
could be designed utilizing these units.
HOM-MA and HORIKAWA (1964) studied waves forces acting on the seawall
which was located inside the surf zone. On the basis of the experimental
results conducted to measure waves forces against a vertical wall, the authors
proposed an empirical formula of wave pressure distribution on a seawall.
The computed results obtained by using the above formula were compared
well with the field data of wave pressure on a vertical wall.
Why is it bad?
• It offers a summary of previous research.
• Does not answer any other question. It does not
evaluate the summarized research, does not
show any relationship between theories
• Organized by listing authors, presented using
chronological order, instead of organized using
the research (key concepts or theories). A
chronological order should be avoided
• It is not critical
• It does not relate to the writer’s research
A good example of LR
Automated storage and retrieval systems (AS/RS) are being introduced into the industry and
warehousing at an increasing rate. Forecasts indicate that this trend will continue for the
foreseeable future (Jane, 2001). Research in the area of AS/RS has followed several avenues.
Early work by Hausman, Schwarz & Graves (2008) was concerned with storage assignment
and interleaving policies, based on turnover rates of the various items. Elsayed (1996) and
Elsayed & Stern (2000) compared algorithms for handling orders in AR/RS.
Several researchers addressed the problem of the optimal handling unit (pallet or
container) size, to be used in material handling and warehousing systems. Agee (2004),
Tanchoco et al. (2005) and Grasso & Tanchoco [5] studied various aspects of this subject.
The last two references incorporate the size of the pallet, or unit load, in evaluation of the
optimal lot sizes for multi-inventory systems with limited storage space. In a report on a
specific case, Normandin (2010) has demonstrated that using the 'best-size' container can
result in considerable savings. A simulation model combining container size and warehouse
capacity considerations, in an AS/RS environment, was developed by Kadosh (2008). The
general results, reflecting the stochastic nature of the flow of goods, are similar to those
reported by Rosenblatt & Roll (2012). Nevertheless, container size was found to affect
strongly overall warehousing costs.
This study presents an analytical framework for approximating the optimal size of a
warehouse container. The approximation is based on series of generalizations and specific
assumptions. However, these are valid for a wide range of real life situations. The
underlying assumptions of the model are presented in the following section.
Why is it good?
• Grouped similar information
• Shows the relations between different works
• It is organized following the outline presented
earlier
• It is organized around ideas and not
researchers
Research Methodology : Chapter 4
Formulating a Research Problem

Topics covered
Formulating a research problem in quantitative
research
• Importance of formulating a research problem
• Sources of formulating a research problem
• Considerations in selecting a research problem
• Steps in formulating a research problem
• How to formulate research objectives
• The study population
• Operational definitions
Formulating a research problem in qualitative research
Importance of formulating a research
problem
• First and most important step
• Quality and relevance of the research relies on it
• Key to formulating the idea of what needs to be
investigated
• Determines the methodology and design of the
project:
– Descriptive and qualitative
– Correlational and quantitative
• The clearer the research question, the easier the
next steps
Sources of research problems
• Look closely in your academic field or
discipline
• Use four Ps:
– People
– Problems
– Programmes
– Phenomena
• Apply to qualitative and quantitative research
Table 4.1 Aspects of the research
problem

Considerations in selecting a research
problem
• Interest
• Magnitude-Have sufficient knowledge about the
research process
• Measurement of concepts – clear about its
indicator and measurement.
• Level of expertise
• Relevance- Add to the existing body of knowledge
• Availability of data
• Ethical issues
Steps in formulating a research
problem
Step 1: Identify the main subject area
Step 2: Dissect into sub-areas
Step 3: Select sub-areas of most interest
Step 4: Raise research questions
Step 5: Formulate objectives
Step 6: Assess objectives
Step 7: Double-check
Figure 4.1 Dissecting the subject area
of domestic violence into sub- areas

How to formulate research objectives
• Goals that inform what will be achieved
• Main objective – overall statement
– Describing the main focus
• Sub-objectives – specific aspects
– Clear and unambiguous wording
– Numerically listed
– Each contains one aspect
– Starts with action word: ‘to find out’, ‘to explore’
Figure 4.5 Characteristics of objectives

Figure 4.2 Steps in formulating a
research problem - alcoholism

The study population
• Second important aspect to the research
• Who constitutes the study population?
• Select appropriate participants from the study
population
• Definition may need to be narrowed down
• Be as specific as possible

Establishing operational definitions
• Explain working definitions specific to study
• Define specific terms, meanings to concepts
used
• These may differ to dictionary or legal
definitions
• Avoids ambiguity and confusion
• Develops a framework for the study

Formulating a research problem in
Different to quantitative research which is
specific, narrow and the framework confines the
research (tests hypotheses)
Qualitative research is flexible, open, freedom to
include new ideas at a later stage:
• Research problem can be reformulated
• Inductive reasoning
• Flexible conceptual framework to increase
depth and richness of data
Chapter 5 & 6
Identifying Variables &

