PMFIAS Physical Geography First Edition PDF Sample

Download as pdf or txt
Download as pdf or txt
You are on page 1of 90
At a glance
Powered by AI
Some of the key takeaways from the document are that ocean currents are influenced by various forces like heating by solar energy, Coriolis force, wind friction etc. and play an important role in influencing regional climates. Tides are caused mainly by the gravitational pull of the moon and sun as well as centrifugal forces. The principal source of heat in oceans is solar radiation, with some heat also coming from volcanic and tectonic activity on the ocean floor.

The major forces that influence ocean currents are heating by solar energy, wind friction, Coriolis force, differences in water level gradient and density differences caused by temperature and salinity changes.

The periodical rise and fall of sea level twice a day, called tides, are caused mainly by the gravitational pull of the moon and sun as well as the centrifugal force arising due to earth's rotation. The moon's gravitational pull is the major influence with the sun also playing a role to a lesser extent.

Physical Geography by PMF IAS® © Manjunath Thamminidi, PMF IAS®

Author / Copyright Owner: Manjunath Thamminidi

Publisher: PMF IAS®

Copyright is reserved with the owner of this publication

Publisher’s Address: PMF IAS, Manjunath Thamminidi, #160 Butaldinni Depo, Sindhnur, Raichur – 584128, Karnataka
First Edition, September 2022
ISBN: 978-93-5593-095-8

All rights reserved. This publication/book/Ebook/Kindle Ebook is sold subject to the condition that it shall not, by way of
trade or otherwise, be lent, resold, photocopied, hired out, or otherwise circulated without the author’s prior written
consent in any form of publication/book/Ebook/Kindle Ebook.

No part of this publication/book/Ebook/Kindle Ebook may be reproduced. It cannot be stored in or introduced into a
retrieval system (other than by the paid subscribers of PMF IAS Geography). The publication/book shall not be transmitted
in any form or by any means (electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise), without the prior written
permission of the copyright owner.

Information contained in this publication/book/Ebook/Kindle Ebook has been obtained by PMF IAS® from sources be-
lieved to be true and reliable. However, neither PMF IAS® nor its authors guarantee the accuracy or completeness of any
information published herein, and neither PMF IAS® nor its authors shall be responsible for any errors, omissions, or
damages arising out of the use of this information. This work is published with the understanding that PMF IAS® and its
authors are supplying information but are not attempting to render engineering or other professional services. If such
services are required, the assistance of an appropriate professional should be sought.

Acknowledgements
Team PMF IAS sincerely thanks all our contributors and supporters for helping us sustain the PMF IAS Initiative. You
remain our cornerstone, and we are very much obliged and grateful to you.
I wholeheartedly thank my family, especially my wife Shravani Thamminidi, for their constant support and forbearance.

Dedicated to
All PMF IAS Contributors and Supporters

My Eternal Strength – My Family and My Wife, Shravani Thamminidi (Co-founder, PMF IAS)
Manjunath Thamminidi,

Founder, PMF IAS®


i
Page
UPSC CSE Syllabus Relevant to Geography

1. UPSC Prelims: Indian & World Geography: Physical, Social, Economic Geography of India & the World.
2. UPSC Civil Services Mains GS I:
 Distribution of key natural resources across the world including South Asia and the Indian sub-continent; factors
responsible for the location of primary, secondary, and tertiary sector industries in various parts of the world
including India. [Will be covered in the upcoming PMF IAS Indian and Economic Geography Book]
 Important Geophysical phenomena such as earthquakes, Tsunami, Volcanic activity, cyclone etc. [Covered in this
book]
 Geographical features and their location, changes in critical geographical features (including water-bodies and
polar ice caps) and, in flora and fauna and the effects of such changes. [Covered in this book + PMF IAS
Environment]
 Critical geographical features  Major Geographic Features that have a significant bearing on the re-
gional/global climate/ecosystems. Examples: The Himalayas, The Polar Ice Caps, The Great Barrier Reef, etc.
 Salient features of world’s physical geography [Covered in this book].

