00 Solid

UNIVERSITY OF NUEVA CACERES COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND ARCHITECTURE
Week 1
Basics
Objectives
❖ Define and explain what are points, lines, angles, and planes.
❖ Solve problems involving the basic concepts.
Topics Covered
1. Points
2. Lines
3. Angles
4. Planes
Introduction
Hello future architect! Yes, you. Welcome to Week 1!
In our everyday lives, we live in a world full of wonderful things. Lines, colors, and a whole lot of
arrangements make everything look like a work of art. For future “arki’s” like yourselves, you
must understand these concepts for you to create awesome structures of art.
This subject is a math-oriented one. Boring? I think not. The modules are designed to be simple
and easily picked-up. You are highly encouraged to solve the learning evaluation activities at the
end of each module so that you can practice what you have learned. I also included two practice
examinations: Midterm (Week 5) and Finals (Week 9). Do try to solve them first to evaluate your
learning progress.
As you dive in the big and exciting world of architecture, you need to understand the basics first.
Step-by-step learning is the way. Don’t rush it architect.
Anyways, I hope you enjoy this course as much as I do on creating it for you!
Solid Mensuration – Chua (2020) 1 |Page

Points
❖ A zero-dimensional mathematical object that has position but no length, width, or depth.
❖ In English, an object that has a position only.
❖ The figure below illustrates points. Capital letters are used to denote where the points
are in the space.
Figure 1.1 Points
Lines
❖ A one-dimensional figure having no thickness and extending indefinitely on both
directions.
❖ We have multiple types of lines
o Ray
• Straight line that is limited on one side but is infinite on the other
o Segment (a.k.a. line segment)
• Part of a straight line which is limited on both lines
o Parallel lines
• Straight lines that lie on the same plane and do not intersect no matter
how long they are extended
• Coplanar
• Unofficial blurb: “the-pinagtagpo-pero-di-pwede” scenario
o Intersecting lines
• Two or more different lines that meet at some point
• Coplanar
• Unofficial blurb: “the one that got away”
• Special type – Perpendicular
• Lines that cross and form a right angle(s)
o Transversal line
• A line that cuts across two or more lines
• Sometimes termed as the “bisector”
• Unofficial blurb: “separator”
o Broken lines
• Set of line segments connected end to end
• It can be open or closed.
o Skew lines
• Lines that will never intersect because they are in a different plane
❖ Points on the same line are said to be collinear.
❖ Midpoint is the point exactly halfway between two endpoints of a give line segment.

Figure 1.2 Lines 1

(n.d.). https://www.onlinemathlearning.com/geometry-lines.html.
Figure 1.3 Lines 2

(n.d.). https://www.onlinemathlearning.com/skew-lines.html.

Figure 1.4 Lines 3

(n.d.). https://www.onlinemathlearning.com/transversal.html.
A transversal is a line that crosses at least two other lines. When it does cross a parallel line,
congruent angles are formed.
Figure 1.5 Broken Lines

Earnhart, R. T. (2007). Plane and solid mensuration: A simplified approach. p. 3
In Figure 1.5, the first two are considered as open broken lines. The last two are called “closed
broken lines” because it begins and ends on a same point. That is why plane figures are said to
be a collection of broken lines.

Figure 1.6 Collinear and Midpoint

Angles
❖ The space between rays (nope not between you guys) that share the same endpoint called
the vertex and are usually indicated by the symbol ∠
❖ Angle measurements
o Degree (° or deg.)
• Unit of angle measurement whose complete revolution is divided into 360
parts
• Side note 1: Default angle mode of your scientific calculators
o Radian (rad.)
• Unit of angle measurement wherein one revolution is equal to 2𝜋
• Side note 2: This is the default mode on some online calculators and
computer programs.
o Gradient (grad)
• Unit of angle measurement whose complete revolution is divided into 400
parts
• Side note 3: Third angle mode of your scientific calculators and rarely used
o Mil (mil)
• Angle used in military science
• One complete revolution is divided into 6400 parts
• Side note 4: A lot of parts are considered due to “precision”
o For simplicity, we are going to study and make angle calculations using the degree,
radians, and gradient only.
❖ Angle measurement conversion

❖ Types of angles

❖ Additional terms for angles
Planes
❖ It is a flat surface that has length and width but no thickness
o We’re talking about geometric figures here okay? Don’t be touchy if you hear the
word ‘flat’.
❖ Also known as two-dimensional figures
❖ Properties
o Two distinct planes are either parallel or they intersect in a line.
o A line is either parallel to a plane, intersects it at a single point, or is contained in
the plane.
o Two distinct lines perpendicular to the same plane must be parallel to each other.
o Two distinct planes perpendicular to the same line must be parallel to each other.
Figure 1.7 Plane figures


In Figure 1.7, these are some examples of plane figures that you will encounter in this course and
during your drawing classes. We will deal with them in the following weeks.
Summary
In this module, we have discussed the basics of points, lines, angles, and planes. It may not be
explicitly mentioned here but the properties of plane figures can help you plan your designs
adequately.
Learning Evaluation
INSTRUCTIONS. Answer essay questions in no more than 3 sentences. For sketching problems, use the
space provided.
1. How can broken lines be considered as parallel lines? (Hint: Study the properties of each
line. You can make a conclusion from it.)
2. Can two distinct straight lines intersect more than once?
3. Complete the table
Please round your answers to two decimal places.

Week 2
Polygons
Objectives
❖ Define and explain polygons and their concepts.
❖ Solve problems involving the basic concepts.
Topics Covered
1. Parts of a polygon
2. Types of polygons
3. Ratio and proportion
4. Polygon formulas
Introduction
This week we are going to deal with polygons. These shapes dominate everything that we see in
our everyday lives: a triangular roof, a square tube, and a whole lot of things are derived from
these figures.
So what is a polygon?
Mathematically and geometrically, a polygon is a two-dimensional closed figure that is bounded

by straight line segments. You can associate the word polygon to the word shape but there’s a
teeny-tiny catch. The former is a bounded by straight line segments while the latter is just
bounded.
For architects, shapes are one of the basic elements in design. They can represent and convey
certain meanings to the viewer. A square can represent equality due to equal sides and angles.
A circle may represent eternity or free movement because it doesn’t have a beginning or end. As
you can see, these can set the tone, mood, and message of an effective design.
Before we proceed to wide array of polygons, we need to understand some mathematical

concepts that they possess. Who knows, a certain part of it might save your design!

