Chapter 20 : Homeostasis

Edited by : NJ.NS.MMAP.WSWO March 2016

20 : HOMEOSTASIS
20.1 CONCEPT OF HOMEOSTASIS
Explain the concept of homeostasis and describe the homeostatic control system

Definition
Homeostasis:
Refers to the physiological processes by which organisms maintain constant and balanced physical and chemical
factors in internal environment.

Controlled condition:
Each monitored variable, such as body temperature, blood pressure, blood glucose level.
Stimulus:
Any disruption that changes a controlled condition is called.

Controlled mechanisms (to regulate variables)

Receptors:
Specialized cells that detect a stimulus.
Monitor changes in a controlled condition.
Send impulse or chemical signals to control centre.
Control centre:
Evaluates the input it receives from receptors
Sets the range of values within which a controlled condition
should be maintained.
Generates output commands when they are
needed.
Output from the control centre can occur in several forms:
nerve impulses, hormones or other chemical signals.
Effector:
Organs that respond to the stimuli and bring about a response.
Receives output from the control centre
Produces a response or effect that changes the controlled
condition.
The effector response feedback and influence the magnitude
of the stimulus by either depressing it (negative feedback) or
enhancing it (positive feedback).

20.2 Explain the negative feedback mechanism in controlling blood glucose.

Positive feedback: Negative feedback:

The response enhances the original stimulus Homeostatic mechanism that stops or reduces the
The output is used to enhance the input intensity of the original stimulus
Example : Consequently causes a change in a variable that is
The secretion of oxytocin during childbirth opposite in direction to the initial change.
The output is used to reduce the input
Example:
Regulation of blood glucose level, body
temperature & osmoregulation

Negative feedback mechanism

Hyperglycaemia Hypoglycaemia
Definition: Definition:
Rise in blood glucose level. Fall in blood glucose level
Effect: Effects:
Cause fainting - low water potential, water diffuse out Cause fainting – not enough glucose is supplied to the
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from brain cells by osmosis brain cells

1. β cells of islet of Langerhans of pancreas can 1. β cells of islets of Langerhans releases
detect the increase & would release insulin glucagon.
2. Insulin is distributed to all cells especially liver, 2. Glucagon brought to liver cells & stimulates
muscle &adipose tissues. glycogenolysis (glycogen is broken down to
3. It stimulates liver, muscle & adipose tissues to glucose)
increase the uptake of glucose 3. In certain condition when all glycogen is broken
4. It increases the rate of: down, fat is hydrolyzed to glycerol & fatty
Conversion of glucose to glycogen (glycogenesis) 4. Glycerol & fatty acids are converted into
Respiration in the liver & muscles glucose (gluconeogenesis) in the liver
5. Liver & adipose cells convert glucose to fat. 5. Glucocorticoids, adrenaline, growth hormone
6. Inhibits glycogenolysis (the conversion of and thyroxine also raise blood glucose levels
stored glycogen into glucose) 6. Glucose level would increase & bring the
7. Inhibits gluconeogenesis, the conversion of glucose level to normal.
amino acids and glycerol and fatty acid into
glucose
8. Blood glucose then decrease to normal level.

20. 3 Homeostasis in kidney

1. Structure of kidney
Describe the gross structure of kidney and the detailed structure of nephron structure & the associated blood vessels
Kidney:
Reddish, pair of bean-shaped organ
located in the region of the lower back
Right kidney slightly lower than the left
Ureter:
urine exits the kidney through this duct to the urinary
bladder
Urinary bladder:
Stores urine
Urethra:
discharges urine from the body

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Kidney consists of 2 distinct regions:

renal cortex - outer region
renal medulla – inner region

Packed in both regions are microscopic excretory tubules called

nephron.

Each kidney is supplied with oxygenated blood from the aorta

via renal artery

Renal vein carries the deoxygenated blood to the inferior vena

cava

2. Structure of nephron
What is nephron? Structure fo nephron: Nephron associated blood vessels:
Nephron is long tubule & Bowman’s capsule Renal artery
surround by a network of Loop of Henle Afferent arteriols
capillaries. Proximal convoluted tubule Glomerulus
Kidney has about 1 million Distal convoluted tubule Efferent arteriols
nephrons. Collecting duct

