Areas and Volumes.

The calculations connected with the measurement of areas of land, and of volumes
and other quantities connected with engineering and building works, are dealt with
in this chapter. Areas are considered first of all because the computation of areas is
involved in the calculation of volumes.
THE PLANIMETER

Mechanical integration by the planimeter can be applied to figures of all shapes,

and although the construction and application of the instrument are simple, the
accuracy achieved is of the highest degree, particularly where measuring irregular
figures.

Planimeters (Fig 9.1) consist essentially of:

 The pole block, which is fixed in position on the paper by a fine retaining
needle;
 The pole arm, which is pivoted about the pole block at one end and the
integrating unit at the other;
 The tracing arm (which may be either fixed or variable in length) attached at
one end to the integrating unit and carrying at the end the tracing point or
optical tracer;
 The measuring unit, consisting of a hardened steel integrating disc carried
on pivots. Directly connected to the disc spindle is a primary drum divided
into 100 parts, and readings of 1/1000th of a revolution of the integrating
disc are obtained either by estimation using an index mark or by vernier, on
an opposite drum. Another indicator gives the number of complete
revolutions of the disc.
Fig 9.1 a fixed arm planimeter
Principles and operation

It can readily be shown that if the pole is suitably placed relative to the figure to be
measured, and the tracing point is moved round the outline of the figure, then the
integrating disc will register an amount proportional to the area of the figure in the
fixed-arm instrument, the drum is so graduated that the areas are given directly;
scale factors must be applied when working on plans.

What is the area of a piece of land which has a plan area of 161.3 mm2
Example 9.1 as measured by a fixed planimeter if the scale of the plan is 1:2500?

On this scale, 1 mm2 represents 2500 mm2

Hence 1613 mm2≡1613×2500×2500mm2
Or 1.008 hectare.

Where the length of the tracing arm is variable, the bar is graduated so that on
being set at a particular graduation, the direct readings of areas may be made on a
plan of a particular scale.

A planimeter can be used in two ways (Fig. 9.2):

1) With the pole outside the figure to be measured, or

sss
2) With the pole inside the figure to be measured.
1) Is the more convenient and should be used whenever possible. although
2) Allows larger areas to be covered for one setting

Fig 9.2
Tracing arm

Pole arm
 With the pole outside the procedure for measuring any area, the plan being on a
flat horizontal surface, is as follows.
1) Place the pole outside the area in such a position that the tracing point can
reach any part of the outline.
2) With the tracing point on a known point on the outline, read the vernier.
3) Move the tracing point clockwise around the outline, back to the known
point, and read the vernier again.
4) The difference between the two readings, multiplied by the scale factor gives
the area.
5) Repeat until three consistent values are obtained, and the mean of these is
taken.
With the pole inside the figure, the procedure is as above but a constant engraved
on the tracing arm, is applied to the difference in reading in each case. This
constant represents the area of the zero circle of the planimeter, that circle which
will be swept out when the plane of the integrating disc lies exactly through the
pole and the integrating disc does not revolve at all. It is added when the measured
area is larger than the zero circle area, but when the measured area is smaller then
it is has to be subtracted from that constant.
The foregoing discussion refers to the conventional mechanical planimeters. Fig
9.3 illustrates Tamaya’s digital planimeter, planix 7, which incorporates integrated
circuit technology. It has a tracer arm with a tracer lens and tracer point, but the
pole and pole arm have been eliminated. Note that there are now rollers, with
contact rings on an axle.
Initially, the tracer is set on the approximate center line of the area to be
measured. The power supplied by a nickel-cadmium battery is switched on; the
unit of measurement e.g. m2 is selected and the scale fed in via the relevant keys on
the keycard. A reference start point is
Fig 9.3 a planix 7 Digital
Planimeter (Courtesy Tamaya
Technics Inc.)