Constructing Hypothesis
Topics covered
1. Identifying Variables
• What is a variable?
• Difference between concepts and variables
• How to turn concepts into variables
• Types of variables
• Types of measurement scales
2. Hypothesis
• Definition of a hypothesis
• Function of hypothesis
• How to formulate a hypothesis
• Types of hypotheses
• Hypothesis in qualitative research
What is a variable?
• An image, perception or concept that is
measurable
• Gender (male/female)
• Variables take on different values often
expressed as numbers
• Age (x years, y months)
• Use of measurement scales to vary the degree
of precision in measurement
Difference between concepts and
variables
• Concepts cannot be measured (e.g.
satisfaction has different meaning to different
people)
• Variables can be measured (e.g. persons
weight in kg)
• Convert concepts into variables using a set of
indicators in order to subjectively measure
(e.g. effectiveness, attitude)
Converting concepts into variables
How can a concept be measured? What indicators
can be identified? Convert into a measurement
• Concept: rich/poor
• Indicators: 1. Income, 2. value of assets
• Variables: 1. Total income per year, 2. Total value
of a) home, b) cars, c) investments, etc.
• Working definition for rich if 1. Income is >
200,000, 2. considered rich if total value of assets
is >2,000,000
Type of variable
“The way a variable is measured determines the

type of analysis that can be performed, the
statistical procedures that can be applied to the
data, the way the data can be interpreted and
the finding that can be communicated.”
Figure 5.1 Types of variables
Variables from a viewpoint of causal
relationships
• Independent variable (bringing change in a
situation)
• Dependent variable (outcome or change
brought by the independent variable)
• Extraneous variable (several factors affecting
the changes in the dependent variable)
• Intervening variable (confounding variable
links independent and dependent variable)
Variables from a viewpoint of study
design
• Active variables (that can be manipulated,

changed or controlled in an experiment)
• Attribute variables (variables that cannot be
manipulated and that reflect the
characteristics of a study population)
Variable from the viewpoint of unit
measurement
• Categorical variable (nominal and ordinal scales)
– Constant variable (one category or value, e.g. taxi)
– Dichotomous variable (two categories, e.g. yes/no)
– Polytomous variable (more than two categories, e.g.
religion: Christian, Muslim, Hindu, etc.)
Or Continuous data (interval and ratio scales)
• Qualitative variables are like categorical variables
such as gender: male/female
Or Quantitative (interval and ratio scales)
Constructing Hypotheses
Definition of a hypothesis
• Verification of an assumption/ assertion
• Assertions become the basis of the enquiry and
are called hypotheses
• Hypotheses bring focus to the research problem
in quantitative research
• Grinnell’s definition (1988: 200)
– A tentative proposition that can be proven or
disproven
– Validity is unknown, hence reliable and valid data
needed
– Specifies a relationship between variables
Functions of a hypothesis
• The formulation of a hypothesis brings specificity and clarity
to a study.
• This specificity and clarity used to construct a hypothesis
ensures that only information needed is collected, thereby,
providing focus to the study. This also enhances the validity
of a study as it ensures measuring what the study sets out to
measure.
• As it provides a focus, the construction of a hypothesis
enhances objectivity in a study.
• The testing of a hypothesis enables the researcher to
specifically conclude what is true or what is false, thereby,
contributing towards theory formulation.
Figure 6.1 The process of testing a
hypothesis
Hypothesis in qualitative research
• As qualitative studies are characterized by an
emphasis on describing, understanding and
exploring phenomena using categorical and
subjective measurement procedures,
construction of hypotheses is neither greatly
advocated nor significantly practiced.
Identifying Variables
Goal: Identify independent and

dependent variables in research.
Let’s see it-Apply what we learned
Your RQ/hypothesis can TELL you what your
variables are!
If Ali drinks coffee before bed, then he will not

sleep very much.
IV : drinking coffee
DV : the amount of sleep
Discussions…
Now read the following situations, what is the testable question
and identify the IV and DV
Jalil wanted to test if temperature affected how fast milk goes

bad and curdles. He left milk at room temperature, a fridge, and
a kitchen in his house in Shah Alam. He then measured the
amount of bacteria in the milk after 10 days.
Testable Question : Temperature affects the amount of

bacteria in milk __________
IV : ___temperature____________
DV : _____amount of bacteria________
Group 1 -Practice
Does the amount of time the lights remain
on in my house affect the price of my
electric bill?
IV : __________________
DV : __________________
Group 2- Practice
If I brush my cat for more hours, will the
mass of cat fur on the furniture be
reduced?
IV : __________________
DV : __________________
Group 3 -Practice
If you increase the number of vegetables you
eat, then you will increase your health attend
fewer doctor’s visits per year.
IV : __________________
DV : __________________
Group 4 -Practice
If you increase the volume of milk you drink, will
you increase your bone density?
IV : __________________
DV : __________________
Group 5 -Practice
How does the amount of rainfall affect the
number of green leaves present on a tree?
IV : __________________
DV : __________________
Group 6 -Practice
How does the number of friends on a social
media affects GPA?
IV : __________________
DV : __________________
Group 7 -Practice
If you increase the amount of blood in the
water, then will the number of sharks in a 1 km
radius increase ?
IV : _amount of blood_________________
DV : ____number of sharks_________
Now that you know about variables:
• Design your own research using your
experience :
1. What is your Testable Question/Hypothesis?
2. What measurements are you making? What is
your indexes/indicators?
3. What is your Independent Variable?
4. What is your Dependent Variable?
Kumar: Research Methodology
Chapter 7 & 8
The Research Design

