Principles of Flight

PRINCIPLES OF FLIGHT

- 081 04 Stability
• Static Directional Stability
• Static Lateral Stability

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 Principles of Flight

This Presentation
• Static Directional Stability
– Sideslip Angle β
– Yaw Moment Coefficient Cn
– Cn vs β Graph
– Factors affecting

• Static Lateral Stability

– Bank Angle Φ
– The roll moment
– Contribution of Sideslip β
– Cl vs β Graph
– Factors affecting

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 Principles of Flight

Syllabus Progress

POF 1-3 POF 4-6 POF 7-9 POF 10-12 POF 13-15

POF 16-18 POF 19-21 POF 22-24 POF 25-27 POF 28-30

POF 31-33 POF 34-36 POF 37-39 POF 40-42 POF 43-45

POF 46-48 POF 49-51 POF 52-54 OPS 55-57 OPS 58-60

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 Principles of Flight

Static Directional Stability

The directional stability of an aeroplane involves moments about the normal axis and their
relationship with yaw or sideslip angle.

Evidence of static directional stability would be the development of yawing moments which
tend to restore the aeroplane to equilibrium.

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 Principles of Flight

Yaw Moment Coefficient - Cn

The axis system of an aeroplane defines a positive yawing moment, N, as a moment about the
normal axis which tends to rotate the nose to the right. As in other aerodynamic considerations,
it is convenient to consider yawing moments in the coefficient form so that static stability can
be evaluated independent of weight, altitude, speed, etc.
The yawing moment, N, is defined in the coefficient form by the following equation:
𝑁
𝐶𝑛 =
𝑄. 𝑆. 𝑏
Where:
N – Yawing Moment
Q – Dynamic Pressure
S – Wing Area
B – Wingspan
Cn – Yawing Moment Coefficient (positive to the right)
The yawing moment coefficient, Cn, is based on the wing dimensions S and b as the wing is the
characteristic surface of the aeroplane.
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Sideslip Angle β
The sideslip angle relates the displacement of the aeroplane centre line from the relative
airflow.

Sideslip angle is provided the symbol β (beta) and is positive when the relative wind is displaced
to the right of the aeroplane centre line.

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 Principles of Flight

Sideslip Angle β
The sideslip angle, β, is essentially the “directional angle of attack” of the aeroplane and is the
primary reference in directional stability as well as lateral stability considerations. Static
directional stability of the aeroplane is appreciated by response to sideslip.

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 Principles of Flight

Cn vs β Graph
Static directional stability can be illustrated by a graph of yawing moment coefficient, Cn, versus
sideslip angle, β.

When the aeroplane is subject to a positive sideslip angle, static directional stability will be
evident if a positive yawing moment coefficient results. Thus, when the relative airflow comes
from the right (+β ) a yawing moment to the right (+Cn) should be created which tends to return
the nose into the wind.

• Static directional stability will exist when the curve of Cn vs β has a positive slope, and the
degree of stability will be a function of the slope of this curve.

• If the curve has zero slope, there is no tendency to return to equilibrium, and neutral static
directional stability exists.

• When the curve of Cn vs β has a negative slope, the yawing moments developed by sideslip
tend to diverge rather than restore, and static directional instability exists.

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 Principles of Flight

Cn vs β Graph
The instantaneous slope of the curve of Cn vs β will describe the static directional stability of the
aeroplane.

• At small angles of sideslip, a strong positive slope depicts strong directional stability.
• Large angles of sideslip produce zero slope and neutral stability.
• At very high sideslip, the negative slope of the curve indicates directional instability.

This decay of directional stability with increased sideslip is not an unusual condition. However,
directional instability should not occur at the angles of sideslip of ordinary flight conditions.

Static directional stability must be in evidence for all the critical conditions of flight.
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Factors affecting Static Directional Stability

Fuselage

The aerodynamic force that is created by the fuselage is destabilizing. This side force acts
through the fuselage aerodynamic centre (AC), which is close to the quarter-length point. If this
aerodynamic centre is ahead of aircraft centre of gravity, as is usually the case, the effect is
destabilizing.

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Factors affecting Static Directional Stability

Dorsal and Ventral Fins

To overcome the instability in the fuselage it is possible to incorporate into the overall design
dorsal or ventral fins. A dorsal fin is a small aerofoil, of very low aspect ratio, mounted on top of
the fuselage near the rear. A ventral fin is mounted below.

If the aircraft is yawed to the right, the dorsal and ventral fins will create a side force to the
right. The line of action of this force is well aft of the aircraft CG, giving a yawing moment to the
left (a stabilizing effect). However, at small angles of yaw they are ineffective.
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 Principles of Flight

Factors affecting Static Directional Stability

Dorsal and Ventral Fins

The side force created by dorsal and ventral fins at small sideslip angles will be very small
because they are at a low angle of attack, have a small surface area, and their aspect ratio is
very low, resulting in a small lift curve slope.