selected above or marked on the perimeter and the tracer point is positioned
thereon. The ‘start’ key is activated causing the display to register zero and the
tracer point is moved clockwise along the perimeter to return to the reference
point. Motion of the system is sensed by an electro shaft-encoder which generates
pulses that are processed electronically so that the measured area is displayed
digitally. This instrument can cater for dual scales i.e. different horizontal and
vertical scales and has various other facilities also.
Roller planimeters are more versatile than polar planimeters e.g. the Tamaya
planix 5000, which is also termed a ‘digital area line meter’. It bears some
 resemblance to the planix 7 although its keyboard is mounted over the rollers. It
posses two rotary encoders which facilitate the evaluation of co-ordinates and
hence the computation of areas and the line lengths. In the latter case the horizontal
and vertical scales of the plan must be the same. There are two modes of operation:
the point mode for length measurement of straight lines without tracing, and the
stream mode for measurement of curved lines. This instrument can be interfaced to
a computer in which eventually the coordinates can be output in addition to the
area and the line data.
AREAS ENCLOSED BY STRAIGHT LINES

Such areas include those enclosed inside the survey lines of a tape and offset
survey or theodolite traverse, and fields enclosed by straight-line boundaries.
Fig 9.4

Simple Triangles
B Where the area is triangular in shape (Fig 9.4) or is
made up of a series of triangles, the following
formulae are used:
c a
Area=1/2 (base ×perpendicular height)

A C
=1/2 bh
b

but h = a sin C
Therefore area = ½ ba sin C
Also area = S(S – a) (S –b) (S- c)
Where S=a+b+c
2

Any area bounded by a straight line can be divided completely into a series of
triangles, and the total area can then be derived by summing the areas of the
individual triangles.
Area by co-ordinates
In the particular case of traverse surveys that are plotted from coordinates it is
more convenient to calculate the area from the coordinates themselves.

Consider closed traverse ABCDEA (Fig 9.5), whose stations have coordinates
(EA, NA);(EB,NB); etc,relative to two axes whose origin is O.

Area ABCDEA

= areas (ABPT + BCQP + CDRQ – DESR – EATS)

= NA + NB × (EB – EA) + NB + NC × (EC– EB) + NC+ ND × (ED– EC)- ND+ NE × (ED– EE) –
2 2 2 2

NE+ NA × (EE– EA)

2

= 1/2[NAEB + NBEC + NCED + NDEE + NEEA) – (NBEA + NCEB + NDEC + NEED +

NAEE)]

= ½[NA (EB – EE) + NB (EC – EA) + NC(ED – EB) + ND (EE – EC) + NE (EA – ED)]

In general Area = 1/2 [∑ Ni (Ei+1- Ei-1)]

i=1
Fig 9.5
N
C

B
3

2 D
A
1 4

5 E

B
0 T P S
Q R
Note :(1) the formula could also be developed by projecting the traverse legs onto
the northing rather than the easting axis. In this case

Area =1/2[EA (NB-NE) + EB (NC-NA) + EC (ND-NB) + ED (NE-NC) +

EE (NA-ND)]

(2) the formula will give negative answers if the figure is lettered
anticlockwise.

Determine the area in hectares enclosed by the line

Example 9.2
traverse survey ABCDE from the following data.

Station mE mN

A 100.00 200.00

B 206.98 285.65

C 268.55 182.02

D 292.93 148.80

E 191.74 85.70

Station Ni Ei+1 E i-1 Ni (Ei+1-E i-1)

A 200.00 206.98 191.74 3048.00

B 285.65 268.55 100.00 48146.31

C 182.02 292.93 206.98 15644.62

D 148.80 191.74 268.55 -11429.33

E 85.70 100.00 292.93 -16534.10

2)38875.50

19437.75m2
Therefore area = 1.944 hectares

‘Give and take’ lines

The whole area is divided into triangles or trapezoids. The irregular boundaries
being replaced by straight lines so arranged that small areas excluded from the
survey by the straight line are balanced by other small areas outside the survey that
area not included (Fig 9.7)
Fig 9.7

Give and take line

Boundary

The positions of the lines are estimated by the eyes using either a thin transparent
straight-edge or a silk thread and the lines are then drawn in pensil faintly on the
plan. The areas of the resulting triangles or trapezoids are calculated by the
methods already described.

Counting squares

An overlay of squared tracing paper is laid on the drawing. The number of squares
and parts of squares that are enclosed by the figure under consideration is now
counted and knowing the scale of the drawing and the size of the squares on the
overlay the total area of the figure is computed.
Trapezoidal rule

Figure 9.8 shows an area bounded by a survey line and a boundary. The survey line
is divided into a number of small equal intercepts of length x, and the offsets O1, 02
etc. are measured either directly on the ground or by scaling from the plan. If x is
short enough for the length of boundary between the offsets to be assumed straight,
then the area is divided into a series of trapezoids.

