PMFIAS Physical Geography First Edition PDF Sample
PMFIAS Physical Geography First Edition PDF Sample
PMFIAS Physical Geography First Edition PDF Sample
Publisher’s Address: PMF IAS, Manjunath Thamminidi, #160 Butaldinni Depo, Sindhnur, Raichur – 584128, Karnataka
First Edition, September 2022
ISBN: 978-93-5593-095-8
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Acknowledgements
Team PMF IAS sincerely thanks all our contributors and supporters for helping us sustain the PMF IAS Initiative. You
remain our cornerstone, and we are very much obliged and grateful to you.
I wholeheartedly thank my family, especially my wife Shravani Thamminidi, for their constant support and forbearance.
Dedicated to
All PMF IAS Contributors and Supporters
My Eternal Strength – My Family and My Wife, Shravani Thamminidi (Co-founder, PMF IAS)
Manjunath Thamminidi,
1. UPSC Prelims: Indian & World Geography: Physical, Social, Economic Geography of India & the World.
2. UPSC Civil Services Mains GS I:
Distribution of key natural resources across the world including South Asia and the Indian sub-continent; factors
responsible for the location of primary, secondary, and tertiary sector industries in various parts of the world
including India. [Will be covered in the upcoming PMF IAS Indian and Economic Geography Book]
Important Geophysical phenomena such as earthquakes, Tsunami, Volcanic activity, cyclone etc. [Covered in this
book]
Geographical features and their location, changes in critical geographical features (including water-bodies and
polar ice caps) and, in flora and fauna and the effects of such changes. [Covered in this book + PMF IAS
Environment]
Critical geographical features Major Geographic Features that have a significant bearing on the re-
gional/global climate/ecosystems. Examples: The Himalayas, The Polar Ice Caps, The Great Barrier Reef, etc.
Salient features of world’s physical geography [Covered in this book].
Study Guide
Analyse the past 5-6 years’ UPSC CSE Prelims and Mains question papers to understand the pattern and nature of
questions asked from Physical Geography. (We have included Previous Year UPSC CSE Mains and Prelims questions
under relevant headings to make it easier for you to understand the nature of questions asked by the UPSC)
First Reading: Cover only the first few paragraphs (mostly the introduction part) of each topic to get a broader under-
standing of the scheme of things. Reanalyse the past 5-6 years’ UPSC CSE Prelims and Mains question papers.
Second Reading: Cover the entire book thoroughly.
Take a good test series for both Prelims and Mains to identify your strengths and weakness.
Revise, rerevise, practise test series and chart your own plan based on your strengths and weaknesses.
Colour Codes
We have used colour coding extensively to make it easier for you to understand what the key concepts
and focus-areas are. The colour codes are as follows:
Upcoming: PMF IAS Indian and Economic Geography | World Geography Mapping
Join PMF IAS Telegram Channel for Updates: https://t.me/pmfias_channel
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Contents
Unit 1: The Origin and Evolution of The Universe, Solar System and Earth
1. The Universe, The Big Bang Theory, Galaxies & Stellar Evolution .................................................................... 1
The Formation of the Solar System: Nuclear Disc Model (Neo-Laplacian model)............................................ 17
Earlier Theories ................................................................................................................................................................................ 17
The Formation of the Sun ........................................................................................................................................................... 17
The Formation of the Planets .................................................................................................................................................... 17
Iron Catastrophe and Planetary Differentiation ................................................................................................................. 18
2.2. Components of the Solar System ................................................................................................................ 19
Kepler's Laws of Planetary Motion .......................................................................................................................................... 21
2.3. The Sun ........................................................................................................................................................... 22
The Sun’s Internal Structure and Atmosphere .................................................................................................................... 23
2.4. Planets............................................................................................................................................................. 25
Inner Planets ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 27
Outer Planets.................................................................................................................................................................................... 31
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Unit 2: Geomorphology
4. Earth’s Interior ....................................................................................................................................................... 51
7.1. Major Concepts That Tried to Explain the Tectonic Processes ................................................................ 93
7.2. Continental Drift Theory............................................................................................................................... 93
Forces Behind The Drifting Of Continents (According to Wegener) ......................................................................... 95
Evidence in Support of Continental Drift .............................................................................................................................. 95
Drawbacks of Continental Drift Theory ................................................................................................................................. 98
7.3. Seafloor Spreading ........................................................................................................................................ 98
Convection Current Theory (CCT) ............................................................................................................................................ 98
Palaeomagnetism ........................................................................................................................................................................... 99
Evidence in Support of Seafloor Spreading ....................................................................................................................... 101
7.4. Plate Tectonics .............................................................................................................................................101
Major Tectonic Plates.................................................................................................................................................................. 102
Minor Tectonic Plates ................................................................................................................................................................. 105
Interaction of Tectonic Plates .................................................................................................................................................. 106
Evidence in Support of Plate Tectonics ............................................................................................................................... 107
The Significance of Plate Tectonics ....................................................................................................................................... 108
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9.1. Formation and Evolution of Rift Valleys, Rift Lakes, Seas, and Oceans ................................................126
Stage 1: Upwarping and Fault Zones ................................................................................................................................... 126
Stage 2: Rift Valley Formation ................................................................................................................................................. 126
Stage 3: Formation of Linear Sea or Rift Lakes ................................................................................................................. 128
Stage 4: Linear Sea Transforms Into Ocean ....................................................................................................................... 129
9.2. The Great Rift Valley ...................................................................................................................................129
Africa is Splitting ........................................................................................................................................................................... 129
Volcanism & Seismicity Along East African Rift Valley................................................................................................. 130
10. Types of Mountains.............................................................................................................................................132
14.1. Terms.............................................................................................................................................................177
Focus and Epicentre .................................................................................................................................................................... 177
Foreshocks, Aftershocks & Swarms ...................................................................................................................................... 177
14.2. Causes of Earthquakes ................................................................................................................................178
Fault Zones...................................................................................................................................................................................... 178
Plate Tectonics ............................................................................................................................................................................... 178
Volcanic Activity ............................................................................................................................................................................ 179
Human-Induced Earthquakes .................................................................................................................................................. 179
14.3. Earthquakes Based on The Depth of Focus ..............................................................................................179
Shallow-Focus Earthquakes ...................................................................................................................................................... 180
Deep-Focus Earthquakes ...........................................................................................................................................................180
Wadati–Benioff Zone: Earthquakes Along the Convergent Boundary .................................................................... 180
14.4. Distribution of Earthquakes .......................................................................................................................181
14.5. Richter Magnitude Scale .............................................................................................................................182
14.6. Most Powerful Earthquakes Ever Recorded .............................................................................................183