Parts of a polygon
Figure 2.1 Parts of a Polygon

❖ Side
o Also called as the “edge”
o Line segments that make up a polygon
❖ Vertex
o The point where sides meet
❖ Diagonal
o The line that connects two non-adjacent (you could say opposite) vertices
❖ Exterior angle
o Angle formed by adjacent sides outside the polygon
❖ Interior angle
o Angle formed by adjacent sides inside the polygon
❖ Apothem
o Only available for regular polygons
o Segment connecting the center of a polygon and the midpoint of a side
o It is a perpendicular bisector of the side
▪ Just in case you forgot, a bisector is a line that divides another into two
equal parts
❖ Central angle
o Only available for regular polygons
o Angle subtended (i.e. joined) by a side about the center
Types of a polygon
❖ Simple and complex polygons
o Simple polygons have only one boundary and its sides don’t intersect with each
other.
o Complex polygons are opposite of simple polygons. Visually, an intersection is
always present
❖ Concave and convex polygons
o Convex polygons don’t have an internal angle that is more than 180°.
o Concave polygon have an internal angle greater than a straight angle (i.e. a reflex
angle is present)

Figure 2.2 Types of Polygons
❖ How about regular polygons?

o These are polygons whose interior angles and sides are all equal
o If it doesn’t meet these conditions, the polygon is an irregular polygon
Ratio and Proportion

❖ Ratio
o Technically, it is the quantitative relation between two amounts showing the
number of times one value contains or is contained within the other
o In shorter terms, it indicates how many times one number contains another
❖ Proportion
o A part, share, or number considered in comparative relation to a whole
o It defines that two given ratios are equivalent to each other
❖ Let’s make use of an example
By ratio and proportion, we have two

equations that we can use to get side
measurements and even the area of the
polygon.
𝑥1 𝑥2
1st Equation: =
𝑦1 𝑦2
𝐴 𝑥 2
2nd Equation: 𝐴1 = (𝑥1 )
2 2
❖ How to use the formulas?

o 1st Equation
▪ You can find the measurement of another side by “relating” the sides to
one another
o 2 Equation
nd
▪ To find the second polygon’s area, you must square the ratio of the sides
of the polygon whose area is available. (Should the answer be negative,
get the absolute value)

❖ Now for some calculations

Polygon formulas
Before we proceed with the formulas and sample calculations, let’s revisit some concepts.
❖ Perimeter
o The length around the boundary of a closed two-dimensional region.
o Or we can just say that it’s the total length of the boundary
❖ Area
o Amount of material or space that occupies the inside of the bounded region
Let’s proceed to the collection of formulas, shall we?

By the way, these formulas are valid for regular polygons only.
❖ Perimeter
o 𝑃 = 𝑠𝑛
o s: measurement of a side; n: number of sides
o This is valid for regular polygons only.
❖ Area
1
o 𝐴 = 2 𝑃𝑎
▪ Use this if you have the a: apothem and P: perimeter available
𝑠2 𝑛 180
o 𝐴= 𝑐𝑜𝑡( 𝑛 )
4
▪ Use this if you have s: side measurement and n: number of sides available
▪ We don’t have cotangent in our scientific calculators. So, we can input
this as:
𝑠2 𝑛 1
▪ 𝐴= ( 180 )
4 tan ( )
𝑛
❖ Number of diagonals in a polygon
𝑛
o 𝑑 = 2 (𝑛 − 3)
❖ Number of diagonals drawn through the same vertex (i.e., number of triangles inside
the polygon)
o 𝑡 =𝑛−2
❖ Central angle of the polygon
360
o 𝜃𝑐 = 𝑛
❖ Each interior angle of the polygon
𝑛−2
o 𝜃𝐼 = ( ) (180) 𝑛
❖ Sum of interior angles
o 𝐼𝑆 = (𝑛 − 2)(180)
Let do some problems involving these formulas.

Examples
Problem 1
The sum of the interior angles of a certain regular polygon is 2340°. Determine the following:
a) Number of sides
b) Number of diagonals
c) Number of triangles inside the polygon
d) Central angle
e) Interior angle
Solution
Problem 2
Using the polygon in Problem 1, find the following if s = 4 cm.
a) Perimeter
b) Area
c) Apothem

Solution
Problem 3
The sum of the sides of two regular polygons is 18 while the sum of its diagonals is 58. What are
the number of sides of each polygon?
Solution 3

Summary
In this module, you have learned the types and parts of a polygon as well as being acquainted to
its corresponding regular polygon formulas. The concepts of ratio and proportion is clarified as
well.
Learning Evaluation
INSTRUCTIONS. Write your solutions legibly. If the final answer is not in fraction form, please round off
to four decimal places.
1. A regular polygon has 170 diagonals and has a side length of 1.3mm. What is the corresponding
area and perimeter of the polygon?
1620
2. If the interior angle is 11 ,
a. How many sides does the polygon have?
b. What is the central angle?
3. If a polygon has 27 diagonals,

a. How many sides does this regular polygon have?
b. How many triangles can be drawn inside the polygon?
4. The areas of two similar polygons are 55 sq. units and 77 sq. units. If the side of the smaller
polygon measures 12 units, what would be the length of the larger polygon’s side?

Week 3
Triangles and Quadrilaterals
Objectives
❖ Define and explain what are triangles and quadrilaterals
❖ Illustrate principles of triangles and quadrilaterals
❖ Solve and evaluate problems involving triangles and quadrilaterals
Topics Covered
1. Triangles
2. Quadrilaterals
Introduction
This week we focus our attention to one of the most popular geometric figures which is the
triangle. In design, depending on the sides’ length or its interior angles, triangles give a feel of
direction, tension, and even direction. Some cultures even associate triangles as a symbol for
justice, power, and religion.
The second part of this module talks about the largest group of plane figures – the quadrilateral.
The square, rectangle, rhombus, parallelogram, trapezoid, and trapezium are the six types of
quadrilaterals. Much like the triangles, these are important aspects of a design. Being the most
stable of all figures, it is usually associated to balance and stability. That’s why our buildings are
constructed following the principles of quadrilaterals.
Anyways, let’s start with Week 3!
Triangles
❖ A polygon with three sides and three interior angles
❖ The parts of it are:
o Base
▪ The bottom side of the triangle
o Base angles
▪ Two angles which touch the base
o Vertices of the triangle
▪ Point of intersections of the sides of the triangle
o Legs
▪ Two sides/edges which are not the base of the triangle
o Angles
▪ The space between the point of intersection of the sides of a triangle

❖ Classifications of Triangles
Figure 3.1 Euler diagram of triangle types

File: Euler diagram of triangle types.svg. (n.d.). Wikimedia Commons. October 11, 2020, from
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Euler_diagram_of_triangle_types.svg
Figure 3.2 Classification of triangles according to sides

Triangle. (2001, September 15). Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. Retrieved October 11, 2020, from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triangle
Figure 3.3 Classification of triangles according to angles

Triangle. (2001, September 15). Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. Retrieved October 11, 2020, from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triangle
o Equilateral triangle
▪ Three sides and angles of same length
• All angles of this triangle measures 60°
▪ Also known as equiangular triangle
o Isosceles triangle
▪ Two sides of equal length
▪ Two angles of equal length as well
o Scalene triangle
▪ All sides are of varying lengths
▪ Equivalently, all angles are of different magnitude

o Right triangle
▪ A triangle that has one angle equal to 90°
o Oblique triangle
▪ A triangle having no right angle
▪ Has three subtypes
• Equiangular (we defined this already)
• Acute triangle
o All angles are acute (less than 90°)
• Obtuse
o One angle is oblique (greater than 90°)
❖ Special lines in a triangle
o Median of a triangle
Figure 3.3 Median of a triangle