Topics covered
• What is a research design?
• Functions of research design
• Differences between quantitative and
qualitative study designs
• Study design in quantitative research
• Study design in qualitative research
• Other commonly used philosophy-guided
designed
What is a research design
• Detailed plan of how the research study will
be completed:
– Operationalizing variables
– Selecting a sample
– Selecting data collection methods
– Selection analysis methods
• Valid and reliable
• Justified and supported by literature
Function of a research design
i. Conceptualize an operational plan to
undertake the various procedures and tasks
required to complete a study
ii. Ensure that these procedures are adequate
to obtain valid, objective and accurate
answers to the research questions. Kerlinger
calls this function the control of variance
(1986: 280).
Research design
Specifying procedures clearly so that another
researcher would be able to follow them exactly
the same way. This should include:
• Name of the study design (e.g. experiment,
cross-sectional design, etc.)
• Provide detailed information on study
population, method of data collection,
analysis methods and ethical issues
Differences between quantitative and
qualitative study designs
• Quantitative studies • Qualitative research
designs: designs:
– Specific – Flexible
– Rigid – Emergent
– Well structured – Non-sequential
– Ensure validity and
reliability
Differences in philosophical perspectives determine the

approach of enquiry
authored by Stephanie Fleischer © SAGE
publications Ltd 2014
Study designs in quantitative research
Study designs can be classified by examining

from three different perspectives:
1. The number of contacts with the study
population
2. The reference period of the study
3. The nature of the investigation

Figure 8.1 Types of study design
authored by Stephanie Fleisher © SAGE

Study designs based on the number of
contacts
• Cross-sectional: most common and take a cross-
section of the population at one point in time
• Before-and-after: also known as pre-test/post-
test design which take two cross-sectional data
collection points on the same population to find
out changes.
• Longitudinal: the population is researched a
number of times; a series of repetitive cross-
sectional studies collecting the same information
Figure 8.2 Before-and-after study
design

Figure 8.3 The regression effect
(Longitudinal)

Figure 8.4 The longitudinal study
design

Study designs based on the reference
period (time-frame)
• Retrospective: investigate things that
happened in the past
• Prospective: investigate things that are likely
to happen in the future, such as experiments
• Retrospective-prospective: focus on both past
trends and study it into the future, such as
before-and-after studies without a control
group

Figure 8.5 Classification of study designs

Study designs based on the nature of
the investigation
• Experimental: starting from the cause to

establish the effect; the researcher
introduces the intervention that is
assumed to cause the change in a
controlled or natural environment.

Experimental designs
• Random design
• The after-only design
• The before-and-after experimental design
• The control group design
• The double control group design
• The comparative design
• The ‘matched control’ experimental design
• The placebo design
Figure 8.6 Experimental and non-
experimental studies

Figure 8.7 Randomisation in
experiments

Study designs based on the nature of
the investigation - continued
• Non-experimental: Starting with the effect to

research the cause; a phenomenon is known
and the researcher attempts to establish what
caused it.
• Quasi- or semi-experimental: This design has
elements of both experimental and non-
experimental studies.

Other quantitative designs
• Online surveys
• The cross-over comparative experimental design
• The replicated cross-sectional design
• Trend studies
• Cohort studies – batch, year of birth
• Panel studies
• Blind studies
• Double-blind studies
Study designs in qualitative research
• Case studies: In-depth exploration of a typical
case of a particular event, group, instance, etc.
• Oral history: Obtaining, recording, presenting
and interpreting information in someone’s
own words
• Focus groups/ group interviews: Facilitated
group interviews of an open discussion of a
topic

Study designs in qualitative research
continued
• Participant observation: Researcher gets
involved in a social interaction and observes
the situation first hand
• Holistic research: More a philosophy, research
from every perspective
• Community discussion forums: Large group
discussion
• Reflective journal log: Diary of the
researcher’s thoughts
Other philosophy-guided designs
• Action Research: Research that requires action to
improve practice or take action to an issue
• Feminist research: Underpinned by feminist
concerns in terms social inequality between men
and women
• Participatory and collaborative research enquiry:
Based on the philosophy of community
development involving community members
actively in the research process
The cross-over comparative
experimental design
• Two groups are formed, the intervention is
introduced to one of them, and after a certain
period the impact of this intervention is
measured.

Panel studies
• The group of individuals selected become the
panel that provide the required information

Blind studies
• The study population does not know whether
it is getting real or fake treatment.

Double Blind studies
• Very similar to blind studies except that it also
tries to eliminate researcher bias by not
disclosing to the researcher the identities of
experimental.