14.7. Notable Earthquakes ...................................................................................................................................184
14.8. Earthquake Zones of India..........................................................................................................................187
Earthquakes in Delhi NCR Region ......................................................................................................................................... 188
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Stage 3: Tropical Storm (63 Kmph < Maximum Sustained Wind Speed < 119 Kmph) .................................... 363
Stage 4: Tropical Cyclone (Maximum Sustained Wind Speed > 119 Kmph) ........................................................ 363
Convective Cyclogenesis Mechanism – Early stage ........................................................................................................ 364
Convective Cyclogenesis Mechanism – Mature stage ................................................................................................... 366
26.3. Breeding Grounds for Tropical Cyclones ..................................................................................................367
Regional Names For Tropical Cyclones ............................................................................................................................... 370
26.4. Path of Tropical Cyclones ...........................................................................................................................370
Which Sector Of The Cyclone Experiences The Strongest Winds? ........................................................................... 371
26.5. Tropical Cyclone Scale.................................................................................................................................371
Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Wind Scale .................................................................................................................................. 371
Tropical Cyclone Scale by Indian Meteorological Department .................................................................................. 372
26.6. Damage Associated with Tropical Cyclones .............................................................................................372
Floods ................................................................................................................................................................................................ 373
Wind .................................................................................................................................................................................................. 373
Storm Surge .................................................................................................................................................................................... 373
States Vulnerable to Cyclones ................................................................................................................................................. 374
26.7. Positive Effects of Tropical Cyclones .........................................................................................................376
Heat Balance................................................................................................................................................................................... 376
Tropical Cyclones Bring Rainfall To The Rain Shadow And Other Parched Regions ......................................... 376
Break Up Red Tide........................................................................................................................................................................ 376
Replenish Barrier Islands............................................................................................................................................................376
Speed Dispersal To Faraway Locations ................................................................................................................................ 376
26.8. Naming of Tropical Cyclones .....................................................................................................................376
Northern Indian Ocean Region ............................................................................................................................................... 377
26.9. Changing Cyclone Patterns in The Indian Ocean .....................................................................................377
Cyclone Patterns in The Arabian Sea .................................................................................................................................... 378
26.10. Twin Cyclones...............................................................................................................................................379
Fujiwhara Effect ............................................................................................................................................................................. 379
Madden-Julian Oscillation (MJO) ........................................................................................................................................... 380
Madden-Julian Oscillation’s Impact on Weather ............................................................................................................. 381
How Does MJO Help The Formation of Twin Cyclones? .............................................................................................. 381
26.11. Warning of Tropical Cyclones ....................................................................................................................382
4-Stage IMD Warning System For Tropical Cyclones .................................................................................................... 382
27. Jet streams ...........................................................................................................................................................383
Unit 4: Oceanography
31. Ocean Relief .........................................................................................................................................................479
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1. The Universe, The Big Bang Theory, Galaxies & Stellar Evolution
Basic Terms
Cosmos: another word for universe.
Cosmic: relating to the universe or cosmos.
Cosmic rays: highly energetic atomic nucleus or other particle travelling through space at a speed ap-
proaching that of light. Direct exposure to cosmic rays can cause gene mutations resulting in cancer.
Cosmology: the scientific study of the large-scale properties of the universe.
Cosmological: relating to the origin and development of the universe.
Astronomy: the scientific study of celestial objects (stars, planets, comets, etc.) and phenomena that orig-
inate outside the Earth's atmosphere (such as the solar wind, gravitational waves, etc.).
• The Universe is all existing matter & space. It is incomprehensively large (beyond mental grasp). It consists
of both physical (subatomic particles like electrons, protons to galactic super-clusters) and non-physical
(light, gravitation, space etc.) components.
• The universe, at present, is said to possess about 100 billion galaxies, each comprising an average of 100
billion stars. In comparison, Milky Way Galaxy is believed to possess 100 billion to 400 billion stars.
(1,000,000 = 1 Million = 10 Lakhs; 1,000,000,000 = 1 Billion = 100 Crore; 1,000,000,000,000 = 1 Trillion
• The Big Bang Theory is the prevailing cosmological model for the universe’s birth. It states that, 13.8
billion years ago, all of space was contained in a single point of very high-density and high-tempera-
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ture state from which the universe has been expanding in all directions ever since.
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The Evolution of The Universe Since the Big Bang
T in °C Event
Time
10-43 Sec 1032 The cosmos goes through a superfast “inflation,” expanding from the
size of an atom to that of a grapefruit in a tiny fraction of a second.
10-32 Sec 1027 Post-inflation, the universe is a seething, hot soup of electrons,
quarks, and other particles.
10-6 Sec 1013 A cooling cosmos permits quarks to clump into protons & neutrons.
3 min 108 Still too hot to form into atoms, charged electrons and protons pre-
vent light from shining.
3,00,000 years 103 Electrons combine with protons & neutrons to form atoms, mostly hy-
drogen & helium. Lithium & beryllium were formed in trace
amounts. Light can finally shine.
1 billion years -200 Gravity makes hydrogen and helium (primordial elements) coalesce
to form the giant clouds that will become galaxies; smaller clumps of
gas collapse to form the first stars.
15 billion years -270 As galaxies cluster together under the influence of gravity, the first
stars die and spew heavy elements into space: those will eventually
turn into new stars and planets.
2
The Formation of the Solar System: Nuclear Disc Model (Neo-Laplacian model)
Earlier Theories
• German philosopher Immanuel Kant’s Nebular Hypothesis (Theory) of Laplace (1796) tried to explain
the formation of the solar system. But it had many drawbacks as the theory was based on scientifically
erroneous assumptions. But one assumption it got right was that the solar system was born from a giant
interstellar cloud called nebula (a vast, swirling cloud of gas and dust).
• In 1900, Chamberlain and Moulton considered that a wandering star approached the sun. As a result, a
cigar-shaped extension of material was separated from the solar surface. As the passing star moved away,
the material separated from the solar surface continued to revolve around the sun and slowly condensed
into planets. Sir James Jeans and later Sir Harold Jeffrey supported this argument.
• In 1950, Otto Schmidt in Russia and Carl Weizascar in Germany somewhat revised the Nebular Hypothesis.
They considered that the sun was surrounded by solar nebula containing mostly hydrogen and helium
along with what may be termed as dust. The friction and collision of particles led to the formation of a
disk-shaped cloud and the planets were formed through the process of accretion.
• The most popular argument is the Big Bang Theory (expanding universe hypothesis (Edwin Hubble,
in 1920, provided evidence that the universe is expanding)). It was followed up by the Nuclear Disc Model
(Neo-Laplacian model) which dealt primarily with the formation of the solar system.
• According to the Nuclear Disc Model (Neo-Laplacian model), the nebula started its collapse and core
formation some 5-5.6 billion years ago, and the Sun and the planets were formed about 4.6 billion
years ago (the age of the earth is 4.543 billion years).
• The geological time scale (GTS) divides and chronicles the earth’s evolutionary history into various periods
based on definite events that marked a major change in the earth’s physical, chemical, and biological
features.
• Major changes in earth’s physical and biological history stretch over several millions of years and hence in
GTS all the divisions are expressed in ‘million years (mya – million years ago).’
• The primarily defined divisions of time are eons, the Hadean, the Archean, the Proterozoic and the Phan-
erozoic. The first three of these can be referred to collectively as the Precambrian supereon. Each eon is
subsequently divided into eras, which in turn are divided into periods, which are further divided into
epochs.
• The Hadean eon represents the time before a reliable (fossil) record of life. Temperatures are extremely
hot, and much of the Earth was molten because of frequent collisions with other bodies, extreme vol-
canism, and the abundance of short-lived radioactive elements.
• A giant impact collision with a planet-sized body named Theia (approximately 4.5 billion years ago) is
thought to have formed the Moon. The moon was subjected to Late Heavy Bombardment (lunar cata-
clysm – 4 billion years ago).