▪ Segment connecting a vertex to the midpoint of the opposite side
▪ The point of intersection of all the medians of the triangle (ma, mb, and mc)
is the centroid of the triangle
▪ To find the lengths of each median, use these formulas
1
• 𝑚𝑎 = 2 √2𝑏 2 + 2𝑐 2 − 𝑎2
1
• 𝑚𝑏 = 2 √2𝑎2 + 2𝑐 2 − 𝑏 2
1
• 𝑚𝑐 = 2 √2𝑎2 + 2𝑏 2 − 𝑐 2
• For you to easily remember, the one you subtract and doesn’t have
a coefficient of 2 is the side that is opposite of your angle.

o Altitude/height of a triangle
Figure 3.4 Altitude/height of a triangle

▪ Segment from a vertex that is perpendicular to the opposite side
▪ Three-line segments (ha, hb, and hc) are connected from the vertices
perpendicular to the opposite sides of the triangle as shown in Figure 3.4
▪ The point of intersection is called the orthocenter
▪ To find the lengths of each altitude, use these formulas
2𝐴 2𝐴 2𝐴
• ℎ𝑎 = 𝑎 ; ℎ𝑏 = 𝑏 ; ℎ𝑐 = 𝑐
• Wherein A is the area of the given triangle
❖ Principles of triangles
o Sum of the triangle’s angles is always equal to 180°
o Longest side of a triangle is always the opposite of the largest angle
o Shortest side of a triangle is always the opposite of the shortest angle
o No side of any triangle can be as long as the sum of the other two side lengths
o If a right triangle has two equal sides, then the angles of these are 45°
o For a right triangle: When a line segment is drawn perpendicular from the vertex
of the right angle to the hypotenuse, the resulting two triangles are similar to the
given triangle and similar to each other
Figure 3.5 Illustration of the 6th principle

o If two angles of an isosceles triangle are equal, then the sides opposite these
angles are also equal
o Each angle of an equilateral angle is always 60°

❖ Area of a triangle
1
o We have the commonly used 𝐴 = 2 𝑏ℎ
▪ This is the standard
o However, if the given triangle is like this,
1
▪ We use the formula 𝐴 = 2 𝑎𝑏 sin 𝜃
o If all sides are known and we have to solve for the area, we use Heron’s formula
𝑎+𝑏+𝑐
▪ 𝐴 = √𝑠(𝑠 − 𝑎)(𝑠 − 𝑏)(𝑠 − 𝑐) wherein 𝑠 = 2
▪ a, b, and c are the measures of each side of the triangle
▪ s is the semi-perimeter of the triangle
o Lastly if we have an equilateral triangle, we use
√3
▪ 𝐴 = 4 𝑎2
▪ Wherein the a is the length of the side of the equilateral triangle
Examples (Triangles)
Problem 1
Two sides of a triangle are 8m and 11m. If the area of the triangle is 8√8 m2, what is the length
of the third side?
Solution

Problem 2
The area of a triangle is 20 square units and its base is 16 units. Find the base of a similar triangle
if its area is 45 square units.
Solution

Problem 3
Given that the perimeter of a triangle is 180m. if the angles are in the ratio of 5:6:7, determine
the sides of the triangle.
Solution
Problem 4
A triangle has a perimeter of 𝑃 = 4𝑥 + 5. What are the lengths of its sides?
Solution

Quadrilaterals
❖ This is the general term for a four-sided polygon
❖ Also known as your quadrangle or tetragon
❖ Common parts
o Sides
▪ Line segments joining any two adjacent vertices
o Interior angles
▪ Angle formed between two adjacent sides
o Height (or altitude)
▪ Vertical distance between two parallel sides of the quadrilateral
o Base
▪ Bottom side that is perpendicular to the altitude
o Diagonal
▪ Line segment joining non-adjacent vertices
❖ Classifications
Figure 3.6 Classifications of Quadrilaterals

o Parallelogram
▪ Two pairs of parallel sides
▪ Properties
• Opposite sides are equal
• Opposite angles are all congruent
• Adjacent angles are supplementary
• Two diagonals bisect each other
▪ Kinds
• Rhombus
o Parallelogram wherein all sides are equal
o May also be called as “equilateral parallelogram”
o Differs to the square in a way that only opposite angles of it
are equal and its adjacent angles are not equal
• Rectangle
o A parallelogram wherein all angles are right angles
• Square
o Special type of rectangle wherein all sides are equal
o Trapezoid
▪ Only one pair of parallel sides

o Trapezium
▪ Quadrilateral with no two sides that are parallel
Formulas for Quadrilaterals

❖ Parallelogram
Figure 3.7 Parallelogram

o If you are given sides ‘a’ and ‘b’, and the angle 𝜃, you can use the cosine law to
obtain the value of the diagonal
▪ 𝑑2 = 𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 − 2𝑎𝑏 cos 𝜃
o For the perimeter of the parallelogram, if you know sides a and b, the formula is
simply, 𝑃 = 2𝑎 + 2𝑏
o To find the area, there are two “variations” of the formula
▪ If b and h are available, use 𝐴 = 𝑏ℎ
▪ If a, b, and 𝜃 are the ones present, use 𝐴 = 𝑎𝑏 sin 𝜃
❖ Rhombus
Figure 3.8 Rhombus

o To find the diagonals of a rhombus, it’s a bit “complicated”
▪ Just remember that the angle of between the diagonals is always equal to
90°
𝑑 2 𝑑 2
▪ The formula is 𝑏 = √( 21 ) + ( 22 ) wherein d1 is the shorter diagonal and
d2 is the longer diagonal
▪ To verify the angle opposite the shorter diagonal d1, use the formula
𝑑1
𝜃 = 2𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ( )
𝑑2

o Perimeter is simply 𝑃 = 4𝑏
o The area can be acquired by using either of the two methods
1
▪ If both diagonals are present, use 𝐴 = 2 𝑑1 𝑑2
▪ If the base and height are present, use 𝐴 = 𝑏ℎ
❖ Rectangle and Square
Figure 3.9 Square and Rectangle

o The diagonal of a rectangle and a square is just an application of the Pythagorean
Theorem
▪ For squares, 𝑑 = √𝑠 2 + 𝑠 2 𝑜𝑟 𝑑 = 𝑠√2
▪ For rectangles, 𝑑 = √𝑏 2 + ℎ2
o Perimeter
▪ Squares, 𝑃 = 4𝑠
▪ Rectangles, 𝑃 = 2𝑏 + 2ℎ
o Area
▪ Squares, 𝐴 = 𝑠 2
▪ Rectangles, 𝐴 = 𝑏ℎ
❖ Trapezoid
Figure 3.10 Trapezoid
o Area
1
▪ 𝐴 = 2 (𝑎 + 𝑏)ℎ
o To find the value of the “slanted sides”, recall the Pythagorean Theorem.