Bowman’s capsule: Proximal convoluted tubule:

o The double-walled epithelial cup o Close to the capsule , highly coiled
o Surrounds glomerular capillaries o Located in the cortex
o Filter blood plasma
Loop of Henle: Distal convoluted tubule:
o hair-pin shaped o Away from glomerular capsule
o have descending limb & ascending limb in the medulla of o Located in the cortex
the kidney
Collecting duct: Efferent arteriols:
o The end of kidney o blood leaves glomerulus in an efferent
o Located in the medulla arteriole
o Drain into the pelvis of kidney, the urine flows into ureter o Narrower in diameter than afferent

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Renal artery: arteriole (to create blood pressure

o blood enters the kidney by the renal artery from aorta (hydrostatic pressure) -forces fluid from
o supplies both oxygenated & unfiltered blood the blood in the glomerulus into the
o branches into afferent arteriole lumen of Bowman's capsule )
o divided to form the peritubular
Afferent arteriols: capillaries which surround the tubular
o Each nephron receives one afferent arteriole parts of the nephron in the renal cortex
o Divides into a tangled, ball-shaped capillary network called o Extending from some efferent arterioles
glomerulus are long loop-shaped capillaries called
o Larger in diameter compared to efferent arteriols vasa recta that supply tubular portions of
the nephron in the renal medulla

3. Urine formation involving ultrafiltration, reabsorption & secretion

Filtration
Glomerular ultrafiltration: Glomerulus:
o Forced removal of substances from the blood i) Endothelium
into the Bowman’s capsule ii) Basement membrane; allow passage of
o Includes water, urea, vitamins & other small molecules depending on the molecular size,
solutes shape & charge.
o Retained blood cells, platelets & large plasma iii) Slit membrane/ diaphragm to prevent
proteins medium-sized protein
Bowman’s space
Podocytes Slit diaphragm

Afferent Endothelium
Efferent arterioles
Capillary lumen
arterioles
Factors contribute to ultrafiltration process: Filtration membrane:
i) High hydrostatic blood pressure in the glomerulus i) Composed of:
Efferent arteriole smaller in diameter than afferent Fenestrated endothelium of glomerulus (perforated
arteriole walls)
Force substance in blood out into Bowman's capsule Basement membrane/ basal lamina
ii) Highly coiled glomerulus capillaries Filtration slits (spaces between the foot-like
Provide large surface area for filtration because processes/pedicel of podocytes
they are long and extensive ii) Permits fluid and small solutes in blood plasma
iii) High permeability of the glomerulus (glucose, amino acids) to pass through and
Glomerulus capillaries surround by specialized become part of the filtrate
epithelial cell called podocytes

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Reabsorption:
Movement of substances in Glomerular filtrates back into the blood capillaries via passive or active transport.
Proximal convoluted tubule: Descending limb of the loop of Henle:
Active transport: Na+, glucose, amino acids Reabsorption of water via aquaporin proteins make
Passive transport: Cl-, water, K+, HCO3-,urea No channels for salt and other small solutes
Helps maintain a relatively constant pH in body Loss water and therefore its solute concentration
fluids increases

Ascending limb of the loop of Henle: Distal convoluted tubule:

No water channels (impermeable to water) Active transport: HCO3-, NaCl
Has ion channels (2 regions): Passive transport: water
o Thin segment (near the loop tip)
NaCl diffuse out from the tubule into the Collecting duct:
interstitial fluid Solutes (sugars, amino acids, vitamins and other
o Thick segment (adjacent to distal tubule) nutrients) and water
NaCl transported actively In the inner medulla, permeable to urea (urea diffuse
out)

Factors to increase the reabsorption efficiency by Adaptations of the cells in proximal convoluted
tubule: tubule:
a) Possess long and winding (proximal and distal) a) Microvilli
tubule Enlarge the surface to volume ratio for the
provide large surface area and longer time for absorptive cells.
reabsorption b) Pinocytotic grooves
b) The wall is one cell thick. very small inlets at the base of the microvilli
Diffusion is efficient enable pinocytosis of smaller protein molecules
c) The cells have microvilli c) Space between the tubule cells
Increase the surface area in contact with the Enable easy passage of substances from inside
fluid to outside of the tubules.
d) Basal channels
spaces between the cells & basal membrane
increase the surface to volume ratio for
substances to go out from cells of the tubules
e) Abundant mitochondria
Supplying energy needed for active transport.