Research Methodology :
Chapter 9
Constructing Instrument for Data

Collection

Topics covered
• Differences in methods of collecting data
• Major approaches of information gathering
• Collecting data using primary sources
– Observation
– The interview
– The questionnaire
– Advantages and disadvantages
– Types of questions
– Formulating effective questions
• Constructing a research instrument in quantitative research
• Methods of data collection in qualitative research
• Collecting data using secondary sources
Differences in methods of collecting data in
quantitative, qualitative and mixed methods
research
Quantitative, qualitative or mixed methods
classification depends on the answers to the following
questions:
• What philosophical approach is underpinning the
research approach?
• How was the information collected? Was the format
structured or unstructured/flexible or a combination
of the both?
• Were the questions or issues discussed during data
collection predetermined or developed during data
collection? authored by Stephanie Fleischer © SAGE
Differences in methods of collecting data in
quantitative, qualitative and mixed methods
research continued
• How was the information gathered recorded? Was it
in a descriptive, narrative, categorical, quantitative
form or on a scale?
• How was the information analyzed? Was it a
descriptive, categorical or numerical analysis?
• How will the findings be communicated? In a
descriptive or analytical manner?
• How many different methods were used in
undertaking the study?
Insert Figure 9.1 Methods of data
collection

Major sources of information
gathering
• Primary data: The researcher undertakes the

data collection
• Secondary data: The data is already available

and can be reanalysed

Observation
Watching and listening to interactions
– Participant observation
– Non-participant observation
– Natural
– Controlled
 Recording of observations:
• Narrative recording
• Categorical recording
• Recording on electronic devices
 Effects that could affect observations:
• Hawthorne effect: Participants are aware of the observation and
change their behaviour
• Elevation effect: Researcher over-uses a particular scale for
recording
• Halo effect: Researcher bias towards
authored by Stephanie a particular participant
Fleisher © SAGE
The interview
Questioning people
– Unstructured interviews: Freedom in structure,
content, wording and order of questions
– Structured interviews: Interview schedule
predetermines the questions, wording and order

The questionnaire
Written list of questions completed by the
respondent
– Mail or postal questionnaire (covering letter)
– Collective administration
– Online questionnaire
– Administration in a public place

Choose between interview schedule
and questionnaire
Consider the following:

• The nature of the investigation
• The geographical distribution of the study
population
• The type of study population

Strengths and weaknesses of
questionnaires
Strengths Weaknesses
• Convenience: • Limited application
• Low response rate
– Saves time
• Self-selecting bias
• Inexpensive: • Lack of opportunity to clarify
issues
– Saves human and financial
• No opportunity for spontaneous
resources responses
• Offer greater anonymity • Responses may be influenced by
the response to other questions
– No face-to-face action
• Others can influence the answers
– Likelihood to obtain more • Responses cannot be
accurate information on supplemented with other
sensitive questions information

Advantages and disadvantages of
interviews
Advantages Disadvantages
• More appropriate for • Time consuming and
complex situations expensive
• Useful for collecting in- • Quality of data depends on
depth information – Quality of interaction
• Information can be – Quality of interviewer
supplemented – Could vary when multiple
researchers are involved
• Questions can be explained
• Possibility of researcher bias
• Has a wider application

Types of questions
Open-ended questions Closed questions
• Advantages: • Advantages:
– Provide in-depth information – Easy to answer
– Greater variety of information – Easy to analyse due to ready-
– No investigator bias made categories
• Disadvantages:
• Disadvantages
– Information lacks depths and
– Analysis is more difficult if variety
answers need to be classified
– Loss of information if – Greater possibility of
respondents cannot express investigator bias
themselves – Answers are selected from a
– Possible interviewer bias list and may not reflect
respondents opinion

Formulating effective questions
• Use easy and every day language

• Avoid ambiguous questions
• Avoid double-barrelled questions
• Avoid leading questions
• Avoid questions based on assumptions

Constructing a research instrument in
quantitative research
• Personal and sensitive questions
• The order of the questions
• Pre-testing a research instrument
• Pre-requisites for data collection:
– Motivation to share required information
– Clear understanding of the questions
– Possession of the required information

Methods of data collection in
• Unstructured interviews
• In-depth interviews
• Focus group interviews
• Narratives
• Oral histories
• Observation

Collecting data using secondary
sources
• Government or corporate websites
• Earlier research
• Personal records
• Mass media
Possible problems of secondary data:

• Validity and reliability
• Personal bias
• Availability
• Format
Chapter 10
Collecting Data Using Attitudinal

Scales

Topics covered
• Attitudinal scales in research
• Function of attitudinal scales
• Developing attitudinal scales
• Types of attitudinal scales
– Likert scale
– Thurstone scale
– Guttman scale
• Attitudinal scales and measurement scales
Attitudinal scales in research
• Helps to find out how people feel towards certain
issues and situations (level of satisfaction,
agreement, positive/negative attitude, etc.)
• Quantitative research explores types of attitudes,
how many people have a certain attitude and
intensity of attitude
• Qualitative research explores the spread of
attitudes and establish types of attitudes
• Attitude scales are prevalent in quantitative
research such as the Likert scale
Function of attitudinal scales
• Measure of intensity of respondents’ attitudes

toward the various aspects of a situation or
issue
• Provide techniques to combine the attitude
toward different aspects into on overall
indicator

Developing attitudinal scales
1. Which aspects of a situation or issue should
be included when seeking to measure an
attitude towards an issue or problem?
2. What procedure should be adopted for
combining the different aspects to obtain an
overall picture?
3. How can one ensure that a scale really is
measuring what it is supposed to measure?