Area of trapezoid 1 =( O1 + O2) .x

2

Area of trapezoid 2 =(O2 + O3).x

2

Area of trapezoid 6 =(O6+ O7).x

2
Summing up, we get
Area = x/2 (O1 + 2O2 + 2O3 + ………. + O7)
Fig 9.8 Boundary

O1 O2 O3 O4 O5 O6 O7

1 2 3 4 5 6

x
Survey line

Fig 9.9

01 O2 O3 O4 O5 O6 O7 O8 O9

x x x x x x x x x
In this general case with n offsets we get

Area = x O1 + On + O2 + O3 + ……. + On-1

2
If the area of a narrow strip of ground is required, this method may be used by
running a straight line down the strip as shown in Fig 9.9 and then measuring
offsets at equal intercepts along this. By the same reasoning it will be seen that the
area is given by;

Area = x O1 + On + O2 + O3 + ……. + On-1

2

Calculate the area of the plot shown in fig 9.9 if the offsets,
Example
scaled from the plan at interval of 10m are:
9.3 Offset O1 O2 O3 O4 O5

Length (m) 16.76 19.81 20.42 18.59 16.76

Offset O6 O7 O8 O9 O10

Length (m) 17.68 17.68 17.37 16.76 17.68

(
Area = 10 16.76 + 17.68 + 19.81 + 20.42 + 18.59 +16.76 + 17.68 +
2
17.68 + 17.37 + 16.76 )
= 1622.9 m2
=0.162 hectares
Simpson’s Rule

This method which gives greater accuracy than other methods assumes that the
irregular boundary is composed of a series of parabolic arcs. It is essential that the
figure under consideration be divided into an even number of equal strips.

Referring to Fig 9.8 consider the first three offsets which are shown enlarged in
fig 9.10.
G C

B F

Fig 9.10

O1 O2 E
O3
A D
x x

The portion of the area contained between offsets O1 and O3

= ABGCDA
= trapezoid ABFCDA + area BGCFB
= O1 + O3. 2x + 2 (area of circumscribing parallelogram)
2 3
= x (3O1 + 3O3 + 4 O2 – 2O1 – 2O3)
3
= x (O1 + 4O2 + O3)
3
For the next pair of intercepts, the area contained between offsets O3 and O5
= x (O3 + 4O4 + O5)
3
For the final pair of intercepts, the area contained between offsets O5 and O7
= x (O5 + 4O6+ O7)
3
Summing up we get
Area = x/3[(O1 + O7) + 2(O3 + O5) + 4(O2 + O4 + O6)]

In this general case;

= x (X + 2O+ 4E)
3
Where X = sum of first and last offsets, O = sum of remaining odd offsets and E =
sum of the even offsets.
Simpson’s rule states that the area enclosed by a curvilinear figure divided into
an even number of strips of equal width is equal to one-third of a strip multiplied
by the sum of the two extreme offsets, twice the sum of the remaining odd offsets
and four times the sum of the even offsets.

Example 9.4 In a tape and offset survey the following offsets were taken to a
fence from a survey line:
Chainage (m) 0 20 40 60 80
0 5.49 9.14 8.53 10.67

Chainage (m) 100 120 140 160 180

Offset (m) 12.50 9.75 4.57 1.83 0

Find the area between the fence and the survey line.
Note that the term ‘chainage’ has been used to refer to a cumulative increase in
distance measured from a starting point o the line: that is zero chainage.
There are 10 offsets and because Simpson’s rule can be applied to an odd number
of offsets only, it will be used here to calculate the area contained between the first
and ninth offsets. The residual triangular area between the ninth and tenth offsets is
calculated separately. It is often convenient to tabulate the working

Offset no. Offset Simpson product

Multiplier
1 0 1 0
2 5.49 4 21.96
3 9.14 2 18.28
4 8.53 4 34.12
5 10.67 2 21.34
6 12.50 4 50.00
7 9.75 2 19.50
8 4.57 4 18.28
9 1.83 1 1.83
∑ = 185.31
Area (O1 –O9) = 20 × 185.31 = 1235.40 m2
3
Area (O9 – O10) = 20 × 1.83 = 18.30 m2
2 1253.70 m2
= 0.125 hecta
9.3 CROSS SECTIONS