When fitted with dorsal and ventral fins, a fuselage which is unstable in yaw will remain
unstable at low sideslip angles. Dorsal and ventral fins become more effective at relatively high
sideslip angles. Due to their low aspect ratio, they do not tend to stall at any sideslip angle
which an aircraft is likely to experience in service.
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Factors affecting Static Directional Stability

Fin (Vertical Stabilizer)

The fin (vertical stabilizer) is the major source of directional stability for the aeroplane. In a
sideslip the fin will experience a change in angle of attack. The change in lift (side force) on the
fin creates a yawing moment about the centre of gravity which tends to yaw the aeroplane into
the relative airflow. The magnitude of the fin contribution to static directional stability depends
on the change in fin lift and moment arm. The fin moment arm is a powerful factor.

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Factors affecting Static Directional Stability

Wing and Nacelles

The contribution of the wing to static directional stability is usually small:

• The contribution of a straight wing alone is usually negligible;

• Sweepback produces a stabilizing effect, which increases with increase in CL (at lower IAS);

• Engine nacelles produce a contribution that will depend on their size and position and the
shape of the wing planform. On a straight wing, their effect is usually destabilizing.

A swept wing provides a stable contribution depending on the amount of sweepback, but the
contribution is relatively weak when compared with other components.

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Factors affecting Static Directional Stability

Wing and Nacelles

The inclination of the forward, right, wing to the relative airflow is greater than that of the
rearward wing, so there is more lift and, hence, more induced drag, on the right side, (the
influence of increased lift on the forward wing will be explained when lateral static stability is
considered). The result of this discrepancy in drag on the two sides of the wing is a yawing
moment to the right, which tends to eliminate the sideslip. This is a stabilizing effect, and may
be important if the sweepback angle is quite large.

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Factors affecting Static Directional Stability

As shown by the graph of Cn vs β, the contribution of the fuselage is destabilizing, but the
instability decreases at large sideslip angles. The contribution of the fin alone is highly
stabilizing up to the point where the surface begins to stall. The contribution of the fin must be
large enough so that the complete aeroplane exhibits the required degree of stability.

The dorsal fin has a powerful effect on preserving the directional stability at large angles of
sideslip which would produce stall of the fin.
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Factors affecting Static Directional Stability

Power Effect

The effects of power on static directional stability are similar to the power effects on static
longitudinal stability. The direct effect is confined to the normal force at the propeller plane
and, is destabilizing when the propeller is located ahead of the CG.

In addition, the air in the slipstream behind a propeller spirals around the fuselage. The indirect
effects of power induced velocities and flow direction changes at the fin (spiral slipstream
effect) are quite significant for the propeller driven aeroplane and can produce large directional
trim changes. As in the longitudinal case, the indirect effects are negligible for the jet powered
aeroplane.

The contribution of the direct and indirect power effects to static directional stability is greatest
for the propeller powered aeroplane and usually slight for the jet powered aeroplane. In either
case, the general effect of power is destabilizing and the greatest contribution will occur at
high power and low dynamic pressure.

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Factors affecting Static Directional Stability

Centre of Gravity

Centre of gravity position has a relatively negligible effect on static directional stability. The
usual range of CG position on any aeroplane is set by the limits of longitudinal stability and
control. Within this limiting range of CG position, no significant changes take place in the
contribution of the vertical tail, fuselage, nacelles, etc. Hence, static directional stability is
essentially unaffected by the variation of CG position within the longitudinal limits.

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Factors affecting Static Directional Stability

High Angle of Attack

When the aeroplane is at a high angle of attack a decrease in static directional stability can be
anticipated. High angle of attack reduces the stable slope of the curve of Cn vs β. The decrease
in static directional stability is due in great part to the reduction in the contribution of the fin. At
high angles of attack, the effectiveness of the fin is reduced. The decay of directional stability
with angle of attack is most significant for an aeroplane with sweepback since this configuration
requires a high angle of attack to achieve high lift coefficients.

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Coffee Break

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Static Lateral Stability

The static lateral stability of an aeroplane involves consideration of rolling moments due to
sideslip.

If an aeroplane has favourable rolling moment due to a sideslip, a lateral displacement from
wing level flight produces a sideslip, and the sideslip creates a rolling moment tending to return
the aeroplane to wing level flight

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Rolling Moment Coefficient - Cl

The axis system of an aeroplane defines a positive rolling, L, as a moment about the longitudinal
axis which tends to rotate the right wing down. As in other aerodynamic considerations, it is
convenient to consider rolling moments in the coefficient form so that lateral stability can be
evaluated independent of weight, altitude, speeds, etc.
The rolling moment, L, is defined in the coefficient form by the following equation:
𝐿
𝐶𝑙 =
𝑄. 𝑆. 𝑏
Where:
L – Rolling Moment (positive to the right)
Q – Dynamic Pressure
S – Wing Area
b – Wingspan
Cl – Rolling Moment Coefficient (positive to the right)
The yawing moment coefficient, Cn, is based on the wing dimensions S and b as the wing is the
characteristic surface of the aeroplane.
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Bank Angle Φ
The bank angle, or roll angle is the angle between the vertical plane and the aeroplane’s normal
axis.