❖ Trapezium
Figure 3.11 Trapezium

o Probably the hardest figure to find the area
o Three area formulas are available for use
1
▪ 𝐴 = 2 𝑒1 𝑒2 sin 𝜃
• Where e1 and e2 are the lengths of the trapezium’s diagonals
• 𝜃 is the angle between the two diagonals
1
▪ 𝐴 = 4 (𝑎2 + 𝑐 2 − 𝑏 2 − 𝑑 2 )|tan 𝜃|
• |tan 𝜃|: absolute value of your tangent theta
• a2+c2 > b2+d2
• a, b, c, and d are the sides of the trapezium
1
▪ 𝐴 = √(𝑠 − 𝑎)(𝑠 − 𝑏)(𝑠 − 𝑐)(𝑠 − 𝑑) − 𝑎𝑏𝑐𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 [ (𝐴 + 𝐶)]
2
• Nightmare-ish version of Heron’s formula
• s (semi-perimeter); A & C (two opposite angles of the trapezium)
Examples (Quadrilaterals)
Problem 1
What is ∠𝐷 of a quadrilateral if ∠𝐴 = 3𝑥 + 9, ∠𝐵 = 5𝑥 + 20, ∠𝐶 = 3𝑥, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ∠𝐷 = 2𝑥 + 6?
Solution

Problem 2
Find the value of 𝛼.
Solution
Problem 3
What is the area of the white region if the side of the square is 6 units?
Solution

Summary
In this module, you have learned how to calculate parameters of triangles and quadrilaterals and
its concepts.
Learning Evaluation
1. A trapezoid has an area of 256m2 and altitude of 7m. The two bases have a ratio of 7:11
where b is the longer base. What are the lengths of these bases? What is the perimeter
of the trapezoid?
2. A certain lot of Mr. Carlos is in the form of a parallelogram. Two of its sides measure 32ft
and 41ft. If the area is 656ft2, what is the length of the longer diagonal?
3. The lengths of the diagonals of a rhombus are 18 cm and 11 cm respectively. Find the
length of each of its sides.

Week 4
Circles
Objectives
❖ Define and explain what are circles
❖ Illustrate the concepts involved
❖ Solve and evaluate problems concerning circles
Topics Covered
1. Circles
2. Theorems on circle
3. Formulas in solving a circle
Introduction
Three weeks done! Good job!
For this week, we focus our attention to one of the favorite figures in mensuration: the circle. In
art, circles symbolize a lot of things. It represents notions of completeness, perfection, balance,
and the like. In our course, we focus on the mathematical characteristics of circles that are
important in your future designs such as its area, circumference, arc lengths, and sectors. A good
architect finds a good balance in art and mathematics to ensure that his/her design is efficient
and pleasant.
Side note: The colored version is uploaded on your BB accounts. It will help you a lot on understanding parts of this module.
Circles
❖ Set of points that are equidistant from a fixed point called the center
❖ Other definition is that it’s a closed, two-dimensional figure that is perfectly symmetrical
if a line is passed through the center
Figure 4.1 Basic parts of a circle

What are the parts of a circle. (2019, April 24). A Plus Topper. https://www.aplustopper.com/parts-of-the-circle/
& Secant of a circle. (2019, April 22). BYJUS. https://byjus.com/maths/secant-of-a-circle/

❖ Let’s define each part, shall we?

o Radius
▪ Line joining the center of the circle to other points on it
▪ One-half of the diameter
o Sector
▪ Figure formed by two radii and an included arc
o Segment
▪ Region bounded by a chord of a circle and the intercepted arc of the circle
▪ Looking at Fig. 4.1, the black part is the minor segment and the colored
part is the major segment
▪ Major segment is always larger than the minor segment
▪ If the chord used is the diameter of the circle, then the resulting segment
is a half-circle/semi-circle
o Arc
▪ Portion of the circle that contains two endpoints and all the points of the
circle between those endpoints
▪ Checking Fig. 4.1, the “inked” part is the minor arc while the “broken” part
is the major arc
o Tangent
▪ Also termed as the tangent line
▪ It is a line that contains a point that intersects that line and exactly a single
point of the circle
• This point is called the “point of tangency”
▪ Perpendicular to the radius of the circle
o Chord
▪ Line segment joining any two points on the circle
▪ Segment of a secant
o Circumference
▪ Length of the outer boundary of a circle
▪ The perimeter of a circle
o Diameter
▪ The longest chord of a circle that passes through the center
▪ Twice the length of the radius
o Secant
▪ A line cutting the circle in two places

Theorems on circle
In this section, we will discuss the theorems about the circle. These are taken from the textbook,
Plane and solid mensuration: A simplified approach by Earnhart, R. T. (2007) pp. 49-52



Formulas in solving a circle

❖ Perimeter and such
o Circumference
▪ 𝐶 = 2𝜋𝑟 or 𝐶 = 𝜋𝑑
o Arc length
▪ 𝑠 = 𝑟𝜃
• 𝜃 is in radian units (not degrees). Be careful on your calculations
o Perimeter of a sector
▪ 𝑃 = 𝑟(2 + 𝜃)
• 𝜃 is in radian units
o Perimeter of a segment
▪ 𝑃 =𝑠+𝐿
• Where 𝑠 is the arc length and 𝐿 is the chord length
• To solve for the value of 𝐿
o 𝐿 = √2𝑟 2 (1 − cos 𝜃)
▪ Wherein 𝜃 is the central angle of the chord
❖ Area
o Area of a circle
▪ 𝐴 = 𝜋𝑟 2
• If the radius is given, this is the formula you’ll use
𝜋
▪ 𝐴 = 4 𝑑2
• Wherein d is the diameter

o Area of a semi-circle
𝜋𝑟 2
▪ 𝐴= 2
o Area of a quarter circle
𝜋𝑟 2
▪ 𝐴= 4
o Area of a sector
1 1
▪ 𝐴 = 2 𝑟 2 𝜃 or 𝐴 = 2 𝑟𝑠
• 𝜃 is expressed in radians; 𝑠 is the length of the arc
o Area of a segment
1
▪ 𝐴 = 2 𝑟 2 (𝜃 − sin 𝜃)
o Area of the annulus region
Figure 4.2 Annulus region

www.onlinemathlearning.com. https://www.onlinemathlearning.com/area-of-circles.html
▪ 𝐴𝐴𝑅 = 𝐴𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒 − 𝐴𝐼𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑟 𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒
▪ 𝐴𝐴𝑅 = 𝜋(𝑟2 2 − 𝑟1 2 )
o Triangle inscribed in a circle
Figure 4.3
o Triangle circumscribing a circle
Figure 4.4

Examples
Problem 1
What is the area of the circle having a circumference of 24𝜋 meters?
Solution
Problem 2
Find the area of the sector bounded by a 72° central angle in a circle with a radius of 14 cm.
Solution

Problem 3
An equilateral triangle is inscribed in a circle with an area equal to 121𝜋 in2. Find the area of the
triangle and the remaining part that is not occupied by it.
Solution

Problem 4
The distances between any two centers of three coplanar circles that are externally tangent to
each other are 30cm, 24cm, and 18cm. Find the area of the smallest circle.
Solution
This problem would require you to do some illustrations so that you can solve it with ease.
As you can see, if we are to sketch the problem, we can form a triangle from the measurements.
In this example, the side measurements are in a ratio of 3:4:5 thus giving us a right triangle to
work with. Each side measurements are formed by the radius of two externally tangent circles.
By observation, you can formulate three simultaneous equations with three unknowns (wherein
your unknowns are the radii). You will then have,
You can now solve for the r’s via Determinant Method or Gauss-Jordan Elimination. (If you’re my
student in MMW, you know this already. If not, let’s review the Determinant Method)

As you can see, your simultaneous equation is now written in this format. The first column is for
the first unknown; the second for the second unknown and; the third for the third unknown. Make
a separator (you may use a broken line) before you write the fourth column which then contains
the solution for each equation.
These 1’s and 0’s are the coefficients of your r’s for each equation. As you can see on the first
column, we don’t have r3 on the first equation. This means that the coefficient of r3 is 0. r1 and r2
exist and have a coefficient of 1. Take note that in future problems, the coefficient of each r is not
always 0 or 1.
Afterwards we create the Delta Matrices.
The first step is straightforward. Simply plot the matrix using the three unknown columns.
Afterwards, add two more columns after the third column using the first and second columns. In
the image above, the orange-colored columns are the added parts.
Then we do the “crisscross” step. Let’s start with the “criss”.
Take the product of a diagonal then add to the succeeding one. So for this one, you’ll get
S1+S2+S3. Once you’re done with that, we now do the “cross”.
Subtract the product of each diagonal. Following the arrows, you will now have this formula:
S1+S2+S3-S4-S5-S6. The result of this equation will be the determinant of this matrix or your ∆.
You’ll get ∆= 2.