• During the LHB phase, a disproportionately large number of asteroids are theorised to have collided with
the early terrestrial planets in the inner Solar System, including Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars.
• Volcanic outgassing probably created the primordial atmosphere and then the ocean. The early atmos-
phere contained almost no oxygen. Over time, the Earth cooled, causing the formation of a solid crust,
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leaving behind hot volatiles which probably resulted in a heavy CO2 atmosphere with hydrogen & water
vapour.
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4. Earth’s Interior
• The earth’s interior is made up of several concentric layers of which the crust, mantle, outer core & inner
core are significant because of their unique physical and chemical properties. The crust is a silicate solid,
the mantle is a viscous molten rock, the outer core is a viscous liquid, & the inner core is a dense
solid.
• Mechanically, the earth’s layers can be divided into lithosphere, asthenosphere (upper viscous part of
the mantle), mesospheric mantle (part of the mantle below the asthenosphere), outer core, & inner
core. Chemically, Earth can be divided into the crust, upper mantle, lower mantle, outer & inner core.
The Crust
• The crust is the outermost layer of the earth making up 0.5-1.0 per cent of the earth’s volume and less
than 1 per cent of Earth’s mass.
• Density increases with depth, and the average density is about 2.7 g/cm3 (the average density of the
earth is 5.51 g/cm³).
• The thickness of the crust varies in the range of 5-30 km in the case of the oceanic crust and 50-70 km
in the case of the continental crust.
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• The continental crust can be thicker than 70 km in the areas of major mountain systems. It is as much as
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The Mantle
• The Mantle forms about 83 per cent of the earth's volume & holds 67% of the earth’s mass. It extends
from Moho’s discontinuity to a depth of 2,900 km.
• The density of the upper mantle varies between 2.9-3.3 g/cm3. The lower mantle extends beyond the
asthenosphere. It is in a solid state. The density ranges from 3.3-5.7 g/cm3 in the lower mantle.
• Mantle comprises 45% oxygen, 23% magnesium and 21% silicon. The silicate rocks in the mantle are
rich in iron and magnesium relative to the overlying crust.
• In the mantle, temperatures range from approximately 200 °C at the upper boundary with the crust to
approximately 4,000 °C at the core-mantle boundary. Because of the temperature difference, there is a
convective material circulation in the mantle (although solid, the high temperatures within the mantle
cause the silicate material to be sufficiently ductile). Convection of the mantle is expressed at the surface
through the motions of tectonic plates.
• High-pressure conditions ought to inhibit seismicity in the mantle. However, in subduction zones, earth-
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The Core
• The core (inner core and the outer core) accounts for just about 16 per cent of the earth's volume but
33% of the earth’s mass.
[UPSC Prelims 2009] In the structure of planet Earth, below the mantle, the core is mainly
made up of which one of the following?
a) Aluminium
b) Chromium
c) Iron
d) Silicon
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• Secondary waves (secondary they are recorded second on the seismograph) or S-waves are also called
transverse waves or shear waves or distortional waves. They are analogous to water ripples or light
waves. They arrive at the surface after the P-waves.
• Transverse waves or shear waves mean that the direction of vibrations of the particles in the medium is
perpendicular to the direction of propagation of the wave. Hence, they create troughs and crests in the
material through which they pass (they distort the medium).
• These waves are of high frequency and possess slightly higher destructive power compared to P-
waves. The trembling on the earth’s surface caused due to these waves is from side to side (horizontal).
• S-waves cannot pass through fluids (liquids and gases) as fluids do not support shear stresses, unlike
solids. They travel at varying velocities (proportional to shear strength) through the solid part of the Earth.
• The body waves interact with the surface rocks and generate a new set of waves called surface waves
(long or L-waves). These waves move only along the surface. They are the slowest among the earth-
quake waves and are recorded last on the seismograph.
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No Shadow Zone
• The seismographs located at any distance within 103° from the epicentre, recorded the arrival of both
P and S-waves. Since this layer (crust and mantle) can transmit shear waves (transverse seismic waves), it
is solid.
Why Do Sound Waves Travel Faster In A Denser Medium Whereas Light Travels Slower?
• The sound is a mechanical wave and travels by compression and rarefaction of the medium. A higher
density leads to more elasticity in the medium and hence the ease by which compression and rarefaction
can take place. This way the velocity of sound increases with an increase in density.
• Light, on the other hand, is a transverse electromagnetic wave. An increase in the density increases
effective path length, and hence it leads to a higher refractive index and lower velocity.
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5. Earth’s Magnetic Field (Geomagnetic Field)
• Earth's magnetic field (geomagnetic field) is the magnetic field that extends from Earth's interior out
into space. In space, it interacts with the solar wind. This interaction shapes the earth’s magnetosphere.
• A 'field' is a region in which a body experiences a force owing to the presence of other bodies.
1. Gravitational fields determine how bodies with mass are attracted to each other.
2. In electric fields, objects that have an electric charge are attracted or repelled by each other.
3. Magnetic fields determine how electric currents that contain moving electric charges exert a force
on other electric currents. (Refer to PMF IAS NCERT Physics compilation to understand the concept of
“magnetic fields”)
All magnets have two poles, a north pole and a south pole, and the north pole of one magnet is attracted
to the south pole of another magnet.
5.1. Magnetosphere
• The magnetosphere is the region above the ionosphere that is defined by the extent of the Earth's
magnetic field in space. It extends several tens of thousands of kilometres into space. It protects the
Earth from the charged particles of the solar wind and cosmic rays that would otherwise strip away the
upper atmosphere, including the ozone layer that protects the Earth from harmful ultraviolet radiation.
• The solar wind is responsible for the overall shape of the magnetosphere. It is roughly shaped like a
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hemisphere on the side facing the Sun, then is drawn out in a long trail (magnetotail) on the opposite side.
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The cosmic rays are kept out of the Solar system by the Sun's magnetosphere called the heliosphere.
Magnetopause
• The magnetopause is the boundary of the magnetosphere. It is the area where the pressures exerted
by the solar wind is balanced by the earth’s magnetic field. Despite its name, the magnetosphere is
asymmetric, with the sunward side being about 10 Earth radii out but the other side stretching out in a
magnetotail that extends beyond 200 Earth radii.
Bow Shock
• Sunward of the magnetopause is the bow shock, the area where the solar wind slows abruptly as a result
of its approach to the magnetopause.
Magnetosheath
• The turbulent magnetic region between the magnetopause and the bow shock is known as the mag-
netosheath.
Plasmasphere
• Plasmasphere is a region inside the magnetosphere that contains low-energy charged particles and
rotates with the Earth. It begins at the height of 60 km, extends up to 3 or 4 Earth radii, and includes the
ionosphere.
Auroras
• Aurora is the name given to the luminous glow in the upper atmosphere of the Earth which is produced
by charged particles (solar wind) descending from the planet's magnetosphere.
• Positive ions slowly drift westward, and negative ions drift eastward, giving rise to a ring current. This
current reduces the magnetic field at the Earth's surface.