Types of attitudinal scales
• The summated rating scale, also known as the
Likert scale;
• The equal-appearing interval scale or
differential scale, also known as the Thurstone
scale;
• The cumulative scale, also known as the
Guttman scale.

Likert Scale
• Most common attitudinal scale
• Measures intensity of attitude toward an issue
• Each statement has equal attitudinal value
• Measures in categories or on a numerical scale
• 1, 2 or 3 dimensions of attitudes (e.g. 2 as in
positive and negative)
• Scores will be assigned to the attitude scale if
calculations are used for weighting responses

Figure 10.1 An example of a
categorical scale

Figure 10.2 An example of a seven
point scale

Figure 10.3 An example of a scale with
statements reflecting varying degrees
of an attitude

Other scales
Thurstone scale:
• Calculates an attitudinal value for each statement
• Mean score is recorded for each statement
• The mean score is equivalent to the attitudinal
value assigned by a group of judges
• Reflects absolute rather than relative attitudes
Guttman scale:
• Cumulative scale which is rarely used
Attitudinal scales and measurement
scales
Table 10.1 The relationship between attitudinal
and measurement scales

Chapter 11
Establishing Research
Validity and Reliability

Topics covered
• The concept of validity
• Types of validity
• The concept of reliability in quantitative research
• Factors affecting the reliability of a research
instrument
• Methods of determining the reliability in
• Validity and reliability in qualitative research

The concept of validity
Validity is the ability of a research instrument to
measure what it is designed to measure
“Validity is defined as the degree to which the

researcher has measured what he has set out to
measure” (Smith 1991, 106)
“The commonest definition of validity is epitomised

by the question: Are we measuring what we thing
we are measuring?” (Kerlinger, 1973, 457)

Types of validity in quantitative research
Face and Content validity based on subjective logic
• Face validity: Logic link between research instrument and a
research objective
• Content validity: All aspects of the issue being measured
Concurrent and Predictive validity based on types of comparison
• Concurrent validity: Judged by how well an instrument compares
with a second assessment concurrently done (validity
coefficient)
• Predictive validity: Judged by the degree to which an instrument
can forecast an outcome
Construct validity based on statistical procedures
• Construct validity: Statistical procedures establish the
contribution of each important factor (construct)
The concept of reliability
• The research tool is consistent, stable,
predictable and accurate when used
repeatedly
“ A scale or test is reliable to the extent that

repeat measurements made by it under
constant conditions will give the same result”
(Moser & Kalton, 1989, 353)

Factors affecting the reliability of a
research instrument
• The wording of questions
• The physical setting
• The respondent’s mood
• The interviewer’s mood
• The nature of interaction
• The regression effect of an instrument

Methods of determining the reliability
in quantitative research
External consistency procedures:
• Test and retest ( the instrument is compared
with itself)
• Parallel forms of the same test (two
instruments measure the same issue)
Internal consistency procedures:
• The split-half technique (if measuring
attitudes statements are divided in half and
scores are correlated)
Validity and reliability in qualitative
research
Trustworthiness and authenticity
Four indicators that reflect validity and reliability
in qualitative research:
• Credibility
• Transferability
• Dependability
• Confirmability

Table 11.1 from Trochim and Donnell

Summary
• Validity and reliability is used differently in
quantitative and qualitative research
• Concepts of validity and reliability relate more to
• Validity refers to whether a research instrument
measures what is set out to measure
• Reliability refers to an instrument that produces
consistent measurement each time
• There are not set procedures for validity and
reliability in qualitative research

• Face validity
When you justify the inclusion of a question or
item in a research instrument by linking it with
the objectives of the study, thus providing a
justification for its inclusion in the instrument,
the process is called face validity.
• Content validity
Examine whether the questions or items in the
research instrument have covered all the areas
you wanted to cover in the study.
• Concurrent validity
Comparing the findings of your instrument with
those found by another which is well accepted
• Predictive validity
In psychometrics, predictive validity is the
extent to which a score on a scale or test
predicts scores on some criterion measure.
For example, the validity of a cognitive test for
job performance is the correlation between test
scores and, for example, supervisor
performance ratings.
• Construct validity
Is an indication of the quality of a research
instrument to measure what it is supposed to. It
is based upon statistical procedure.
• Internal validity
Internal validity is a way to measure if research
is sound (i.e. was the research done right?).
• External validity
External validity is the extent to which results of
a study can be generalized to the world at large.
• Objectivity
• Establishing standards that provide a reasonable
expectation that the design, conduct, and
reporting of research will be free from bias
resulting from investigator financial conflicts of
interest.
• To protect the credibility and integrity of the
University’s faculty, staff, and students so that
public trust and confidence in sponsored research
and educational activities are ensured.
Chapter 12
Selecting a Sample
authored by Stephanie Fleischer © SAGE publications Ltd