We’re not yet done though. You have to create a ∆ matrix for each unknown. Same principles
though so don’t worry too much. You should get something like these:
On each unknown delta, we just replace the denoted unknown column with the solution column.
So if we’re looking for ∆𝑟1 we replace the contents of column r1 with the solution column. Then
proceed doing the calculations that we have mentioned on the previous page. Doing that will
give you these values: ∆𝑟1 = 36; ∆𝑟2 = 24; ∆𝑟3 = 12
∆𝑟𝑛
To get the values of r, the formula is just 𝑟𝑛 = .
∆
36 24 36
Thus you have 𝑟1 = 𝑜𝑟 𝑟1 = 18; 𝑟2 = 𝑜𝑟 𝑟2 = 12; 𝑟3 = 𝑜𝑟 𝑟3 = 6;
2 2 2
Since the smallest radius is r3 = 6cm, the area of the smallest circle is 𝟑𝟔𝝅 cm.
Summary
In this module, you have learned how the characteristics, theorems involved, and solving for the
necessary parameters of circles. It is essential for you to master this to assist you in your future
design process.
Learning Evaluation
1. The sides of a triangle are 80m, 100m, and 140m. What is the radius of the inscribed
circle?
2. Find the area and circumference of a circle that circumscribes a

a. Rectangle with a length of 5 in. and a width of 3 in.
b. Equilateral triangle with a side of 11 units.

Week 5
Midterm Review
Objectives
❖ Discuss and explain problems involving topics from Week 1 to 4
❖ Evaluate problems and their respective solutions
Introduction
This module contains solved problems that are based from the topics of Week 1 to 4. They are
presented in “handwritten” format to give that sense of “realism” (i.e. classroom or tutorial feel).
The colored version is available on your BB accounts if you need it.
Solved Examples












Week 6
Solids
Objectives
❖ Define and explain what are solids
❖ Solve and evaluate problems concerning solids
Topics Covered
1. Introduction to Solids
2. Polyhedra
3. Rectangular Solids
Introduction
Five weeks have gone fast huh?
The previous weeks focused on 2D geometry. We studied the properties of shapes and how to
acquire its perimeter and area. Solid geometry can be considered as the next-level: we now
consider the third dimension of our shapes (hence solid geometry is known as 3D geometry).
Mensuration of these figures now include determining the parts, surface areas, and volumes. It’s
complicated for sure but it’s very useful.
Introduction to Solids
❖ A solid is a limited portion of space that is enclosed (i.e., bounded) by surfaces or plane
figures
❖ Figure 6.1 illustrates a solid (our example is a rectangular prism by the way) and its parts
Figure 6.1 Parts of a Solid

❖ Now for the definitions of each part

o Section (of a solid)
▪ The plane that is formed by the intersection of a plane and a solid
o Right section (of a solid)
▪ It is a section that is perpendicular to the lateral edges of a solid
▪ The section illustrated above is an example of a right section
o Edges
▪ The intersections of the bounding planes
o Faces
▪ These are the portions of the bounding planes included by the edges
▪ Other materials also define them as “boundaries”
o Vertices
▪ These are the intersections of the edges
o Diagonals
▪ Any straight line that joins two vertices that are not on the same face
❖ Cavalieri’s Principle
Figure 6.2 Illustration of Cavalieri’s Principle

Cavalieri's principle. (n.d.). Interactive Mathematics Miscellany and Puzzles. https://www.cut-the-knot.org/Curriculum/Calculus/Cavalieri.shtml
o The principle states that “If, in two solids of equal altitude, the sections made by
planes parallel to and at the same distance from their respective bases are always
equal, then the volumes of the two solids are equal (Kern and Bland 1948, p. 26).”
o So even if the first structure – that somewhat reminds us of a Jenga tower – looks
weird, its volume is the same with the monolith-looking second structure
❖ Area terms
o We have two area terms for solids which are the lateral surface area and total
surface area
▪ Lateral surface area: considers only the areas of the side surfaces
▪ Total surface area: totality; lateral area and the areas of the bases (top and
bottom)

❖ Inscribed solids
o These are solids, usually at maximum volume, that are placed inside another solid
of a fixed volume with their edges/surfaces touching each other
Figure 6.3 Examples of inscribed solids

Solid geometry - SAT math 1 & 2 subject tests. Educational materials. https://schoolbag.info/mathematics/sat_3/6.html
o What are possible applications of these inscribed solids?
▪ Packaging. Let’s say you are sending a basketball as a gift; you’d like it to
be encased in a box that will secure it without compromising its shape,
right?
▪ Casting. Complex sculptures and tools can’t be easily constructed by hand.
A good mold can help balance out the resulting cast.
o Cylinder inscribed in a sphere
Figure 6.4
▪ The diameter of the sphere is equal to the diagonal of the rectangle/square
formed by the height and the diameter of the cylinder
▪ Using this concept, the equation is: 𝐷 = √(2𝑟 2 ) + ℎ2

o Sphere inscribed in a cube
Figure 6.5
▪ The diameter of the sphere is equal to the length of the side of a cube
▪ Thus we have the equation, 𝑠 = 2𝑟
o Sphere inscribed in a cylinder
Figure 6.6
▪ In the Figure 6.6, the sphere and the cylinder share the same diameter.
▪ It can be observed that the height of the cylinder matches the diameter of
the sphere and leads to the equation: ℎ = 2𝑟 = 𝑑
o Rectangular solid inscribed in a sphere
Figure 6.7
▪ The diameter of the sphere is equal to the length of the diagonal of the
rectangular solid.
▪ l: length of the solid; h: height; w: width; D: diameter of the sphere
▪ The equation is 𝐷 = √𝑙 2 + 𝑤 2 + ℎ2