• Earth’s crust and its surface are constantly evolving (changing) due to various forces emanating from below
(endogenic forces) as well as above the surface of the earth (exogenic forces). These forces cause phys-
ical and chemical changes to the geomorphic structure (earth’s surface). Some of these changes are im-
perceptibly slow (e.g., weathering, folding), some others are gradual (e.g., erosion) while the remaining are
quite sudden (earthquakes, volcanic eruptions).
Geomorphic: relating to the form of the landscape and other natural features of the earth's surface.
Geomorphic agents: mobile medium (like running water, glaciers, wind, waves, currents etc.) which removes,
transports and deposits earth materials.
Geomorphic processes: physical and chemical processes that take place on the earth’s surface (folding,
faulting, weathering, erosion, etc.) due to endogenic and exogenic forces.
Geomorphic movements: large-scale physical and chemical changes that take place on the earth’s surface
due to geomorphic processes.
• The large-scale movements on the earth’s crust or its surface brought down by the forces emanating
from deep below the earth’s surface are called endogenic geomorphic movements or simply endo-
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genic movements (endo: internal; genic: origin; geo: earth; morphic: form). The geomorphic processes that
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7. Tectonics
• The discovery of ridges, trenches, seamounts, and other oceanic relief features during WW II gave rise to
the field of tectonics and gave insights into natural boundaries between various tectonic (lithospheric)
plates.
• Tectonics is the scientific study of forces (convection currents in the mantle) and processes (collisions
of the lithospheric plates, folding, faulting, volcanism) that control the structure of the Earth's crust and its
evolution. It is basically about understanding the large-scale deformation of the lithosphere (crust and
upper mantle above asthenosphere) and the forces that produce such deformation.
• The field of tectonics deals mainly with the study of:
1. folding and faulting associated with mountain building (orogeny);
2. large-scale, gradual upward and downward movements of the crust (epeirogenic movements);
3. growth and behaviour of old cores of continents known as cratons; and
4. sudden horizontal displacements (that produce seismic waves) along faults.
Continental Drift Theory (CDT): Continental drift refers to the movement of the continents relative to
each other.
Polar wandering (similar to Continental Drift Theory): Polar wandering is the relative movement of the
earth's crust and upper mantle with respect to the rotational poles of the earth.
Seafloor Spreading Theory (SST): It describes the movement of oceanic plates relative to one another.
Plate Tectonics (PT): Plate tectonics is the movement of lithospheric plates relative to each other.
Convection Current Theory (CCT): Convection current theory forms the basis for SST and PT. It explains
the force behind plate movements.
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Minor Tectonic Plates
7. Turkish plate
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• Formation of the Isthmus of Panama involved subduction of the Pacific-Farallon Plate beneath the Car-
ibbean and South American plates, forming a volcanic Panama arc on the edge of the Caribbean Plate.
The remains of the ancient Farallon Oceanic Plate are the Juan de Fuca Plate, parts of the North American
Plate and the South American Plate, the Cocos Plate and the Nazca Plate.
• The North and South American plates continued to move westward past the eastward-moving Carib-
bean Plate. In addition to their east-west (strike-slip or transform) motion, the plates also acquired a
north-south component of convergence, leading to the collision of the Panama Arc with South America.
This collision drove uplift in both the Northern Andes and the Panama Arc, forming the Isthmus of Pan-
ama.
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The Mariana Trench or Marianas Trench
The Mariana Trench or Marianas Trench, the deepest trench, is located in the western Pacific Ocean.
It is formed due to the subduction of the Pacific Plate below the Mariana Plate. The maximum known
depth is between 10,994 & 11,034 metres on its floor known as the Challenger Deep.
The Mariana trench is not the part of the seafloor closest to the centre of the Earth. This is because the
Earth is not a perfect sphere (its Geoid); its radius is about 25 kilometres smaller at the poles than at
the equator. As a result, parts of the Arctic Ocean seabed are at least 13 kilometres closer to the Earth's
centre than the Challenger Deep seafloor.
• Continent-Ocean Convergence is similar to ocean-ocean convergence with the major difference being that
in C-O convergence continental arcs and fold mountains are formed instead of islands.
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9. Divergent Boundary
• Divergence (divergent boundary) is responsible for the evolution and creation of new seas and oceans
just like convergent boundaries are responsible for the formation of fold mountains, and volcanic arcs.
9.1. Formation and Evolution of Rift Valleys, Rift Lakes, Seas, and Oceans
• The process of formation of a new sea begins with the formation of a divergent boundary.
Upwarp: a broad elevated area of the earth's surface.
Plume: a column of magma rising by convection in the earth's mantle.
Rift Valley: a linear-shaped lowland (graben) between several highlands (horst) or mountain ranges
created by the action of a geologic rift or fault.
•
10. Types of Mountains
Precambrian Mountains
• Precambrian mountains belong to the Precambrian Period (4,600 mya to 541 mya). The mountains have
been subjected to upheaval, denudation and metamorphosis and the remnants appear as residual moun-
tains. E.g. Laurentian & Algoman mountains (north of the St. Lawrence River and Ottawa River).
Caledonian Mountains
• Caledonian mountains originated due to the great mountain-building movements of the late Silurian and
early Devonian periods (approximately 430 mya to 380 mya). E.g. the Appalachians, Aravallis, Mahadeo
etc.
Hercynian Mountains
• These mountains originated during the upper Carboniferous to Permian Period in Europe (approximately
340 mya to 225 mya). E.g. Vosges and the Black Forest, Altai, Tien Shan mountains of Asia, Ural Moun-
tains etc.
• Fold mountains are formed when sedimentary rock strata in geosynclines are subjected to compressive
forces. They are the loftiest mountains, and they are generally concentrated along continental margins.
Geosyncline: a large-scale depression in the earth's crust containing very thick deposits. E.g. Tethys geosyn-
cline.
‘Fold’ In Geology
• A fold is an undulating structure (wave-like) that forms when rocks or a part of the earth’s crust is folded
(deformed by bending) under compressional stress. The folds are made up of multiple strata (rock lay-
ers).
• The folds that are upwardly convex are called anticlines. The core (centre) of an anticline fold consists of
the older strata, and the strata are progressively younger outwards. In contrast, the folds that are down-
wardly convex are called synclines. The core of a syncline fold consists of the younger strata, and the strata
are progressively older outwards.
Types of Folds
• Symmetrical fold: the axial plane is vertical.
• Asymmetrical fold: the axial plane is inclined.
• Isoclinal fold: the limbs are approximately parallel to the axial plane.
• Overturned fold: highly inclined axial plane such that the strata on one limb are overturned.
• Recumbent fold: has an essentially horizontal axial plane.
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• A volcano is a vent or a fissure (rupture) in the earth’s crust from which lava (molten rock), ash, gases,
and rock fragments erupt from a magma chamber below the surface. Volcanism is the phenomenon of
the eruption of pyroclastics (a hot mixture of molten rock, rock fragments, gas, and ash).
• The convection currents in the mantle create convergent and divergent boundaries (weak zones). At
the divergent boundary, volcanism appears at the first available opportunity through the fault zones. At
the convergent boundary, the subduction of the denser plate creates magma at high pressure which will
escape to the surface in the form of violent eruptions. In some other cases, volcanism is caused at unusual
locations by mantle plumes (hotspot volcanism).