Bank angle is represented by the symbol Φ (phi) and is positive when the bank is to the right of
the aeroplane centre line.

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Static Lateral Stability

Static lateral stability can be illustrated by a graph of Cl vs β. When the aeroplane is subject to a
positive sideslip angle, lateral stability will be evident if a negative rolling moment coefficient
results.

Thus, when the relative airflow comes from the right (+β), a rolling moment to the left (-Cl)
should be created which tends to roll the aeroplane to the left.

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Static Lateral Stability

Lateral stability will exist when the curve of Cl vs β has a negative slope and the degree of
stability will be a function of the slope of this curve.

If the slope of the curve is zero, neutral lateral stability exists; if the slope is positive, lateral
instability is present.

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 Principles of Flight

Static Lateral Stability

It is desirable to have static lateral stability (favourable roll due to sideslip). However, the
required magnitude of lateral stability is determined by many factors.

Excessive roll due to sideslip complicates crosswind take-off and landing and may lead to
undesirable oscillatory coupling with the directional motion of the aeroplane.

In addition, high lateral stability may combine with adverse yaw to hinder rolling performance.
Good handling qualities are obtained with a relatively light, or weak positive, lateral stability.
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Factors affecting Static Lateral Stability

In order to appreciate the development of lateral stability in an aeroplane, each of the
components which contribute must be inspected.

There will be interference between the components, which will alter the contribution to
stability of each component on the aeroplane.

Wing

The principal surface contributing to the lateral stability of an aeroplane is the wing. The effect
of geometric dihedral is a powerful contribution to lateral stability.

A wing with geometric dihedral will develop stable rolling moments with sideslip. If the relative
wind comes from the side, the wing into the wind is subject to an increase in angle of attack and
develops an increase in lift. The wing away from the wind is subject to a decrease in angle of
attack and develops a decrease in lift. The

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Factors affecting Static Lateral Stability

Wing

The changes in lift gives a rolling moment tending to raise the into-wind wing, hence geometric
dihedral contributes a stable roll due to sideslip.

Since geometric dihedral is so powerful in producing lateral stability it is taken as a common

denominator of the lateral stability contribution of all other components. Generally, the
contribution of wing position, flaps, power, etc., is expressed as “DIHEDRAL EFFECT”.

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Factors affecting Static Lateral Stability

Wing Position

The contribution of the fuselage alone is usually quite small; depending on the location of the
resultant aerodynamic side force on the fuselage.

However, the effect of the wing - fuselage - tail combination is significant since the vertical
placement of the wing on the fuselage can greatly affect the combination.

A wing located at the mid wing position will generally exhibit a “dihedral effect” no different
from that of the wing alone.

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Factors affecting Static Lateral Stability

Wing Position

A low wing position gives an unstable contribution. The direction of relative airflow decreases
the effective angle of attack of the wing into wind and increases the effective angle of attack of
the wing out of wind - tending to increase the rolling moment.

A high wing gives a stable contribution, generally not requiring geometric dihedral. The
direction of relative airflow increases the effective AoA of the wing into wind and decreases the
effective angle of attack of the wing out of wind, tending to decrease the rolling moment.

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Factors affecting Static Lateral Stability

Sweepback

If the wing is at a positive lift coefficient, the wing into the wind has less sweep and an increase
in lift, and the wing out of the wind has more sweep and a decrease in lift; a negative rolling
moment will be generated, tending to roll the wings towards level.

In this manner the swept-back wing contributes a positive “dihedral effect”. (A swept-forward
wing would give a negative dihedral effect).

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Factors affecting Static Lateral Stability

Sweepback

The contribution of sweepback to “dihedral effect” is proportional to the wing lift coefficient as
well as the angle of sweepback.

Because high speed flight requires a large amount of sweepback, an excessively high “dihedral
effect” will be present at low speeds (high CL). An aircraft with a swept-back wing requires less
geometric dihedral than a straight wing.

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Factors affecting Static Lateral Stability

The Fin and Ventral Fin

The fin can provide a small “dihedral effect” contribution. If the fin is large, the side force
produced by sideslip may produce a rolling moment as well as the important yawing moment
contribution. The fin contribution to purely lateral static stability is usually very small.

The ventral fin, being below the aircraft CG, has a negative influence on lateral static stability.