2014
Topics covered
• Differences in sampling in quantitative and
• Definition of sampling terminology in quantitative
research
• Principles of sampling
• Types of sampling
• Sample size
• Concept of saturation point in qualitative
research
2014
Differences in sampling in quantitative
and qualitative research
Quantitative research Qualitative research
• Unbiased • Ease of access

• Representative • Purpose driven
• Make inferences • Information rich
• Random samples respondents
• Large sample sizes • A few cases until saturation
is reached

2014
Figure 12.1 Principles of sampling

2014
Sampling in quantitative research
Sampling is the process of selecting a few (a
sample) from a bigger group (the sampling
population) to become the basis for predicting
an outcome for the bigger group.
• Advantage: Researching a sample is easier

• Disadvantage: The sample and the sampling
population differ
2014
Sampling terminology
• Study population is the group the sample is taken
from
• Sample size refers to the number of items/people
in the sample
• Sampling frame is a list of each item/person in
the study population
• Sample statistics are the results found in the
sample
• Population parameter are the estimates for the
population from the sample statistics
2014
Principles of Sampling
1. There will be a difference between the sample
statistics and the true population mean, which is
attributable to the selection of the units in the
sample.
2. The greater the sample size, the more accurate
the estimate of the true population mean.
3. The greater the difference in the variable under
study in a population, for a given sample size,
the greater the difference between the sample
statistics and the true population mean.
2014
Figure 12.2 Types of sampling

2014
Random/Probability sampling designs
Each element in the sampling frame has an equal
and independent chance of selection in the sample
Advantages:
• Representative of the total sampling population,
the inferences drawn from such samples can be
generalized to the total sampling population.
• Some statistical tests based upon the theory of
probability can be applied only to data collected
from random samples.
2014
Specific random sampling designs
• Simple random sampling (SRS)

A simple random sample is a subset of a
statistical population in which each member of
the subset has an equal probability of being
chosen. ... An example of a simple random
sample would be the names of 25 employees
being chosen out of a hat from a company of
250 employees.
2014
• Stratified random
Stratified random sampling is a method of
sampling that involves the division of a
population into smaller groups known as strata.
Stratified random sampling can be used, for
example, to sample students’ grade point
averages (GPA) across the nation, people that
spend overtime hours at work, and the life
expectancy across the world.
2014
• Cluster sampling
For example, a researcher wants to survey
academic performance of high school students
in Spain. He can divide the entire population
(population of Spain) into different clusters
(cities). Then the researcher selects a number of
clusters depending on his research through
simple or systematic random sampling.
2014
• Systematic sampling
Systematic sampling is a type of probability
sampling method in which sample members
from a larger population are selected according
to a random starting point and a fixed, periodic
interval. This interval, called
the sampling interval, is calculated by dividing
the population size by the desired sample size.
2014
Non-random/ non-probability
sampling designs
• Quota sampling
Quota sampling. A sampling method of gathering
representative data from a group. As opposed to
random sampling, quota sampling requires that
representative individuals are chosen out of a
specific subgroup. For example, a researcher might
ask for a sample of 100 females, or 100 individuals
between the ages of 20-30.
2014
sampling designs
• Accidental sampling
A sample gathered haphazardly (inorganize),
for example, by interviewing the first 100
people you ran into on the street who were
willing to talk to you. An accidental sample is
not a random sample. The main disadvantage of
an accidental sample is that the researcher has
no way of knowing what the population might
be.
2014
sampling designs
• Judgmental or purposive sampling

Purposive sampling (also known as judgment,
selective or subjective sampling) is a sampling
technique in which researcher relies on his or
her own judgment when choosing members of
population to participate in the study.

2014
sampling designs
• Expert sampling
Expert sampling (or judgment sampling) is
where you draw your sample fromexperts in the
field you're studying. It's used when you need
the opinions or assessment of people with a
high degree of knowledge about the study area.
When used in this way, expert sampling is a
simple sub-type of purposive sampling.
2014
sampling designs
• Snowball sampling
Snowball sampling is where research
participants recruit other participants for a test
or study. It is used where potential participants
are hard to find. It's called snowball
sampling because (in theory) once you have the
ball rolling, it picks up more “snow” along the
way and becomes larger and larger
2014
Sample size
The greater the heterogeneity or diversity in
what to be found out about, the greater the
number of respondents needed to contact to
reach saturation point.
Cause-effect studies need to consider:
• Level of confidence
• Degree of accuracy
• Level of variation
2014
Concept of saturation point in
• Qualitative research uses non-probability
sampling
• Collecting information from a predetermined
number of people
• Sampling until saturation point is reached (no
new information collected)
• Guided by judgment as to who is likely to
provide the ‘best’ information.
2014
Summary
• Quantitative research wants to represent the
sampling population which is best achieved
through random sampling
• Qualitative research uses non-random

sampling with a purpose to collect the best
information from the sample

2014
Chapter 13
Writing a Research Proposal

2014
Topics covered
• Purpose of a research proposal

• Proposals in quantitative and qualitative or
mixed methods research
• Content of a research proposal

