PHYSICS

INVESTIGATORY
PROJECT

By-Ayush Dowerah
[SEMICONDUCTORS]
Class-12 A
This project aims to throw a light on subject of
semiconductor and their uses in our life and its
N.P.S International
working principles.
School
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

First of all I am thankful to my teacher Mr.

Rajesh Kapoor for giving me the opportunity to
do this wonderful project on Semiconductors and
also guiding and helping me to complete this
project.

I would also like to thank my school for allowing

us the opportunity to undertake such projects
and also providing us with the requisite facilities
for the same.

Lastly i would like to thank my parents and all my

friends who have helped and have been there
with me and supported me to complete this
project within the given time frame.
INDEX
Sl.No Topi Page
. c No.

1. Introduction 1
2. Semiconductor-Definition and 2
Theory
3. Types of Semiconductors 4
4. Electrical Resistivity of 8
Semiconductors
INTRODUCTION

Most of the solids can be placed in one of the two classes:

Metals and insulators. Metals are those through which
electric charge can easily flow, while insulators are those
through which electric charge is difficult to flow. This
distinction between the metals and the insulators can be
explained on the basis of the number of free electrons in
them. Metals have a large number of free electrons which act
as charge carriers, while insulators have practically no free
electrons.

There are however, certain solids whose electrical

conductivity is intermediate
between metals and
insulators. They are called
‘Semiconductors’. Carbon,
silicon and germanium are
examples of semiconductors.
In semiconductors the outer
most electrons are neither so
rigidly bound with the atom as
in an insulator, nor so loosely
bound as in metal.
At absolute zero a semiconductor becomes an ideal insulator
SEMICONDUCTORS-THEORY
AND DEFINITION

Semiconductors are the materials whose electrical

conductivity lies in between metals and insulator. The energy
band structure of the semiconductors is similar to the
insulators but in their case, the size of the forbidden energy
gap is much smaller than that of the insulator. In this class of
crystals, the forbidden gap is of the order of about 1ev, and
the two energy bands are distinctly separate with no
overlapping. At absolute “0” temperature, no electron has
any energy even to jump the forbidden gap and reach the
conduction band. Therefore the substance is an insulator.
But when we heat the crystal and thus provide some energy to
the atoms and their electrons, it becomes an easy matter for
some electrons to jump the small (  1 ev) energy gap and go
to conduction band. Thus at higher temperatures, the crystal
becomes a conductors. This is the specific property of the
crystal which is known as a semiconductor.
 Image showing the energy band structures
in different materials

Effect of temperature on conductivity of

Semiconductor

At 0K, all semiconductors are insulators. The valence band

at absolute zero is completely filled and there are no free
electrons in conduction band. At room temperature the
electrons jump to the conduction band due to the thermal
energy. When the temperature increases, a large number of
electrons cross over the forbidden gap and jump from valence
to conduction band. Hence conductivity of semiconductor
increases with temperature.
TYPES OF SEMICONDUCTORS

INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTORS

Pure semiconductors are called intrinsic semi-

conductors. In a pure semiconductor, each atom behaves as
if there are 8 electrons in its valence shell and therefore the
entire material behaves as an insulator at low temperatures.
A semiconductor atom needs energy of the order of 1.1ev to
shake off the valence electron. This energy becomes available
to it even at room temperature. Due to thermal agitation of
crystal structure, electrons from a few covalent bonds come
out. The bond from which electron is freed, a vacancy is
created there. The vacancy in the covalent bond is called a
hole.
This hole can be filled by some other electron in a covalent
bond. As an electron from covalent bond moves to fill the
hole, the hole is created in the covalent bond from which the
electron has moved. Since the direction of movement of the
hole is opposite to that of the negative electron, a hole
behaves as a positive charge carrier. Thus, at room
temperature, a pure semiconductor will have electrons and
holes wandering in random directions. These electrons and
holes are called intrinsic carriers.