Polyhedra
❖ A solid which is bounded by polygons joined at their edges
❖ Regular Polyhedra or platonic solids
o Its faces are similar to each other
o “Normal”
o Analogy: Plato = smooth; Platonic solids = smooth regular Polyhedra
(Ok. It’s corny na.)
❖ They are classified according to the number of faces
o For example, a tetrahedron is a Polyhedra with four triangular faces
❖ Two Polyhedra are similar if they have the same number of faces that are similarly placed
and whose corresponding polyhedral angles are congruent
o Why is it important?
▪ Helps on developing relationship of volumes, surface areas, and
dimensions
▪ In short: A good design must be balanced for it to be realized
❖ Properties of similar Polyhedra
o Corresponding dimensions of two similar solids are similar
𝑥 𝑥
▪ 𝑦1 = 𝑦2
1 2
o Ratio of the areas or similar surfaces is equal to the square of the ratio of any two
corresponding dimensions
𝐴1 𝑥 2
▪ = (𝑦1)
𝐴2 1
o Ratio of volumes of two similar solids is equal to the cube of the ratio of any two
corresponding dimensions
𝑉1 𝑥 3
▪ = (𝑦1 )
𝑉2 1
Rectangular Solids
❖ Rectangular solid
o Rectangular parallelepiped
o Has two rectangular bases and lateral edges that are perpendicular to the bases
o Formulas to remember
▪ 𝐿𝑆𝐴 = 2𝑙ℎ + 2𝑤ℎ
▪ 𝑇𝑆𝐴 = 2𝑙𝑤 + 2𝑙ℎ + 2𝑤ℎ
▪ 𝑉 = 𝑙𝑤ℎ
❖ Cube
o All 12 edges are congruent
o Let’s say that it’s a special type of rectangular solid wherein all faces are squares
o Formulas to remember
▪ 𝐿𝑆𝐴 = 2𝑙ℎ + 2𝑤ℎ
▪ 𝑇𝑆𝐴 = 2𝑙𝑤 + 2𝑙ℎ + 2𝑤ℎ
▪ 𝑉 = 𝑙𝑤ℎ

Figure 6.8 Dimensions of the cube and rectangular solid
Examples
Problem 1
The length of a rectangular solid is six times its width while its height is four times the width.
What is its LSA, volume, and the length of its diagonal if the TSA is 1024m 2?
Solution
You can do a sketch to help you solve the problem.

Problem 2
Determine the area of the figure that is formed by the violet lines if l = 5”, w = 2”, and h = 14”.
Summary
In this module, you are introduced to solids and the concepts of LSA, TSA, and volume.
Learning Evaluation
1. An edge of an ice cube measures 40 mm. After 2 mins, it melted and has a volume that is
half of the original. Assuming that the resulting ice cube corresponds to the original,
determine the dimensions of the cube (i.e. s, LSA, and TSA).
2. Ezreal has wants to fill a box with dimensions of 10 x 11 x 12 (in mm) completely using
plastic cubes that have a volume 27mm3 each. If the box must be filled with these cubes,
what is the exact number of cubes that he needs to use?

Week 7
Prisms and Cylinders
Objectives
❖ Define and explain what are prisms and cylinders
❖ Solve and evaluate problems concerning prisms and cylinders
Topics Covered
1. Prisms
2. Cylinders
Introduction
For this week, we will talk about these two solid figures. We commonly see them as packaging
for food, as water tanks, and so on. It is important to understand their surface areas and volume
characteristics so that an efficient design be made out of them. Let’s start!
Prism
❖ Polygon that has two congruent bases that lie in parallel planes
o Every section that is parallel to the base has the same area that of the base
❖ Just imagine that you’re dragging a polygon through space in a uniform manner and the
resulting figure will give you the prism
❖ Figure 7.1 illustrates some examples of prisms
Figure 7.1 Examples of Prisms

http://150.107.117.36/NPTEL_DISK4/NPTEL_Contents/Web_courses/Phase2_web/112103019/module3/lec28/images/2.png
❖ Cubes are special types of rectangular prisms
❖ For reference, let’s review and define some of the terms used
o Base(s)
▪ Planes where the two-dimensional shape begins and ends
▪ Usually termed as the “top” and “bottom”

o Lateral faces
▪ Other planes that are not the top or the bottom
o Lateral edges
▪ Intersections of the lateral faces
o Height/altitude
▪ Perpendicular distances of the bases
❖ Right prism
o These are prisms whose lateral faces or lateral edges are perpendicular to the two
bases
o In Figure 7.1, the first five prisms are considered to be right prisms
❖ Regular prism
o Right prism whose bases are regular polygons
❖ Oblique prism
o A prism whose bases are not perpendicular to each other
o You could say that it is slanted or leaning
o The lateral faces for this kind of prism are usually parallelograms
o The sixth type of prism on Figure 7.1 is an example of an oblique prism
❖ Important properties of a prism
o Each lateral face is either a rectangular or a parallelogram
o If a right prism has a base that is a regular polygon, then the lateral faces are
congruent rectangles
o Sections of a prism made by parallel planes intersecting all the lateral edges are
congruent polygons
o The bases of a prism are congruent polygons
o Every section made by a plane parallel to the base is congruent to the base
o Lots of properties to understand but these concepts can make solving easier
❖ Formulas to remember
o Surface Area
▪ Lateral (Sides)
• 𝐿𝑆𝐴 = 𝑃𝑒
o P: Perimeter; e: length of the lateral edge
o This formula is usable if the prism is a right prism
o If not, you have to do it the long way.
▪ Total (Everything)
• 𝑇𝑆𝐴 = 2𝐵 + 𝐿𝑆𝐴
o 2B are the bases of the prism
o Volume
▪ 𝑉 = 𝐵ℎ
• Wherein B is the area of one base and h is the height of the prism
▪ 𝑉 = 𝑅𝑒
• R is the area of the right section of the prism
• 𝑅 = 𝐵 sin 𝜃
• e is the length of the lateral edge which is inclined at an angle 𝜃

Cylinder
❖ A solid bounded by a closed cylindrical surface and two parallel lines cutting all the
elements of the surface.
Figure 7.2 Cylinder and the cylindrical surface

(n.d.). http://www.algebralab.org/img/670a99ad-364b-4be8-855b-780c4cabb9ef.gif
❖ Looking at figure 7.2, this is an example of a cylindrical surface
o This also serves as your lateral surface
o It is a surface generated by a straight line which moves along a fixed curve (hence
the 2π) and which remains parallel to a fixed line (h) that is not on the curve
▪ Imagine the movement of your compass (i.e. the drawing tool)
o Any one of the positions of line AB is an element of the surface
❖ Time for the terms that you need to remember
o Bases
▪ The parallel circular planes
o LSA (Lateral Surface Area)
▪ The cylindrical surface
o TSA (Total Surface Area)
▪ I guess you know what this is right?
o Altitude
▪ The perpendicular distance between the bases
▪ If the cylinder is a right cylinder, we call this as the height (h)
▪ But altitude works for all types of cylinders
o Right section
▪ Section perpendicular to all the elements
❖ Formulas to play with
o Lateral Surface Area
▪ 𝐿𝑆𝐴 = 2𝜋𝑟ℎ
o Total Surface Area
▪ 𝑇𝑆𝐴 = 2𝜋𝑟 2 + 2𝜋𝑟ℎ
▪ 𝑇𝑆𝐴 = 𝐶(𝑟 + ℎ)
• Where C is the circumference of the bases
▪ Note: Either formula works. It’s just a matter of preference.
o Volume
▪ 𝑉 = 2𝜋𝑟 2 ℎ (For right cylinders)

▪ 𝑉 = 𝑅𝑒; 𝑅 = 𝐵 sin 𝜃 (For wrong… este oblique cylinders)
Examples
Problem 1
The bases of a right triangular prism are 14cm apart. Find the volume, LSA, and the TSA if one
side of the equilateral triangular base is 5cm.
Solution
Problem 2
A cylindrical can is filled with crackers that are circular. Assuming that these are perfect circles
with a circumference of 24π cm and are 0.1cm thick, how many full crackers are needed to fill
this cylinder if the cylinder’s radius is 4 times the radius of the crackers and the height is around
50cm?