• Magma is composed of molten rock and is stored in the Earth's crust. Lava is magma that reaches the
surface through a volcano vent.
• The rapid solidifying of lava in the vent obstructs the flow of the out-pouring lava, resulting in loud
explosions, throwing out many volcanic bombs or pyroclasts. Sometimes the lavas are so viscous that
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they form a volcanic plug (object created when magma hardens within a vent on an active volcano) at
the crater, like that of Mt. Pelée in Martinique (an island in the Lesser Antilles, Caribbean Islands).
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12. Hotspot Volcanism
• Hotspot volcanism is a type of volcanism that typically occurs at the interior parts of the lithospheric
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plates rather than at the plate margins. The Iceland Hotspot and Afar Hotspot which are situated at the
divergent boundary are exceptions. Hotspot volcanism occurs due to abnormally hot centres in the
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13. Types of Rocks & Rock Cycle
• Rocks are aggregates of one or more minerals held together by chemical bonds.
• Feldspar and quartz are the most common minerals found in rocks.
• Based on the mode of formation three major groups of rocks are defined:
1. Igneous Rocks — solidified from magma and lava.
2. Sedimentary Rocks — the result of deposition of fragments of rocks.
3. Metamorphic Rocks — formed out of existing rocks undergoing recrystallisation.
The scientific study of rocks is called petrology.
• Rocks formed out of solidification of magma (molten rock below the surface) and lava (molten rock above
the surface) and are known as igneous or primary rocks. Having their origin under conditions of high
temperatures the igneous rocks are unfossiliferous. Granite, gabbro, and basalt are some examples of
igneous rocks.
• There are three types of igneous rocks based on place and time taken in cooling of the molten matter,
plutonic rocks, volcanic rocks and intermediate rocks. There are two types of rocks based on the pres-
ence of acid-forming silicon radical, acidic rocks and basic rocks.
are called intrusive rocks or plutonic rocks (e.g. Granite). These rocks appear on the surface only after
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• Feldspar: Half of the crust is composed of feldspar. It has a light colour, and its main constituents are
silicon, oxygen, sodium, potassium, calcium, and aluminium. It is used for ceramics and glass making.
• Quartz: It has two elements, silicon and oxygen. It has a hexagonal crystalline structure. It is uncleaved,
white or colourless. It cracks like glass and is present in sand and granite. It is used in the manufacture of
radio and radar.
• Bauxite: A hydrous oxide of aluminium, it is the ore of aluminium. It is non-crystalline and occurs in small
pellets.
• Cinnabar (mercury sulphide): Mercury is derived from it. It has a brownish colour.
• Dolomite: A double carbonate of calcium and magnesium. It is used in the cement and iron and steel
industries.
• Gypsum: It is hydrous calcium sulphate and is used in cement, fertiliser and chemical industries.
• Haematite: It is a red ore of iron.
• Magnetite: It is the black ore (or iron oxide) of iron.
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• Amphibole: It forms about 7 per cent of the earth's crust and consists mainly of aluminium, calcium, silica,
iron, magnesium, etc. It is used in the asbestos industry. Hornblende is another form of amphiboles.
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14. Earthquakes
• An earthquake is a shaking or trembling of the earth’s surface caused by the seismic waves or earthquake
waves that are generated due to a sudden movement (sudden release of energy) in the earth’s crust
(shallow-focus earthquakes) or upper mantle (some shallow-focus and all intermediate and deep-
focus earthquakes).
14.1. Terms
a series of earthquakes are called earthquake swarms. Earthquakes associated with volcanic activity often
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15. Tsunami
• Tsunami is a Japanese word for “Harbour wave”. A tsunami is a series of very long-wavelength waves in
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large water bodies like seas or large lakes caused by a major disturbance above or below the water surface
or due to the displacement of a large volume of water. They are sometimes referred to as tidal waves
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16. Fluvial Landforms and Cycle of Erosion
• Soil erosion is the loosening and displacement of topsoil from the land due to the action of agents like
wind and water. Soil erosion in nature may be a slow process (geological erosion) or a fast process pro-
moted by human activities like overgrazing, and deforestation.
• Weathering and erosion lead to the simultaneous process of ‘degradation' and ‘aggradation'. Erosion is a
mobile process while weathering is a static process (there is no motion of disintegrated material except
the falling under the force of gravity). The landforms created as a result of degradational action (erosion
and transportation) or aggradational work (deposition) of running water are called fluvial landforms.
• Fluvial Erosional Landforms are landforms created by the erosional activity of rivers. Various aspects of
fluvial erosive action include:
Hydration: the force of running water wearing down rocks.
Corrosion: chemical action that leads to weathering.
Attrition: river load particles striking, colliding against each other and breaking down in the process.
Abrasion: solid river load striking against rocks and wearing them down.
Downcutting (vertical erosion): the erosion of the base of a stream (downcutting leads to valley
deepening).
Lateral erosion: the erosion of the walls of a stream (leads to valley widening).
Headward erosion: erosion at the origin of a stream channel, which causes the origin to move back
away from the direction of the stream flow, and so causes the stream channel to lengthen.
Braiding: the main water channel splits into multiple, narrower channels. A braided river or braided
channel consists of a network of river channels separated by small, and often temporary, islands called
braid bars. Braided streams occur in rivers with low slopes and/or large sediment loads.
River Valley
• The extended depression on the ground through which a stream flows is called a river valley. At different
stages of the erosional cycle, the valley acquires different profiles.
• At a young stage, the valley is deep, and narrow with steep wall-like sides and a convex slope. The erosional
action here is characterized by predominantly vertical downcutting. The profile of the valley here is typical
V-shaped. A tributary valley lies above the main valley and is separated from it by a steep slope, down
which the stream may flow like a waterfall or a series of rapids.
• A deep and narrow V-shaped valley is also referred to as a gorge and may result due to downcutting
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erosion or because of the recession of a waterfall (the position of the waterfall receding due to headward
erosive action). Most Himalayan rivers pass through deep gorges (at times more than 500 metres deep)
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before they descend to the plains. An extended form of the gorge is called a canyon. The Grand Canyon
of the Colorado River in Arizona (USA) runs for 483 km and has a depth of 2.88 km.
• As the cycle attains maturity, the lateral erosion (erosion of the walls of a stream) becomes prominent,
and the valley floor flattens out (attains a ‘V’ to ‘U’ shape). The valley profile now becomes typically ‘U’
shaped with a broad base and a concave slope.
River Course
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17. Major Landforms and Cycle of Erosion
• Sea waves, aided by winds, currents, tides and storms carry on the erosional and depositional processes.
The erosive work of the sea depends upon the size and strength of waves, slope, the height of the shore
between low and high tides, the shape of the coast, the composition of rocks, depth of water, human
activity etc.
• The wave pressure compresses the air trapped inside rock fissures, joints, faults, etc. forcing them to ex-
pand and rupture along the weak points. This is how rocks undergo weathering under wave action.
• Waves also use rock debris as instruments of erosion (glaciers are far good at this). These rock fragments
carried by waves themselves get worn down by striking against the coast or one another.
• The solvent or chemical action of waves is another mode of erosion, but it is pronounced only in the case
of soluble rocks like limestone and chalk.