As the crystal is neutral, the number of free electrons will be

equal to the number of holes. In an intrinsic semiconductor,
if ne denotes the electron number density in conduction
band, nh the hole number density in valence band and n i the
number density or concentration of charge carriers, then
ne = nh = ni

extrinsic semiconductors
As the conductivity of intrinsic semiconductors is poor, so
intrinsic semiconductors are of little practical importance.
The conductivity of pure semiconductor can, however be
enormously increased by addition of some pentavalent or a
trivalent impurity in a very small amount (about 1 to
106 parts of the semiconductor). The process of adding an
impurity to a pure semiconductor so as to improve its
conductivity is called doping. Such semiconductors are
called extrinsic semiconductors. Extrinsic semiconductors
are of two types :

i) ntype semiconductor
ii) ptype semiconductor
N-type semiconductor

When an impurity atom belonging to group V of the periodic

table like Arsenic is added to the pure semiconductor, then
four of the five impurity electrons form covalent bonds by
sharing one electron with each of the four nearest silicon
atoms, and fifth electron from each impurity atom is almost
free to conduct electricity. As the pentavalent impurity
increases the number of free electrons, it is called donor
impurity. The electrons so set free in the silicon crystal are
called extrinsic carriers and the ntype Sicrystal is called n
type extrinsic semiconductor. Therefore ntype Sicrystal will
have a large number of free electrons (majority carriers) and
have a small number of holes (minority carriers).
In terms of valence and conduction band one can think that
all such electrons create a donor energy level just below the
conduction band as shown in figure. As the energy gap
between donor energy level and the conduction band is very
small, the electrons can easily raise themselves to conduction
band even at room temperature. Hence, the conductivity of n
type extrinsic semiconductor is markedly increased.
In a doped or extrinsic semiconductor, the number density of
the conduction band (ne) and the number density of holes in
the valence band (nh) differ from that in a pure
semiconductor. If ni is the number density of electrons is
conduction band, then it is proved that
ne nh = ni2
P-type semiconductor

If a trivalent impurity like indium is added in pure semi

conductor, the impurity atom can provide only three valence
electrons for covalent bond formation. Thus a gap is left in
one of the covalent bonds. The gap acts as a hole that tends
to accept electrons. As the trivalent impurity atoms accept
electrons from the silicon crystal, it is called acceptor
impurity. The holes so created are extrinsic carriers and the
ptype Sicrystal so obtained is called ptype extrinsic
semiconductor. Again, as the pure Sicrystal also possesses a
few electrons and holes, therefore, the ptype sicrystal will
have a large number of holes (majority carriers) and a small
number of electrons (minority carriers).
It terms of valence and conduction band one can think that all
such holes create an accepter energy level just above the top
of the valance band as shown in figure. The electrons from
valence band can raise themselves to the accepter energy
level by absorbing thermal energy at room temperature and
in turn create holes in the valence band.
Number density of valence band holes (nh) in ptype
semiconductor is approximately equal to that of the acceptor
atoms (Na) and is very large as compared to the number
density of conduction band electrons (ne). Thus,
nh Na > > ne
ELECTRICAL RESISTIVITY OF
SEMICONDUCTORS

Consider a block of semiconductor of length l 1 area of cross

section A and having number density of electrons and holes
as ne and nh respectively. Suppose that on applying a
potential difference, say V, a current I flows through it as
shown in figure. The electron current (Ic) and the hole
current (Ih) constitute the current I flowing through the semi
conductor i.e.
I = Ie +
Ih (i)

It ne is the number density of conduction band

electrons in the semiconductor and ve, the drift velocity of
electrons then

Ie = eneAve

Similarly, the hole current, Ih = enhAvh

From (i) I = eneAve + enhAvh

I = eA(neve + nhvh) (ii)

 If  is the resistivity of the material of the
semiconductor, then the resistance offered by the
semiconductor to the flow of current is given by :

R =  l/A (iii)

Since V = RI, from equation (ii) and (iii) we have

V = RI =  l/A eA (neve + nh vh)

V =  le(neve + nhvh) (iv)

If E is the electric field set up across the semiconductor, then:

E = V/l
(v)

From equation (iv) and (v), we have

E = e (neve + nhvh)
 1/ = e (ne ve/E + nh vh/E)

On applying electric field, the drift velocity acquired by the

electrons (or holes) per unit strength of electric field is called
mobility of electrons (or holes). Therefore, mobility of
electrons and holes is given by :

e = ve/E and h = vh/E

1/ = e(ne e + nh h) (vi)

Also,  =1/ is called conductivity of the material of

semiconductor

 = e (ne e + nh h) (vii)

The relation (vi) and (vii) show that the conductivity and
resistivity of a semiconductor depend upon the electron and
hole number densities and their mobilities. As ne and
nh increases with rise in temperature, therefore, conductivity
of semiconductor increases with rise in temperature and
resistivity decreases with rise in temperature.