2014
Purpose of a research proposal
• It is an overall plan, structure and strategy
designed to obtain answers to the research
questions
• A document for scientific scrutiny for others to
judge the appropriateness of the project
• A reference document as to how the research
was/will be carried out

2014
Proposals in quantitative and
qualitative or mixed methods research
• Follow the same structure

• Differ in content
• Differ in methodology
• Differ in proposed methods

2014
Information about the study
• What the research is proposing to do
• How to find the answers to what is proposed
• Why the proposed strategies of investigation

were selected

2014
Content of a research proposal
• an introduction, including a brief literature review
• theoretical framework that underpins the study
• conceptual framework which constitutes the
basis of the study
• objectives or research questions of the study
• hypotheses to be tested, if applicable
• study design that is proposed to be adopted
• setting for the study
2014
Content of a research proposal
continued
• research instrument(s)
• sampling design and sample size
• ethical issues involved and how they will be
dealt with
• data processing procedures
• proposed chapters of the report
• problems and limitations of the study
• proposed time-frame for the project
2014
Introduction
• an overview of the main area under study
• a historical perspective (development, growth, etc.)
pertinent to the study area
• philosophical or ideological issues relating to the topic
• trends in terms of prevalence, if appropriate
• major theories, if any
• the main issues, problems and advances in the subject
area under study
• important theoretical and practical issues relating to
the central problem under study
• the main findings relating to the core issue(s)
2014
The problem
• Identifying the issues that are the basis of the study
• Specifying the various aspects/perspectives on these issues
• Identifying the main gaps in the existing body of knowledge
• Raising some of the main research questions that will be
answered through the study
• Identifying what the literature says concerning the research
questions, specifying the differences of opinion, if any, in
the literature regarding these questions
• develop a rationale for the study with particular reference
to how the study will fill the identified gaps in the existing
body of knowledge
2014
Objective of the study
• The objectives of the study should be clearly
stated and specific in nature
• Hypotheses are not essential but can be listed

in this section for a quantitative study

2014
Study design
• Who makes up the study population?
• What sampling method will be used?
• How will the selected sample be accessed?
• How will the sample’s consent to participate in
the study be sought?
• How will the data be collected (e.g. by interview,
questionnaire or observation)?
• What other ethical issues need to be considered?
• How will the data be analysed?
2014
Additional sections
• Proposed structure of the report: planning
chapters around the topic
• Problem and limitations: communicating
problems that could be encountered, e.g.
availability of data, access to the sample
• Appendix: e.g. copy of research instrument,
consent form, references
• Work schedule: developing a timeline of events
• Proposed budget: list of costing
2014
Chapter 14
Considering Ethical Issues in Data

Collection

2014
Topics covered
• The concept of ethics
• Stakeholders in research
• Ethical issues to consider concerning research
participants
• Ethical issues to consider relating to the
researcher
• Ethical issues regarding the sponsoring
organisation
• Ethical issues in collecting data from secondary
sources
2014
The concept of ethics
• Code of conduct on how to conduct research
appropriately
• Differs between disciplines and professions
– What are these principles of conduct?
– Who determines them?
– In whose judgement must they be considered
appropriate?

2014
Concept of ethics continued
Code of ethics addresses ethical practice to
avoid:
– Causing harm to individuals
– Breaching confidentiality
– Using information improperly
– Introducing bias

2014
Stakeholders in research
Ethical issues need to be considered for all
stakeholders involved in a research study:
• The research participants or subjects
• The researcher
• The funding body
authored by Stephanie Fleisher © SAGE publications Ltd 2014

Ethical issues to consider concerning
research participants
• Collecting information
• Seeking informed consent
• Providing incentives
• Seeking sensitive information
• The possibility of causing harm to participants
• Maintaining confidentiality

2014
Ethical issues to consider relating to
the researcher
• Avoiding bias
• Provision or deprivation of a treatment
• Using inappropriate research methodology
• Incorrect reporting
• Inappropriate use of the information

2014
Ethical issues regarding the sponsoring
organisation
• Restrictions imposed by the sponsoring

organisation
• The misuse of information

2014
Ethical issues in collecting data from
secondary data
• Plagiarism
• Informed consent
• Misinterpretation of data
• Disclosing data source
• Using data collected by covert means

2014
Summary
• Conducting research requires considering
ethical issues
• Researchers have to adhere to a code of
conduct developed by professional practice
• Ethical issues relate to participants,
researchers and sponsoring organisation
involved in the research study
• Ethical issues need to be addressed in the
research process to prevent harm
2014
What are these principles of conduct?
• Ethical practice in a profession

• Varies from profession to profession
• There are certain behaviors in research such
as : causing harm to individuals, breaching
confidentiality, using information improperly
are considered unethical in any profession.
Who determines them?
In whose judgement must they be considered
appropriate?
• It is the overall body of profesionals or

government organizations that collectively
develops a profesional code of conducts and
forms a judgement as to whether or not it is
being followed.
Chapter 15
Processing Data