Finding the areas of cross-sections is the first step in obtaining the volume of
earthwork to be handled in route alignment projects (road or railway), or
reservoir construction, for example.
In order to illustrate more clearly what is meant by the above statement,
let us consider a road construction project. In the first instance an accurate
plan is produced on which to design the proposed route. The centre-line of
the route defined in terms of rectangular coordinates at 10 – to 30 m
intervals, is then set out in the field. Ground levels are obtained along the
centre-line and also at right angles to the line (fig 9.9(a). the levels at right
angles to the centre-line depict the ground profile, as shown in fig 9.9 (b),
and if the design template depicting the formation level, road width, camber,
side slopes etc is added, then a cross-section is obtained whose area can be
obtained by a planimeter or computation. The shape of the cross-section is
defined in terms of vertical heights (levels) at horizontal distances each side
of the centre-line thus no matter how complex the shape , these parameters
can be treated as a rectangular co-ordinates and the area computed using the
rules given in section 9.1.2. These areas may now be used in various rules
to produce an estimate of the volumes. Levels along and normal to the
centre-line may be obtained by standard leveling
a) CS3 CS4
CS
CS6
5
CS2
CS1

Road surface line

Cross-section levels

Fig 9.9 (a)

Ground profile
 Formation

b) Fig 9.9 (b) cross sectional area of cutting

procedures by optical or electromagnetic tachometry, or by aerial
photogrammetry. The whole computational procedure including the road
design and optimization, would then be carried out on the computer to
produce volumes of cut and fill, accumulated volumes, areas and volumes of
top-soil strip, side widths etc. where plotting facilities are available the
program would no doubt include routines to plot the cross-sections for visual
inspection.
An example of an earthworks program written in standard BASIC is
given at the end of the chapter.
Where there are no computer facilities the cross-section may be
approximated to the ground profile to afford easy computation. The
particular cross-section adopted would be dependent upon the general shape
of the ground. Typical examples are illustrated in figure 9.10.
Whilst equations are available for computing the areas and side widths
they tend to be overcomplicated and the following method sing rate of
approach is recommended (fig 9.11)

CS5
CS6
CS7
CS8
Chainage
CS9

interval

CH125
CH150
CH175
Fig 13.12 cross-sectional layout CH200

CH225

When plotting the longitudinal section, the vertical alignment is designed and the
formation levels along the centre line are calculated. A typical longitudinal section
showing the formation level is shown in fig 13.13.
 Each cross-section (CS) is drawn and the area between the existing and proposed
levels is calculated. Fig 13.14 shows typical cross-sections.

Both the longitudinal section and the cross-sections are usually drawn with their
horizontal and vertical scales at different values that is
Scales for longitudinal section

Horizontal – as road layout drawings, e.g. 1 in 500

Vertical – exaggerated, e.g. 1 in 100

Scales for cross-sections

Horizontal – exaggerated, e.g. 1 in 200

Vertical – exaggerated, e.g. 1 in 50
The reason for exaggerating the vertical scales of both sections and the
horizontal scale of the cross-sections is to give a clear picture of the exact shape of
the sections.
If the cross-sections have different horizontal and vertical scales, it is still
possible to calculate their areas either by the graphical method or by using a
planimeter as normal and applying a conversion factor. Consider the following
worked example.
 Volumes from cross-sections

In this method cross-sections are taken at the right angles to some convenient line
that runs longitudinally through the earth works. Although the method is capable of
general application, it is probably most used on long narrow works such as roads,
railways, canals, embankments and pipe excavations. The volumes of earth work
between successive cross-sections are calculated from a consideration of the cross-
sectional areas, which in turn are measured or calculated by the general methods
already given by planimeter, division into triangles or counting squares for
example.