Secretion
o Removal of waste/ Toxic substances out from blood into glomerular filtrate
o Passive transport: Ammonia
o Active transport: H+, and K+ , drugs and toxins
o Proximal convoluted tubule
- H+, NH3, drugs
o Distal convoluted tubule
- H+, and K+

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4. Urine concentration by counter current multiplier mechanism at the Loop of Henle.

Function of Loop of Henle Counter current:
- Conserve water § Fluids past each other (moving) in opposite
- Create a water potential gradient between the renal/ directions (down the descending limb then up the
glomerular filtrate and the interstitial fluid ascending limb)
- Create a very high concentration of salts in the Multiplier:
interstitial fluid in the medulla of the kidney § Effect increase as fluid movement continues from
descending to ascending limb.
Descending limb: Ascending limb:
§ Thin walls & high permeable to water but § Thin ascending limb
relatively impermeable to ions - Thin wall like the descending limb.
§ Presence of aquaporins water channels; water move - impermeable to water but permeable to ions
by osmosis § The thick ascending limb
§ Water loss to interstitial fluid - Impermeable to water but permeable to ions
§ Filtrate has high osmotic concentration (high - Actively pumps Na+ and Cl- ions from the filtrate
[NaCl]) => hypertonic into interstitial fluid
§ NaCl loss to interstitial fluid decreasing osmotic
concentration => hypotonic

1. The filtrate which enters the loop of Henle is

isotonic to the interstitial fluid. 1 7
2. Na+ and Cl- actively pumped out of the thick
ascending limbs into the interstitial fluid. This
produce a high concentration of Na+ and Cl- ions
around the descending limb.
3. The descending limb is surrounded by interstitial 2
fluid with high concentration of ions and therefore a 3
low water potential.
4. Water in descending limb drawn out by osmosis.
5. The effect is cumulative and therefore the filtrate is 4
hypertonic to the interstitial fluid at the bottom of
Medulla
the descending limb and as it begins to turn the
hairpin.
6. As the fluid flows up the ascending limb, it
continues to lose Na+ and Cl-, and therefore become
less concentrated.
7. The filtrate entering the distal convoluted tubule is 5 6
hypotonic to the interstitial fluid

Countercurrent multiplier & water conservation: Function of blood capillaries alongside Loop of Henle:
§ In the collecting duct, water move out by osmosis § Supply oxygen and nutrients
into the concentrated tissue fluid in the medulla - so that cells in the walls of the loop can produce the
(countercurrent effect) large amount of ATP for active transport
§ Water enters blood circulation via vasa recta
§ The more concentrated the tissue fluid, the more § Take away much of the salt and water from the
water can be drawn out, and the more concentrated tissue fluid in the medulla,
the urine can be - helping to maintain the gradients built up by the
§ Water loss increases urea concentration; urea diffuse loop
out of collecting duct into interstitial fluid down - That why, animals live in the dessert have an
concentration gradient. adaptation to conserve water by having long loop of
Henle.

5. Explain regulation of blood water

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Water regulation by AntiDiuretic Hormone (ADH):

Source Target tissue Actions Factors that Stimulate

Release
Produced in Distal Increases permeability of the Low fluid intake decreases
hypothalamus convoluted collecting ducts to water blood volume and increases
tubule osmotic pressure of blood
Released by and collecting Increasing reabsorption and
posterior ducts decreasing water excretion Receptors in hypothalamus
pituitary gland stimulate posterior pituitary
Small volume of concentrated
urine produced
Less drinking:
Lots of drinking:
osmolarity increase/
Osmolarity decrease/
pressure decrease
pressure increase

Osmoreceptors detect an Osmoreceptor

increase in osmolarity detect
and stimulate ADH decrease in
release osmolarity and
stimulate less
ADH release

Fall in
blood
ADH increase
pressure
permeability of distal
convoluted tubule ADH release
and collecting duct to into blood
water
Reabsorption of water helps maintain
blood volume and blood pressure

Water regulation by Aldosterone (Na+ reabsorption):

Aldosterone Juxtaglomerular apparatus (JGA)
o Secreted by the cortex region of the adrenal gland o Secretory cells present in between distal convoluted
o Regulate sodium ion concentration tubule and afferent arteriole
o Stimulates the distal convoluted tubule to increase o Secrete enzyme renin
sodium reabsorption
o Maintains the balance of salt and water in the
body fluids.

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Decrease blood sodium level, Increase sodium ions reabsorption at distal

decrease blood volume, and convoluted tubule
decrease blood pressure Water reabsorb into blood capillaries
Increase blood volume and increase blood
pressure