Chasms
• Chasms are narrow, deep indentations (a deep recess or notch) carved due to headward erosion (downcut-
ting) through vertical planes of weakness in the rocks by wave action. With time, further headward erosion
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is hindered by lateral erosion of the chasm mouth, which itself keeps widening till a bay is formed.
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Blow Holes or Spouting Horns
• The burst of water through a small hole in a sea cave due to the compression of air in the cave by strong
waves gives rise to spouting horns or blow holes which make a peculiar noise.
Beach
• Beach is the temporary covering of rock debris and sand on or along a wave-cut platform.
Bar
• Currents and tidal currents deposit rock debris and sand (sandbar) along the coast at a distance from the
shoreline. The resultant landforms which remain submerged are called bars. The enclosed water body so
created is called a lagoon.
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Barrier
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18. Latitudes and Longitudes
• Latitudes and Longitudes (coordinate system) are imaginary lines used to determine the location of a place
on earth. For example, New Delhi is situated near the intersection of 28° N Latitude and 77° E Longitude.
• Latitude is the angular distance of a place north or south of the equator measured in degrees from the
earth’s centre. As the earth is slightly flattened at the poles, the linear distance of a degree of latitude
at the pole is slightly longer than that at the equator. For example, at the equator linear distance of a
degree of latitude is 110.57 km (68.7 miles), at 45° it is 111.13 km (69 miles), and at the poles, it is 111.7
km (69.4 miles). The average is taken as 111 km (69 miles).
the Zero Meridian or Prime Meridian. All other meridians radiate eastwards and westwards of the prime
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meridian up to 180°.
19. The Motions of The Earth and Their Effects
• The spinning movement of the earth is called rotation. The earth rotates around its axis in the west to east
direction. It takes earth approximately 24 hrs (23 hours, 56 minutes, and 4 seconds) to complete one
rotation.
• Earth’s axis is an imaginary line that is antipodal ― meaning it passes through the centre of the earth
connecting two exactly opposite ends. It passes through the North Pole, the earth’s centre, and the South
Pole
• Days and nights occur due to the rotation of the earth. The circle dividing day from night on the globe
is called the circle of illumination.
• Earth rotates on a tilted axis. Earth’s rotational axis makes an angle of 23.5° with the normal, i.e. it makes
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an angle of 66.5° with the orbital plane of the earth (the ecliptic plane – the plane in which the earth
revolves around the sun).
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19.2. Revolution of Earth
• While the Earth spins on its axis, it also orbits or revolves around the Sun. This movement is called revo-
lution.
• The plane in which the earth revolves around the sun is called an orbital plane or the ecliptic. It takes
365¼ days (one year) for the earth to complete one revolution around the sun.
• Six surplus hours saved every year are added to make one day over a span of four years. This surplus day
is added to the month of February. Thus, every fourth year, February is of 29 days instead of 28 days. Such
a year with 366 days is called a leap year.
Solstice
Summer Solstice
• On 21st June, the northern hemisphere is tilted towards the sun, and the rays of the sun fall directly on
the Tropic of Cancer. As a result, these areas receive more heat. Since a large portion of the northern
hemisphere is getting light from the sun, it is summer in the regions north of the equator. The longest
day and the shortest night across the northern hemisphere occur on the 21st of June. This position of
the earth is called the summer solstice. During summer solstice the whole Arctic region falls within
the ‘zone of illumination’ all day long.
• At this time in the southern hemisphere, all these conditions are reversed. It is winter season there. The
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nights are longer than the days. (For the southern hemisphere 21st of June is the winter solstice)
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20. Earth’s Atmosphere
• Our planet earth is enveloped by a deep blanket of gases extending several hundreds of kilometres above
its surface. This gaseous cover of the earth is known as the atmosphere. Like land (lithosphere) and water
(hydrosphere), the atmosphere is also an integral part of the earth, and it is held in place by the gravita-
tional influence of the earth.
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• The differential amount of sun’s energy received by various latitudinal zones on earth is the primary
reason behind the occurrence of seasonal patterns of weather and climate. Thus, understanding the pat-
terns of distribution of temperature in different seasons is important for understanding various climatic
features like wind systems, pressure systems, precipitation, etc.
Radiation
• Radiation doesn’t require a medium for heat transfer. Heat is transferred from one body to another
without actual contact or movement in the medium. E.g. Heat transfer from the sun to earth through
space.
Insolation
• Insolation is the amount of sun’s energy received in the form of radiation by the earth. It is measured as
the amount of solar energy received per square centimetre per minute.
• Earth receives the sun’s radiation in the form of short waves (visible light or wavelengths below visible
light — most of it is ultraviolet radiation) which are electromagnetic.
• The earth absorbs short wave radiation during daytime and reflects the heat received into space as
long-wave radiation (mostly infrared radiation which is nothing but heat) during the night.
Conduction
• The heat transfer through conduction happens due to molecular activity in a conducting medium. There
is no actual movement of the medium itself. Generally, denser materials like iron, and water are good
conductors, and lighter mediums like air are bad conductors of heat.
Convection
• Convection is the transfer of heat energy by the actual transfer of matter or substance from one place
to another. E.g. Heat transfer by convection cells in a boiling pot of water, atmosphere, oceans or in the
earth’s mantle.
heat received from the sun decrease as the distance increases from the equator. Areas lying close to the
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poles receive the least of the sun’s energy as the sun’s rays are near horizontal.
Duration of Sunshine
• Heat received depends on day or night; clear sky or overcast, summer or winter, etc. Earth’s atmosphere
plays an important role in moderating the temperatures between seasons and between days and nights.
Transparency of Atmosphere
• Aerosols (smoke, soot, pollen), dust, water vapour, clouds etc. affect transparency.
• If the wavelength of the radiation is more than the radius of the obstructing particle (such as a gas),
scattering of radiation takes place. Most of the light received by earth is scattered light. If the wave-
length is less than the obstructing particle (such as a dust particle), then reflection takes place.
• Absorption of solar radiation takes place if the obstructing particles happen to be water vapour, ozone
molecules, carbon dioxide molecules or clouds (Greenhouse effect).
Albedo
• Albedo of a surface is the proportion of sunlight that the surface can reflect back into space. The
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albedo of land is much greater than that of oceans and water bodies. Snow-covered areas have the
highest albedo and can reflect up to 70-90% of insolation.
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22. Vertical Distribution of Temperature
• To understand the vertical distribution of temperature we need to know about latent heat, lapse rate and
adiabatic lapse rate. The terms ‘Adiabatic Lapse Rate’ and ‘Latent Heat of Condensation’ frequently occur
in climatology. Understanding these terms once and for all will help immensely in understanding the sub-
sequent topics.
• Adiabatic lapse rate determines the rate of condensation in the atmosphere which in turn determines the
amount of latent heat of condensation released. The heat released in the form of latent heat of con-
densation supplies the energy necessary for the formation of towering cumulonimbus thunderstorm
clouds and tropical cyclones.
Latent Heat
• Latent heat is the amount of energy absorbed or released by a substance during a change in its physical
state (phase change) that occurs without changing its temperature.
• For example, when a pot of water is kept boiling, the temperature remains at 100 °C until the last drop
evaporates because all the heat being added to the liquid is absorbed as latent heat of vaporisation and
carried away by the escaping vapour molecules. Similarly, while the ice melts, it remains at 0 °C, and the
liquid water that is formed with the latent heat of fusion is also at 0 °C.