P-N JUNCTION

A p–n junction is a boundary or

interface between two types of
semiconductor material, p-type and n-
type, inside a single crystal
of semiconductor. The "p" (positive) side
contains an excess of holes, while the
"n" (negative) side contains an excess
of electrons. The p-n junction is created
by doping, for example by ion
implantation, diffusion of dopants, or
by epitaxy (growing a layer of crystal
doped with one type of dopant on top of
a layer of crystal doped with another
type of dopant).
Ap–n junction circuit symbol is shown: the triangle cor
to the p side.

If an external potential is applied to the

terminals of PN junction, it will alter the
potential between the P and N-regions.
This potential difference can alter the
flow of majority carriers, so that the PN
junction can be used as an opportunity
for the diffusion of electrons and holes.

If the voltage applied decreases the

width of the depletion layer, then the
diode is assumed to be in forward bias
and if the applied voltage increases the
depletion layer width then the diode is
assumed to be in reverse bias. If the
width of depletion layer do not alters
then it is in the zero bias state.
  Forward Bias: External voltage
decreases the built-in potential
barrier.
 Reverse Bias: External voltage
increases the built-in potential
barrier.
 Zero/No Bias: No external voltage is
applied.

PN Junction Diode When No

External Voltage is applied
In zero bias or thermal equilibrium state junction potential provides higher
potential energy to the holes on the P-side than the N-side. If the terminals of
junction diode are shorted, few majority charge carriers (holes) in the P side with
sufficient energy to surmount the potential barrier travel across the depletion
region.

Therefore, with the help of holes, current starts to flow in the diode and it is
referred to as forward current. In the similar manner, holes in the N side move
across the depletion region in reverse direction and the current generated in this
fashion is referred to as reverse current.

Potential barrier opposes the migration of electrons and holes across the junction
and allow the minority charge carriers to drift across the PN junction. As a result
of it, a state of equilibrium is established when the majority charge carriers are
equal in concentration on either side of the junction and when minority charge
carriers are moving in opposite directions.
A net zero current flows in the circuit and the junction is said to be in dynamic
equilibrium. By increasing the temperature of semiconductors, minority charge
carriers have been continuously generated and thereby leakage current starts to
rise. In general no conduction of electric current takes place because no external
source is connected to the PN junction.

Forward Biased Diode

With the externally applied voltage, a potential difference is altered between the P
and N regions.When positive terminal of the source is connected to the P side and
the negative terminal is connected to N side then the junction diode is said to be
connected in forward bias condition. Forward bias lowers the potential across the
PN junction.

The majority charge carriers in N and P regions are attracted towards the PN
junction and the width of the depletion layer decreases with diffusion of the
majority charge carriers. The external biasing causes a departure from the state of
equilibrium and a misalignment of Fermi levels in the P and N regions, and also in
the depletion layer.

So an electric field is induced in a direction converse to that of the incorporated

field. The presence of two different Fermi levels in the depletion layer represents
a state of quasi-equilibrium. The amount of charge Q stored in the diode is
proportional to the current I flowing in the diode.
With the increase in forward bias greater than the built in potential, at a particular
value the depletion region becomes very much thinner so that a large number of
majority charge carriers can cross the PN junction and conducts an electric
current. The current flowing up to built in potential is called as ZERO current or
KNEE current.

Forward Biased Diode

Characteristics
With the increase in applied external forward bias, the width of the depletion layer
becomes thin and forward current in a PN junction diode starts to increase abruptly
after the KNEE point of forward I-V characteristic curve.

Firstly, a small amount of current called as reverse saturation current exists due to
the presence of the contact potential and the related electric field.
While the electrons and holes are freely crossing the junction and causes
diffusion current that flows in the opposite direction to the reverse saturation
current.