2014
Topics covered
• Part 1: Methods for processing data in
– Coding
– Analysis
• Part 2: Methods for processing data in
qualitative researcher
– Content analysis in qualitative research
• Computers in research
2014
Figure 15.1 Steps in data processing

2014
PART I: Methods for processing data in
• The raw data need to be edited or cleaned for
analysis to check for completeness
• Problems can be minimised by:
– By inference
– By recall
– By going back to the respondents
• Checking all answers to one question/variable
• Checking all responses given to all questions
by one respondents
2014
Coding
• The way a variable has been measured
– Nominal
– Ordinal
– Ratio/interval
• Numerical values will be used to describe the
data
– Quantitative (numerical) responses
– Categorical responses
– Descriptive responses
2014
Steps of coding
1. Developing a code book

2. Pre-testing the code book
3. Coding the data
4. Verifying the coded data

2014
Figure 15.5 respondent 81
authored
authored
by by
Stephanie
Stephanie
Fleisher
Fleischer
© SAGE
© SAGE
publications
publications
Ltd Ltd
2014
2014
Fig. 15.7 An example of coded data on
a code sheet

2014
Analysing the data
• Developing a frame of analysis
• Analysing data manually or using a computer
software: frequency distributions,
percentages, means, etc.
• Examining the relationship between variables
• Other statistical procedures
• Objectives of the study need to be addressed

2014
PART II: Methods for processing data
in qualitative research
• Developing a narrative to describe the
situation, episode, event or instance
• Identify main themes that emerge from the
field notes or transcriptions
• In addition also quantify the frequency of
occurrence of main themes in order to
provide their prevalence/frequency

2014
Content analysis in qualitative research
Process of content analysis:
1. Identifying the main themes
2. Assigning codes to the main themes
3. Classifying responses under the main themes
4. Integrating themes and responses into the
text of the report

2014
Computers in research
• Statistical packages such as SPSS or SAS can
help to organise numerical data and to
understand it
• Computers can help to aggregate and display
data
• Word processing is useful in qualitative
research
• ATLAS.ti and Nvivo software help to handle
large volumes of written information
2014

Nota Imc

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Nota Imc

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Nota Imc

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Research Methodology

The Nature of Research

authored by Stephanie Fleischer © SAGE publications Ltd 2014

• “a systematic investigation to find answers to

authored by Stephanie Fleischer © SAGE publications Ltd 2014

authored by Stephanie Fleischer © SAGE publications Ltd 2014

authored by Stephanie Fleischer © SAGE publications Ltd 2014

authored by Stephanie Fleischer © SAGE publications Ltd 2014

authored by Stephanie Fleischer © SAGE publications Ltd 2014

authored by Stephanie Fleischer © SAGE publications Ltd 2014

authored by Stephanie Fleischer © SAGE publications Ltd 2014

The Research Process:

authored by Stephanie Fleischer © SAGE publications Ltd 2014

© SAGE publications Ltd 2014

© SAGE publications Ltd 2014

authored by Stephanie Fleischer © SAGE publications Ltd 2014

© SAGE publications Ltd 2014

© SAGE publications Ltd 2014

Be aware of ethical issues!

– Quantitative (statistical procedures)

© SAGE publications Ltd 2014

What have you done? What conclusions have

© SAGE publications Ltd 2014

Reviewing the literature

Prepared by Stephanie Fleischer

authored by Stephanie Fleischer © SAGE publications Ltd 2014

1. Searching for the existing literature in the

authored by Stephanie Fleischer © SAGE publications Ltd 2014

authored by Stephanie Fleischer © SAGE publications Ltd 2014

authored by Stephanie Fleischer © SAGE publications Ltd 2014

Formulating a Research Problem

Prepared by Stephanie Fleischer

authored by Stephanie Fleischer © SAGE publications Ltd 2014

authored by Stephanie Fleischer © SAGE publications Ltd 2014

authored by Stephanie Fleischer © SAGE publications Ltd 2014

authored by Stephanie Fleischer © SAGE publications Ltd 2014

authored by Stephanie Fleischer © SAGE publications Ltd 2014

authored by Stephanie Fleischer © SAGE publications Ltd 2014

authored by Stephanie Fleischer © SAGE publications Ltd 2014

Identifying Variables &

“The way a variable is measured determines the

• Active variables (that can be manipulated,

Goal: Identify independent and

If Ali drinks coffee before bed, then he will not

Jalil wanted to test if temperature affected how fast milk goes

Testable Question : Temperature affects the amount of

The Research Design

Prepared by Stephanie Fleischer

authored by Stephanie Fleischer © SAGE publications Ltd 2014

Differences in philosophical perspectives determine the

Study designs can be classified by examining

authored by Stephanie Fleischer © SAGE

authored by Stephanie Fleisher © SAGE

authored by Stephanie Fleischer © SAGE

authored by Stephanie Fleisher © SAGE

authored by Stephanie Fleischer © SAGE

authored by Stephanie Fleisher © SAGE

authored by Stephanie Fleischer © SAGE

• Experimental: starting from the cause to