Explanation
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23. Pressure Systems and Wind System
• The weight of a column of air contained in a unit area from the mean sea level to the top of the atmosphere
is called the atmospheric pressure. It varies from place to place due to differences in topography, insolation
and related weather and climatic factors. The atmospheric pressure at sea level is 1034 gm per square
centimetre.
• Atmosphere (atm) is an internationally recognised unit for measuring atmospheric pressure at a place. The
units used by meteorologists are millibars (mb) and Pascal (Pa).
• One millibar is equal to the force of one gram on a square centimetre. A pressure of 1000 millibars is equal
to the weight of 1.053 kilograms per square centimetre. The normal pressure at sea level is taken to be
about 1013.25 millibars (equal to the weight of a column of mercury 75 cm high).
1 atm = 1013.25 millibars (mb) = 101325 pascals (Pa) = 101.325 kilopascals (kPa)
Isobars
• Isobars are lines connecting places having equal atmospheric pressure. The spacing of isobars expresses
the rate of pressure changes and is referred to as pressure gradient. Close spacing of isobars indicates a
steep or strong pressure gradient, while wide spacing suggests a weak gradient. The pressure gradient
may thus be defined as the decrease in pressure per unit distance in the direction in which the pressure
decreases most rapidly.
•
the centre.
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• The vertical pressure gradient force is much larger than that of the horizontal pressure gradient. How-
ever, it is generally balanced by a nearly equal but opposite gravitational force. Hence, we do not expe-
rience strong upward winds.
Buoyant Force
• The atmospheric pressure cells also determine whether the air sinks or rises at a place. The surrounding
atmosphere exerts a buoyant force on low-pressure cells and hence the air within a low-pressure cell
rises. On the other hand, the air within a high-pressure cell sinks as it is denser than the surrounding
atmosphere.
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• The pattern of the movement of the planetary winds (permanent winds) is called the general circula-
tion of the atmosphere. The general circulation of the atmosphere also sets in motion the ocean water
circulation which influences the earth’s climate.
• The pattern of planetary winds depends on:
latitudinal variation of atmospheric heating;
emergence of pressure belts;
the migration of belts following the apparent path of the sun;
the distribution of continents and oceans;
the rotation of earth.
Hadley Cell
The air at the equatorial low-pressure belt rises because of the convection currents. The air reaches the
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•
top of the troposphere up to an altitude of 14 km and moves towards the poles. This causes accumulation
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of air at about 30° N and S. Part of the accumulated air sinks to the ground and forms a subtropical high.
24. Hydrological Cycle (Water Cycle)
• There is a continuous exchange of water between the atmosphere, the oceans and the continents through
the processes of evaporation, transpiration, condensation and precipitation. The moisture in the at-
mosphere is derived from water bodies through evaporation and from plants through transpiration
(evapotranspiration). Evaporated water undergoes condensation and forms clouds. When saturation is
reached, clouds give away water in the form of precipitation. Since the total amount of moisture in the
entire system remains constant, a balance is required between evapotranspiration and precipitation. The
hydrological cycle maintains this balance.
24.1. Humidity
2% in the atmosphere). The amount of water vapour in the atmosphere (humidity) is measured by a
hygrometer.
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• As their name implies, these are layered clouds covering large portions of the sky. These clouds are gen-
erally formed either due to loss of heat or the mixing of air masses with different temperatures.
Nimbus Clouds
• Nimbus clouds are black or dark grey masses of thick vapour. They form at middle levels or very near the
surface of the earth. These are extremely dense and opaque to the rays of the sun. Sometimes, the clouds
are so low that they seem to touch the ground.
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Types of Clouds
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• Everyone sees their particular halo, made by particular ice crystals, which are different from the ice crys-
tals making the halo of the person standing next.
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25. Thunderstorm
• Thunderstorms and tornadoes are severe (violent), short-duration, localized storms (occurring over a
small area) that involve rapid convection or upliftment of air.
• Thunderstorms are storms with thunder and lightning and typically also heavy rain or hail. They mostly
occur in areas where the temperature is high and the air has good humidity. They are less frequent on
water bodies due to low temperature.
• Worldwide, there are an estimated 16 million thunderstorms each year, and at any given moment, there
are roughly 2,000 thunderstorms in progress.
• Hail is a form of solid precipitation in which frozen pellets fall in showers from a cumulonimbus cloud.
A hailstone is a layered irregular lump of ice. It is made of thick and translucent layers, alternating with
layers that are thin, white and opaque. Hailstones are produced in almost all thunderstorms, but in most
cases, they don’t reach the surface. Any thunderstorm which produces hail that reaches the ground is
known as a hailstorm.
Formation of Hail
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• Hail begins as water droplets in a cumulonimbus cloud. As the droplets rise and the temperature goes
below freezing, they freeze on coming in contact with condensation nuclei.
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• The storm's updraft with great wind speeds (180 kmph) blows the forming hailstones up the cloud. When
the hailstone moves into an area with a high concentration of supercooled water droplets, it acquires a
new opaque layer.
• The hailstone will keep rising in the thunderstorm until its mass can no longer be supported by the updraft.
It doesn’t fall immediately to the surface because of melting, friction with air, wind, and interaction with
rain and other hailstones that slow its descent. In the process, it acquires more layers. It then falls toward
the ground while continuing to grow, based on the same processes, until it leaves the cloud. Finally, it may
fall to the surface as hailstone if it can overcome the frictional force of the wind and ground temperature.
• Hailstones can grow up to 15 centimetres and weigh more than 0.5 kg. Generally, the larger hailstones will
form some distance from the stronger updraft where they can pass more time growing.
• Hail is less common in the tropics despite a much higher frequency of thunderstorms than in the mid-
latitudes because the atmosphere over the tropics tends to be warmer over a much greater altitude.
• Under the right conditions, rainfall from thunderstorms causes flash flooding (cloudburst).
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• Lightning is responsible for many fires around the world each year and causes fatalities.
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• Hail damages crops, vehicle windshields, and windows, and kills livestock caught out in the open.
26. Tropical Cyclones
• Tropical cyclones are rapidly rotating violent storms that originate over tropical oceans in late summers.
They are characterised by:
a closed low-pressure centre with steep pressure gradients, which is responsible for the wind
speeds (category 1 cyclones have a barometric pressure of greater than 980 millibars; category 5 cy-
clones can have central barometric pressure of less than 920 millibars),
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Stage 3: Tropical Storm (63 Kmph < Maximum Sustained Wind Speed < 119 Kmph)
• Tropical depression develops into a tropical storm when the cyclonic circulation becomes more organised
with maximum sustained winds at or above 63 kmph but below 119 kmph. At this point, the distinctive
cyclonic shape starts to develop, although an eye is not usually present.
Stage 4: Tropical Cyclone (Maximum Sustained Wind Speed > 119 Kmph)
• As the tropical storm intensifies and acquires a maximum sustained wind speed of 119 kmph it develops
into a tropical cyclone. A cyclone of this intensity (> 119 kmph) tends to develop an eye, an area of
relative calm (lowest surface atmospheric pressure in a tropical cyclone) at the centre of circulation.