Problem 3
A tin can called ‘A’ is placed inside another tin can named ‘B’. If A has a radius of 50mm and a
height of 130mm while B has radius of 20mm but has the same height, determine the unoccupied
volume of A.
Problem 4
Find the LSA, TSA, and volume of an isosceles trapezoidal prism given below.
https://www.varsitytutors.com/assets/vt-hotmath-legacy/hotmath_help/topics/surface-area-of-a-prism/surface-area-of-a-prism-image005.gif

Summary
In this module, you have learned the concepts and formulas about prisms and cylinders.

Learning Evaluation
1. A triangular trough has equilateral triangles as its bases. Each triangle has a side length of 60
units. The open top of the trough has dimensions of 0.6 (W) and 10 (L) units. It is then filled with
water that is half of its depth. Find the following.
a. Altitude of the triangle
b. Height of the water
c. Base length of the wet part of the triangle
d. Volume of water
2. Draven wants to construct an open box with a square base for the cat of his brother Darius. It's
to be made from a square piece of Hextech sheet by cutting out a 3cm square from each corner
and folding up the sides. The box is to hold 48 cu. cm.
From the information given, what are the measurements of the following?
a. Side length of the Hextech sheet
b. Area of the cut squares
Maybe Darius is gonna need a bigger box for his cat?

Week 8
Cone, Pyramid, Prismatoid, and Sphere
Objectives
❖ Define and explain what are cones, pyramids, and spheres
❖ Solve and evaluate problems concerning these figures
Topics Covered
1. Cone
2. Pyramid
3. Prismatoid
4. Sphere
Introduction
For the penultimate week, you’ll learn about mensuration of cones, pyramids, and spheres. These
figures are important in the fields of architecture (construction of structures), engineering
(structures involving signal distribution, thermodynamics, etc.) and even astronomy (gravity,
orbit of solids, etc.).
Cones
❖ It is essentially a cylinder in which one of the bases is collapsed into a single point at the
center of the base.
❖ The height/altitude of a cone is the perpendicular distance of the vertex (apex) to the
base of the cone
❖ Formulas to remember
o Area
Figure 8.1 Lateral Surface of a Cone

▪ 𝐿𝑆𝐴 = 𝜋𝑟ℓ
• The lateral surface area of the cone looks like a sector of a circle
wherein ℓ is the slant height of the cone
▪ 𝑇𝑆𝐴 = 𝐿𝑆𝐴 + 𝐴𝐵
• Wherein AB is the area of the base (which is a circle)

o Volume
Figure 8.2 Volume of a Cone

1
▪
𝑉=3 (𝜋𝑟 2 )ℎ
▪
The volume of a cone – be it a right or an oblique – follows the general
formula of the volume of the pyramid but having B as the area of the
circular base
❖ Frustum of a cone
o This is the portion of the cone that is included between the base and a section
parallel to the base
o Figure 8.3 shows how a frustum of a cone looks like
Figure 8.3 Frustum of a Cone

o Formulas involving the frustum
▪ Area
• 𝐿𝑆𝐴 = 𝜋(𝑟 + 𝑅)𝑆 where 𝑆 = √(𝑅 − 𝑟)2 + ℎ2
o r: the radius of the upper base
o R: radius of the lower base
o h: altitude of the frustum
o S: slant height of the frustum
• 𝑇𝑆𝐴 = 𝐿𝑆𝐴 + 𝐵1 + 𝐵2
o Add all the areas of the “faces” involved
▪ Volume
ℎ
• 𝑉 = 3 (𝐵1 + 𝐵2 + √𝐵1 𝐵2 )
o B1 and B2 are the areas of the respective top and bottom
bases
o h: altitude of the frustum of the cone

Pyramid
❖ A polyhedron of which one face, usually the base, is a polygon of any number of sides and
its other faces are triangles which have a common vertex
❖ Figure 8.4 shows the different types of pyramid
Figure 8.4 Types of Pyramids

(n.d.). https://3dobjects.weebly.com/uploads/1/3/8/8/13883717/4778373.jpg?840
❖ Now let’s look at the formulas for pyramids

o Area
1
▪ 𝐿𝑆𝐴 = 2 𝑃ℓ
• This is valid for regular pyramids only
• ℓ: length of the lateral edge
▪ 𝑇𝑆𝐴 = 𝐵 + 𝐿𝑆𝐴
• B is the area of the base
o Volume
1
▪ 𝑉 = 3 𝐵ℎ
❖ Frustum of a pyramid
o The portion of the pyramid included between the base and a section parallel to
the base
o Formulas
Figure 8.5 Frustum of a Pyramid

▪ Area
• 𝐿𝑆𝐴 = 𝐴𝐹 𝑛
o Where AF is the area of a single face (lateral)
o n: number of lateral faces
• 𝑇𝑆𝐴 = 𝐿𝑆𝐴 + 𝐵1 + 𝐵2
▪ Volume
ℎ
• 𝑉 = 3 (𝐵1 + 𝐵2 + √𝐵1 𝐵2 )

❖ Time for the terms that you need to remember

o Bases
▪ The parallel circular planes
o LSA (Lateral Surface Area)
▪ The cylindrical surface
o TSA (Total Surface Area)
▪ I guess you know what this is right?
o Altitude
▪ The perpendicular distance between the bases
▪ If the cylinder is a right cylinder, we call this as the height (h)
▪ But altitude works for all types of cylinders
o Right section
▪ Section perpendicular to all the elements
❖ Formulas to play with
o Lateral Surface Area
▪ 𝐿𝑆𝐴 = 2𝜋𝑟ℎ
o Total Surface Area
▪ 𝑇𝑆𝐴 = 2𝜋𝑟 2 + 2𝜋𝑟ℎ
▪ 𝑇𝑆𝐴 = 𝐶(𝑟 + ℎ)
• Where C is the circumference of the bases
▪ Note: Either formula works. It’s just a matter of preference.
o Volume
▪ 𝑉 = 2𝜋𝑟 2 ℎ (For right cylinders)
▪ 𝑉 = 𝑅𝑒; 𝑅 = 𝐵 sin 𝜃 (For wrong… este oblique cylinders)
Prismatoid
❖ A polyhedron whose vertices all lie in two parallel planes where its lateral faces can be
trapezoids or triangles
❖ If both planes have the same number of vertices, and the lateral faces are either
parallelograms or trapezoids, it is called a prismoid
Figure 8.8 Prismatoid

Prismatoid. (2002, February 25). Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. Retrieved December 11, 2020, from
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prismatoid