In long constructions that have constant formation width and side slopes, it is
possible to simplify the computation of cross-sectional areas by the use of
formulae. These are specifically useful for roads and long embankments, and
formulae will be given for the following types of cross-section: section level
across(horizontal), sections with a cross-fall, sections part in cut and part in fill,
sections with variable levels, and sections with irregular levels.
Formation level

W W b/2 b/2
A C

Embankment
Cutting h
h
Original
surface
A B C

Side slopes W W
b/2 b/2
1 vertical in (a) (b) Original
m horizontal surface

W1=W2=W
Sections level across (fig 9.11)
Depth at center line (or height in case of embankment)
= h units
Formation width = b units
Side width = w
The sloping side has to fall (or rise) a vertical height of h units from original level
to final formation level. Because this side slopes in such a way that m units is the
horizontal projection for every single unit vertical rise, then in h units the side
gives a horizontal projection of mh units.

AB = BC = w = b + mh
2
Area of cross-section = 1 [2(b+ mh) + b] h= h(b+mh)
2 2

At a certain station formed on level ground has a height

Example 9.5 at its centre line of 3.10m. if the breadth of formation
is 12.50 m, find
(1) The side widths and (2) the area of cross-section
given that the side slope is 1 vertical to 2 ½
horizontal.

b = 12.50 m, m = 2.5
Therefore area = h (b + mh)
= 3.10 × (12.50 + 2.5) × 3.10)
= 62.78 m2

Side widths are both equal to b + mh

2

= 6.25 + 2.5 × 3.10

= 14.0 m
 Sections with cross-fall (fig 9.12)
In this case the existing ground has a cross-fall or transverse gradient relative to the
centre line and the side widths are not equal because the section is not symmetrical
about the centre line.
Now C1B = w1
I k
Because this is the difference in level between C and B due to a gradient of 1 in k
over a distance of w, similarly

Fig 9.12
G
W2 W1
1 in m
C1 C embankment
A B
b/2 b/2
F D
A1 h 1 in m
E
cutting
h A1
D
F
b/2 b/2 B
C1
A
C W1 W2
G

(a) (b)

A1B = w2
K
Also, if the side slopes intersect at G, then GE will be the vertical difference in
level over a horizontal distance of b/2.

Hence GE = b
2m
Because triangles C1CG and EFG are similar,
CC1 = GC1
EF GE

w1 = b/2m + h + w1/k
b/2 b/2m
Therefore w1 = b + mh k
2 k-m (9.9)

Also AA1 = GA1

DE GE

W2 = b/2m + h –w2/k
b/2 b/2m

hence w2 = b + mh k (9.10)
2 k+m

The area of the cutting or the embankment is the area of ACFDA,

= area BCG + area ABG – area DFG

= ½ w1 b+h +1/2 w2 b + h - ½ b b16.0

2m 2m 2m

=1 b - mh (w1 – w2) – b2
2m 2 2
(9.11)

Difference in level between C and F

= h + w1
k (9.12)

Difference in level between A and D

= h – w2
k (9.13)
 This type of section is sometimes known as two-level section because two levels
are required to establish the cross-fall of 1 in k.

Example 9.6 Calculate the side widths and cross-sectional area of

an embankment to a road with formation width of
12.50 m, and side slopes 1 vertical to 2 horizontal, when the centre height is 3.0 m
and the existing ground has a cross-fall of 1 in 12 at right angles to the centre line
of the embankment.
Referring to fig 9.12(b):

w1 = b + mh k
2 k-m

Hence w1 = 12.50 + 2 ×3.10 12

2 10

= 14.94 m

w2 = b + mh k
2 k+m

= 12.50 + 2 × 3.10 12
2 14
= 10.67 m

From equation (9.11):

Area = 1 b × mh (w1 + w2) – b2

2m 2 2

=1/4 12.45 ×(14.94 + 10.67) – 12.502

2
2
= 60.18 m
Sections part in cut and part in fill (fig 9.13)
Inspection on fig 9.13 shows that the ‘cut’ position is similar to the ‘cut’ position
right of the centre line of fig 9.12 (a) and hence

w1 = b + nh k
2 k -n
Fig 9.13

b/2 b/2
C

h1
G D h
B
1 in m F L
h2 E
1 in n
A w2 W1
1 in k

Fill cut

When we directly substitute n for m

The ‘fill’ position is similar to the ‘fill’ position left of the centre line of
fig 9.12 (b) except that h is now effectively negative and so,

w2 = b – mh k
2 k-m

Note that when h = 0, w2 = b k

2 k–m

Area of fill = ½ h2 .DB = ½ h2 b –kh

2
= ½ 2w2 - b b - kh
2m 2

=1/2 (b/2 – kh) 2

k–m

Area of cut = ½ h1.BF = ½ h1 b +kh

2

= ½ 2w1 - b b +kh
2n 2

=1/2 (b/2 + kh) 2

k–n

When the cross section is in fill at the centre line, instead of being in cut as in fig
9.13 then replacing +h by –h, the following modified formulae obtain:

Area of fill =1/2 (b/2 + kh) 2

k–m

Area of cut=1/2 (b/2 – kh) 2

k–n
 Example 9.7 A road has a formation width of 9.50 m side of 1 vertical to 1
horizontal in fill. The original ground had a cross-fall of 1
vertical to 5 horizontal. If the depth of excavation at the centre
line is 0.5 m, calculate the side widths and areas of cut and fill.
From equations (9.14), (9.15) (9.16), and (9.17), we get;

w1 = k b + nh
k–n 2

= 5 (4.75 + 1× 0.5)
5–1

= 6.56 m

w2 = k b - mh
k–m 2

= 5 (4.75 – 3 × 05)
5 –3

= 8.125 m

Area of fill =1/2 (b/2 – kh) 2 = 1/2 (4.75 – 5 ×0.5) 2

k–m 5-3

= 1.27 m2

Area of cut =1/2 (b/2 + kh) 2 = 1/2 (4.75 + 5 ×0.5) 2

k–n 5–1

= 6.57 m2
Sections of variable level
The type of section shown in fig 9.14 is sometimes referred to as a three-level
section because at least three levels are required on each cross-section to enable the
ground slopes to be calculated. The side-width formulae are the same as those
developed above for sections with uniform cross-fall and are:
Fig 9.14
b/2 b/2

E D
F

1 in m 1 in m
h

1 in l
1 in k
B F

C
w1 w2

w1 = b +mh k (9.18)
2 k–m

w2= b +mh l (9.19)

2 l+m

If BA were falling away from the centre line,

w2= b +mh l
2 l–m
Area of cross section = ½ w1 h + b + ½ w2 h+b - ½ b. b
2m 2m 2m
= ½ (w1 + w2) h + b - b2
2m 2m

= 1 (w1 + w2) mh + b - b2 (9.20)

2m 2 2
Note: the section shown in fig 9.14 is probably the most complex one to be worthy
of analysis in the manner shown; it is worth using on long constructions where
many cross-sections are involved because the use of a formula means (a) that the
levels are taken at predetermined points on each section and (b), that computation
and volumes can be tabulated and computerized.

Computation of volumes
Having determined the various areas of cross-section, the volume of earth involved
in the construction are computed by one of the following methods:
 Mean areas
 End areas
 Prismoidal formula

Volumes by mean areas

In this method the volume is determined by multiplying the mean of the cross-
sectional areas by the distance between the end sections. If the areas are;
A1, A2, A3 … An-1, An and the distance between the two extreme sections A1 and An
is L, then;
Volume = A1 +, A2 +, A3 + … + An-1 +, An .L
N
The method is not very accurate.

Volumes by end areas

If A1 and A2 are the areas of two cross-sections a distance D, then the volume V
between the two is given by;
V = D. A1 +, A2
2

This expression is correct as long as the area of the section midway between A1
and A2 is the mean of the two and this can be assumed to be the case so long as
there is no wide variation between successive sections. If there is such a variation,
then a correction must be applied and this refinement is dealt with in the next
method. In general however, in view of the usual irregularities in ground surface
that exist between successive cross-sections and the problems of bulking and
settlement normally associated with earth-works, it is reasonable to use the end-
areas formula for normal estimating.

For a series of consecutive cross-sections, the total volume will be;

Volume = ∑V = D1 (A1 +, A2) + D2 (A2+,A3) + D3 (A3+, A4) + ……

2 2 2

If D1 = D2 = D3 etc = D

∑V = D A1 +An + A2 +A3 + … + An-1 (9.22)

2
This is sometimes referred to as the trapezoidal rule for volumes.
Example 9.8