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• Medicanes typically form in the fall or winter months and occur once or twice a year. Their cores are
relatively colder than the cores of tropical cyclones.
• Coriolis force, easterly & westerly winds, & upper westerly trough influence the path of tropical cy-
clones. They generally follow a parabolic path with the parabolic axis being parallel to the isobars.
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27. Jet streams
geostrophic streams,
flowing at high velocity,
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Polar Front Jet (PFJ)
• The strongest jet streams are the polar jets, and subtropical jets are somewhat weaker. It has a more
variable position than the sub-tropical jet. In summer, its position shifts towards the poles and in winter
towards the equator. The jet is strong and continuous in winter.
• The polar front jet is closely related to the polar front (frontogenesis process in mid-latitudes; discussed in
the next chapter). It greatly influences the climates of regions lying close to 60° latitude. It determines the
path and speed and intensity of temperate cyclones.
• Other than polar jet and subtropical jet, there are temporary jet streams which appear only in a particular
season. They are few. Important ones are the Somali Jet and The Tropical (African) Easterly Jet. They
are major high-velocity winds in the lower troposphere, and hence they are called low-level jets (LLJs).
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28. Temperate Cyclones
• Cyclonic systems developing in the mid and high latitudes beyond the tropics (between 35° and 65°
latitudes) in both hemispheres are called temperate cyclones. They are also known as mid-latitude cy-
clones, extratropical cyclones, frontal cyclones or wave cyclones.
• Unlike the tropical cyclones (convective cyclogenesis) which have a thermal origin, the temperate
cyclones (frontal cyclogenesis) have a dynamic origin (complex interaction of air masses under the
influence of Coriolis force).
• To understand the mechanism of frontal cyclogenesis (origin and development of temperate cyclones) it
is important for us to understand the concepts of air masses and fronts.
• An air mass is a large body of air having little horizontal variation in temperature and moisture. Air
masses are an integral part of the planetary wind system and are associated with one or other wind belts.
They extend from surface to lower stratosphere and are across thousands of kilometres.
Source Regions
• When a large parcel of the air remains over a homogenous area for a sufficiently long time, it acquires
the characteristics of the area. The homogenous regions can be the vast ocean surface or vast plains and
plateaus. These homogenous surfaces, over which air masses form, are called the source regions. The
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main source regions are the high-pressure belts in the subtropics (giving rise to tropical air masses)
and around the poles (the source for polar air masses).
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• Occlusion is a process by which the cold front of a rotating low-pressure system catches up with the
warm front so that the warm air between them is forced upwards. Such a front is formed when a cold
air mass overtakes a warm air mass and goes underneath it.
• Frontolysis begins when the warm sector diminishes, and the cold air mass completely replaces the warm
sector on the ground. Thus, a long occluded front is formed which could be a warm front type or cold
front type occlusion.
Cold Front • Cold air mass is the clear winner. It completely overrides the warm air mass.
Warm Front • The warm air mass picks up a fight but fails to beat the cold air mass.
Occluded Front • Cold front + warm front Double victory for the cold air mass
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Cold Front, Warm Front and Occluded front are examples of Temperature Inversion.
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29. El Nino, La Nina & El Nino Modoki
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30. Climatic Regions
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31. Ocean Relief
• Ocean relief is largely due to tectonic, volcanic, erosional and depositional processes and their interac-
tions. The ocean relief features are divided into major and minor relief features.
• Ocean relief controls the motion of seawater. The oceanic movement in the form of currents, in turn,
causes many variations in both oceans and the atmosphere. The bottom relief of oceans also influences
navigation and fishing.
Continental Shelf
• Continental Shelf is the gently sloping (gradient of 1° or less) seaward extension of a continental plate.
The shelf typically ends at a very steep slope, called the shelf break.
• Continental Shelves cover 7.5% of the total area of the oceans. Shallow seas and gulfs are found along
them.
Examples of continental shelves: Continental Shelf of South-East Asia (Sunda Plate), Grand Banks around
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•
Newfoundland, Submerged region between Australia and New Guinea, etc.
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• Seamount is a mountain with pointed summits, rising from the seafloor that does not reach the surface
of the ocean. Seamounts are volcanic in origin. These can be 3,000-4,500 m tall. The Emperor seamount,
an extension of the Hawaiian Islands in the Pacific Ocean, is a good example. Guyots are flat-topped
mountains (seamounts). Seamounts and guyots are very common in the Pacific Ocean.
Submarine Canyons
Canyon: a deep gorge, especially one with a river flowing through it.
Gorge: a steep, narrow valley or ravine.
Valley: a low area between hills or mountains typically with a river or stream flowing through it.
• Submarine canyons are deep valleys often extending from the mouths of the rivers to the abyssal plains.
They are formed due to erosion by sediments brought down by rivers that cut across continental shelves,
slopes & rises. The sediments are deposited on the abyssal plains.
• Submarine canyons can be far higher in scale compared to those that occur on land. Broadly, there are
three types:
1. Small gorges which begin at the edge of the continental shelf and extend down the slope to very great
depths, e.g., Oceanographer Canyons near New England.
2. Those which begin at the mouth of a river and extend over the shelf, such as the Indus canyons.
3. Those which have a dendritic appearance and are deeply cut into the edge of the shelf and the slope,
like the canyons off the coast of southern California.
• The Hudson Canyon is the best-known canyon in the world. The largest canyons in the world occur in the
Bering Sea off Alaska.
Atoll
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32. Ocean Movements – Ocean Currents And Tides
• The movements that occur in oceans are categorised as waves, tides, and currents. Waves are formed
due to friction between wind and the surface water layer. The stronger the wind, the bigger the wave.
They die out quickly on reaching the shore or shallow waters. On the other hand, tsunamis, storm surges,
and tides are tidal waves (waves with large wavelengths) that last longer.
• Horizontal currents arise mainly due to friction between wind and water. Coriolis force and differences
in water level gradient also play a major role. Vertical currents arise mainly due to density differences
caused by temperature and salinity changes.
• Ocean currents are the most important ocean movements because of their influence on the climatology
of various regions. They represent a regular volume of water in a definite path and direction.
UPSC Mains 2015: Explain the factors responsible for the origin of ocean currents. How do
they influence regional climates, fishing, and navigation? (Mains 2015)
• Ocean currents are influenced by two types of forces namely:
1. primary forces that initiate the movement of water;
2. secondary forces that influence the currents to flow.
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• The periodical rise and fall of the sea level, once or twice a day, mainly due to the attraction of the
sun and the moon, is called a tide. The study of tides is very complex, spatially and temporally, as it has
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for the occurrence of tides. Another factor is the centrifugal force (which arises due to the rotation of
33. Ocean Temperature And Salinity
How Do Deep Water Marine Organisms Survive In Spite Of The Absence Of Sunlight?
• Photic zone (the zone that receives sunlight) is only about a few hundred meters. It depends on a lot of
factors like turbidity, the presence of algae etc. There are not enough primary producers below the photic
zone to the ocean bottom.
• At the sea bottom, there are bacteria that make use of heat supplied by the earth’s interior to prepare
food. So, they are the primary producers at the depths. Other organisms feed on these primary producers
and subsequent secondary producers. So, the heat from the earth supports wide-ranging deep water ma-
rine organisms.