The net result of applying forward bias is to reduce the height of the potential
barrier by an amount of eV. The majority carrier current in the PN junction diode
increases by an exponential factor of eV/kT. As result the total amount of current
becomes I = Is * exp(eV/kT), where Is is constant.

The excess free majority charge carrier holes and electrons that enter the N and P
regions respectively, acts as a minority carriers and recombine with the local
majority carriers in N and P regions. This concentration consequently decreases
with the distance from the PN junction and this process is named as minority
carrier injection.
The forward characteristic of a PN junction diode is non linear, i.e., not a straight
line. This type of forward characteristic shows that resistance is not constant
during the operation of the PN junction. The slope of the forward characteristic of
a PN junction diode will become very steep quickly.

This shows that resistance is very low in forward bias of the junction diode. The
value of forward current is directly proportional to the external power supply and
inversely proportional to the internal resistance of the junction diode.

Applying forward bias to the PN junction diode causes a low impedance path for
the junction diode, allows for conducting a large amount of current known as
infinite current. This large amount current starts to flow above the KNEE point in
the forward characteristic with the application of a small amount of external
potential.

The potential difference across the junction or at the two N and P regions is
maintained constant by the action of depletion layer. The maximum amount of
current to be conducted is kept limited by the load resistor, because when the
diode conducts more current than the usual specifications of the diode, the excess
current results in the dissipation of heat and also leads to severe damage of the
device.
Reverse Biased Diode
When positive terminal of the source is connected to the N side and the negative
terminal is connected to P side, then the junction diode is said to be connected in
reverse bias condition. In this type of connection majority charge carriers are
attracted away from the depletion layer by their respective battery terminals
connected to PN junction.

The Fermi level on N side is lower than the Fermi level on P side. Positive
terminal attracts the electrons away from the junction in N side and negative
terminal attracts the holes away from the junction in P side. As a result of it, the
width of the potential barrier increases that impedes the flow of majority carriers
in N side and P side.

The width of the free space charge layer increases, thereby electric field at the PN
junction increases and the PN junction diode acts as a resistor. But the time of
diode acting as a resistor is very low. There will be no recombination of majority
carriers taken place at the PN junction; thus, no conduction of electric current.

The current that flows in a PN junction diode is the small leakage current, due to
minority carriers generated at the depletion layer or minority carriers which drift
across the PN junction. Finally, the result is that the growth in the width of the
depletion layer presents a high impedance path which acts as an insulator.
In reverse bias condition, no current flows through the PN junction diode with
increase in the amount of applied external voltage. However, leakage current due
to minority charge carriers flows in the PN junction diode that can be measured in
micro amperes.

As the reverse bias potential to the PN junction diode increases ultimately leads
to PN junction reverse voltage breakdown and the diode current is controlled by
external circuit. Reverse breakdown depends on the doping levels of the P and N
regions.

With the increase in reverse bias further, PN junction diode become short circuited
due to overheat in the circuit and maximum circuit current flows in the PN
junction diode.
Reverse Biased Diode Characteristics:

V-I Characteristics of PN Junction Diode

In the current–voltage characteristics of junction diode, from the first quadrant in

the figure current in the forward bias is incredibly low if the input voltage applied
to the diode is lower than the threshold voltage (Vr). The threshold voltage is
additionally referred to as cut-in voltage.
Once the forward bias input voltage surpasses the cut-in voltage (0.3 V for germanium
diode, 0.6-0.7 V for silicon diode), the current spectacularly increases, as a result the
diode functions as short-circuit.

The reverse bias characteristic curve of diode is shown in the fourth quadrant of
the figure above. The current in the reverse bias is low till breakdown is reached
and therefore the diode looks like as open circuit. When the reverse bias input
voltage has reached the breakdown voltage, reverse current increases
spectacularly.

PN Diode Ideal and Real Characteristics

For ideal characteristics, the total current in the PN junction diode is constant
throughout the entire junction diode. The individual electron and hole currents are
continuous functions and are constant throughout the junction diode.

The real characteristics of PN Junction diode varies with the applied external
potential to the junction that changes the properties of junction diode. The
junction diode acts as short circuit in forward bias and acts as open circuit in
reverse bias.