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Questions

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Revisions (1)
To overcome the directional instability in the fuselage it is possible to incorporate into the overall
dorsal or ________
design _______ ventral fins.

fin is the major source of directional stability for the aeroplane.

The _____

A ___
T - tail makes the fin more effective by acting as an “____
end plate”.

dorsal fin stalls at a very much higher angle of attack, it takes over the stabilizing
Because the _______
role of the fin at large angles of sideslip.

Sweepback produces a directional stabilizing effect, which increases with increase in CL.
___________

Ventral fins increase directional stability at _____

_________ high angles of attack. Landing clearance
requirements may limit their size, require them to be retractable, or require two smaller ventral
fins to be fitted instead of one large one.

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Revisions (2)
light or weak
Generally, good handling qualities are obtained with a relatively _____, ____ positive, lateral
stability.

wing The effect

The principal surface contributing to the lateral stability of an aeroplane is the _____.
of geometric _________
dihedral is a powerful contribution to lateral stability.

A low wing position gives an ________

unstable contribution to static lateral stability.

A _____
high wing location gives a stable contribution to static lateral stability.

The magnitude of “dihedral effect” contributed by the vertical position of the wing is _____
large and
may require a noticeable dihedral angle for the _____
low wing configuration. A high wing position,
on the other hand, usually requires ___
no geometric ________
dihedral at all.

The ______
swept back wing contributes a positive “dihedral effect”.

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Revisions (3)
An aircraft with a swept-back wing requires _____
less geometric dihedral than a straight wing.

small
The fin contribution to purely lateral static stability, is usually very ______.

reduced dihedral effect.

Deploying partial span flaps gives a _________

A swept-back wing requires much less geometric dihedral than a straight wing. If a requirement
also exists for the wing to be mounted on top of the fuselage, an additional “dihedral effect” is
present. A high mounted and swept-back wing would give excessive “dihedral effect”, so
_________
anhedral is used to reduce “dihedral effect” to the required level.

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Sample Questions (1)

• The effect of a positive wing sweep on static directional stability is as follows:

a) Stabilizing effect;

b) No effect;

c) Destabilizing dihedral effect;

d) Negative dihedral effect.

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Sample Questions (2)

• An aeroplane has static directional stability, in a sideslip to the right, initially the:

a) Right wing tends to go down;

b) Nose of the aeroplane will remain in the same direction;

c) Nose of the aeroplane tends to move to the left;

d) Nose of the aeroplane tends to move to the right.

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Sample Questions (3)

• The effect of a high wing with zero dihedral is as follows:

a) Its only purpose is to ease aeroplane loading;

b) Negative dihedral effect;

c) Positive dihedral effect;

d) Zero dihedral effect.

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Sample Questions (4)

• Which of the following lists airplane features that each increase static lateral
stability?

a) Low wing, dihedral, elliptical wing planform;

b) High wing, sweep back, large and high vertical fin;

c) Fuselage mounted engines, dihedral, T-tail;

d) Sweep back, under wing mounted engines, winglets.

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Sample Questions (5)

• Which type of wing arrangement decreases the static lateral stability of an
aeroplane?

a) Anhedral;

b) Dihedral;

c) High wing;

d) Increased wingspan.

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Sample Questions (6)

• The effect of a ventral fin on the static stability of an aeroplane is as follows
:(1=longitudinal, 2=lateral, 3=directional)?

a) 1 : no effect, 2 : positive, 3: negative;

b) 1 : positive, 2 : negative, 3 : negative;

c) 1 : negative, 2 : positive, 3 : positive;

d) 1 : no effect, 2 : negative, 3 : positive.

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Sample Questions (7)

• Dihedral of the wing:

a) Is the only way to increase the static lateral stability;

b) Increases the static lateral stability;

c) Is only positive for aeroplanes with high mounted wings;

d) Decreases the static lateral stability.

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Sample Questions (8)

• Which statement is correct for a side slip condition at constant speed and side
slip angle, where the geometric dihedral of an aeroplane is increased ?

a) The required lateral control force does not change;

b) The required lateral control force decreases;

c) The required lateral control force increases;

d) The stick force per g decreases.

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Sample Questions (9)

• Compared to straight wings, swept back wings have:

a) Less directional stability;

b) Better longitudinal stability;

c) Better directional stability;

d) Less longitudinal stability.

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Sample Questions (10)

• Stability around the normal axis:

a) Is increased if the keel surface behind the CG is increased;

b) Is given by the lateral dihedral;

c) Depends on the longitudinal dihedral;

d) Is greater if the wing has no sweepback.

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Sample Questions (11)

• A yaw damper:

a) Increases rudder effectiveness;

b) Must be disengaged before making a turn;

c) Augments stability;

d) Increases the rate of yaw.

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See you next Class!

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