❖ Volume
ℎ
o 𝑉 = 6 (𝐴1 + 𝐴3 + 4𝐴2 )
▪ This formula varies from textbook to textbook. Refer to Figure 8.8.
• A1 and A3 are the areas of the top and bottom part of the
prismatoid
• A2 (some materials refer this as the AM) is the area of the mid-
section of the prismatoid
Sphere
❖ A solid bounded by a closed surface whose set of all points is equidistant to a fixed point
called the center
❖ The surface of the sphere is called a spherical surface
Figure 8.9 The Sphere

❖ All plane sections of a sphere are circles
o The section of a sphere that contains the diameter of the sphere is called the great
circle
o Other sections are called small circle or minor circles
❖ Basic formulas of a sphere
o Surface Area
▪ 𝐴𝑆 = 4𝜋𝑟 2
• Surface area of the sphere is the totality of the spherical surface
o Volume
4
▪ 𝑉𝑆 = 3 𝜋𝑟 3

Miscellaneous (Parts of the Sphere)

In this section, we will discuss the parts of the sphere. These are taken from the textbook, Plane
and solid mensuration: A simplified approach by Earnhart, R. T. (2007) pp. 133-136

The area of a zone is the product of its altitude and the

circumference of a great circle of the sphere.


Examples
Problem 1
Solve for the LSA, TSA, and volume of the figure below. Assume that the solid is hollow.

Problem 2
Solve the LSA, TSA, and volume of the frustum below.

Problem 3
Determine the volume of the pyramid and the volume that is not occupied by it.
Problem 4
Find the volume of a spherical segment if the diameters of the bases are 10cm and 12cm
respectively and the height is 5cm.

Summary
In this module, you have learned the concepts and formulas of cone, pyramid, prismatoid, and
sphere.
Learning Evaluation
1. If the radius of a sphere is increased by 16%, its volume increases by how much?
2. Rakan bought a cup that is shaped as a conical frustum for Xayah's project. It has a volume of
2401 pi cubic units. One of the radii measures 14 units. The height of the frustum is 21 units.
Find the values of the following items:
a. The other radius
b. Slant height
c. LSA
d. TSA
Xayah uses 5 small cans of paint to color an area of 200 sq. units to ensure that the colors are
vibrant. To finish coloring this cup, she will use how many cans of paint?

3. Qiyana's water bottle, conveniently shaped as a cylinder, lies horizontally on a smooth flat
surface. It has a radius of 5.4cm and a central angle of 170o. If stands upright, its height is 20cm.
Provide the correct measurements.
a. Height of the water
b. Area of the wet portion
c. Volume of the water
d. Height of the water (when the cylinder is vertical)
Enough water left for her morning workout.
4. In preparation for their concert, K/DA members Akali and Kai'Sa are looking for pearl earrings.
While fitting them, Kai'Sa felt that the right earring is heavier than the other. The store manager
assured them that despite the size difference, the pearls weigh the same.
Akali, unconvinced, called Seraphine to disprove the manager's claims. She told her that the
earrings (both pearls) weigh 1260 cubic units. She discerns that their diameters are in the ratio
of 2:3.
After a while, Seraphine confirmed that the volumes are ___________ (L) and ___________ (R)
cubic units respectively. As usual, Ahri and Evelynn are impressed.
Looks like a discount is in order. ♫ I know, I know, you want some more ♫.

Week 9
Finals Review
Objectives
❖ Discuss and explain problems involving topics from Week 6 to 8
❖ Evaluate problems and their respective solutions
Introduction
This module contains solved problems that are based from the topics of Week 6 to 8. They are
presented in “handwritten” format to give that sense of “realism” (i.e. classroom or tutorial feel).
The colored version is available on your BB accounts if you need it.
Solved Examples
Problem 1
An edge of a cube of ice measures 15 units. Assuming that it melted in a perfect manner, the
new volume of the cube is 1/3 of the original.
Determine the following:
a) Volume of the original and “melted” ice cube
b) TSA of the original and “melted” ice cube

Problem 2
How many square meters of a material is needed to create an open top rectangular solid whose
volume is 54 m3? Assume that the length and width are of the same measurement and that the
height is twice the length.
Problem 3
Find the volume and the TSA of the prism shown in the figure below.

Problem 4
The volume of a rectangular prism is 103680ft3. Find the length of its dimensions if they are in
the ratio of 3:4:5. (Hint: L:W:H)
Problem 5
How many gallons of paint are needed to paint the walls of a conference hall that is 120ft long,
9ft high, and 25ft wide if 1 gallon of paint can cover 520ft?

Problem 6
The bases of a triangular prism are 14ft apart. Find the LSA, TSA, and volume of the prism if one
side of the equilateral triangular base measures 4.6ft.
Problem 7
Given the trough – illustrated below – determine the following:
a) What is the volume of trough?
b) If the height of the water inside is 3.5 units, what is the volume of the water?
c) What is the area of the wet areas of the trough?

Problem 8
A closed cylindrical tank that is 7ft high and has a diameter of 4ft contains water with a depth of
5ft. What would be the height of the water if the tank is laid down horizontally?

Problem 9
A triangular trough, dimensions below, is filled with water at a depth of 6 units. What is the
volume of the unfilled region and the area of the dry parts?

Problem 10
The volume of a right conical frustum is 3500πcm3. If the radius of the lower base is 17cm and it
has a height of 30cm, determine the following
a) LSA
b) TSA

Problem 11
A Styrofoam ball, shaped as a sphere obviously, is to be experimented by the students to see if
their calculations match the actual measurements. If the sphere has a radius of 10cm, determine
the following:
a) Surface area and volume of the ball
b) Volume and surface area of a spherical segment with two bases if the height is 2cm and
the radii are 1.5cm and 3cm respectively.
c) Volume of the spherical sector is the height is 4cm


Answers for Learning Evaluations

Week 1

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UNIVERSITY OF NUEVA CACERES COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND ARCHITECTURE

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Figure 1.1 Points

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Figure 1.2 Lines 1

Figure 1.3 Lines 2

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Figure 1.4 Lines 3

Figure 1.5 Broken Lines

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Figure 1.6 Collinear and Midpoint

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❖ Additional terms for angles

Figure 1.7 Plane figures

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2. Can two distinct straight lines intersect more than once?

3. Complete the table

Please round your answers to two decimal places.

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Mathematically and geometrically, a polygon is a two-dimensional closed figure that is bounded

Before we proceed to wide array of polygons, we need to understand some mathematical

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Figure 2.1 Parts of a Polygon

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Figure 2.2 Types of Polygons

❖ How about regular polygons?

Ratio and Proportion

By ratio and proportion, we have two

❖ How to use the formulas?

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❖ Now for some calculations

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Let’s proceed to the collection of formulas, shall we?

Let do some problems involving these formulas.

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b. What is the central angle?

3. If a polygon has 27 diagonals,

b. How many triangles can be drawn inside the polygon?

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Anyways, let’s start with Week 3!

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Figure 3.1 Euler diagram of triangle types

Figure 3.2 Classification of triangles according to sides

Figure 3.3 Classification of triangles according to angles

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Figure 3.3 Median of a triangle

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Figure 3.4 Altitude/height of a triangle

Figure 3.5 Illustration of the 6th principle

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Figure 3.6 Classifications of Quadrilaterals

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Formulas for Quadrilaterals