Importance of Physical Geography for UPSC CSE


Physical Geography forms the basis for Indian & Economic Geography. Having a thorough understanding of the concepts
of Physical Geography will greatly help you in solving the questions related to all the major topics of geography.

Study Guide
 Analyse the past 5-6 years’ UPSC CSE Prelims and Mains question papers to understand the pattern and nature of
questions asked from Physical Geography. (We have included Previous Year UPSC CSE Mains and Prelims questions
under relevant headings to make it easier for you to understand the nature of questions asked by the UPSC)
 First Reading: Cover only the first few paragraphs (mostly the introduction part) of each topic to get a broader under-
standing of the scheme of things. Reanalyse the past 5-6 years’ UPSC CSE Prelims and Mains question papers.
 Second Reading: Cover the entire book thoroughly.
 Take a good test series for both Prelims and Mains to identify your strengths and weakness.
 Revise, rerevise, practise test series and chart your own plan based on your strengths and weaknesses.

Colour Codes
We have used colour coding extensively to make it easier for you to understand what the key concepts
and focus-areas are. The colour codes are as follows:

1. Important for Prelims + Mains

2. Important for Prelims (Colour 1 | Colour 2 | Colour 3 | Colour 4)

Upcoming: PMF IAS Indian and Economic Geography | World Geography Mapping
Join PMF IAS Telegram Channel for Updates: https://t.me/pmfias_channel
ii
Page
Contents

Unit 1: The Origin and Evolution of The Universe, Solar System and Earth
1. The Universe, The Big Bang Theory, Galaxies & Stellar Evolution .................................................................... 1

1.2. The Big Bang of Theory .................................................................................................................................. 1


The Evolution of The Universe Since the Big Bang .............................................................................................................. 2
Accelerating Expansion of The Universe & Dark Energy ................................................................................................... 3
1.3. Evidence for Big Bang Theory ........................................................................................................................ 3
Doppler-Shift or Redshift and Blueshift ................................................................................................................................... 3
Cosmic Microwave Background (CMD) .................................................................................................................................... 3
Gravitational Waves .......................................................................................................................................................................... 4
1.4. Galaxy ............................................................................................................................................................... 7
Regular Galaxies ................................................................................................................................................................................. 7
Our Galaxy (The Milky Way) ..........................................................................................................................................................8
1.5. Star Formation (Stellar Evolution or Life Cycle of a Star) ........................................................................... 9
Protostar ............................................................................................................................................................................................... 9
Main sequence stars...................................................................................................................................................................... 10
Red Giant ........................................................................................................................................................................................... 10
Planetary Nebula ............................................................................................................................................................................ 11
White Dwarf ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 11
Black dwarf ........................................................................................................................................................................................ 12
Supernova ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 12
Neutron stars ................................................................................................................................................................................... 14
Black holes......................................................................................................................................................................................... 15
1.6. Constellations................................................................................................................................................. 15
2. The Solar system.................................................................................................................................................... 17

The Formation of the Solar System: Nuclear Disc Model (Neo-Laplacian model)............................................ 17
Earlier Theories ................................................................................................................................................................................ 17
The Formation of the Sun ........................................................................................................................................................... 17
The Formation of the Planets .................................................................................................................................................... 17
Iron Catastrophe and Planetary Differentiation ................................................................................................................. 18
2.2. Components of the Solar System ................................................................................................................ 19
Kepler's Laws of Planetary Motion .......................................................................................................................................... 21
2.3. The Sun ........................................................................................................................................................... 22
The Sun’s Internal Structure and Atmosphere .................................................................................................................... 23
2.4. Planets............................................................................................................................................................. 25
Inner Planets ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 27
Outer Planets.................................................................................................................................................................................... 31
iii

2.5. Other Solar System Objects .......................................................................................................................... 32


Page

Asteroid Belt ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 32


Kuiper Belt, Pluto, and Charon .................................................................................................................................................. 33
Comets................................................................................................................................................................................................ 33
Meteoroid, Meteor and Meteorite .......................................................................................................................................... 36
2.6. What’s the Closest Star to the Sun? ............................................................................................................ 37
2.7. Heliopause — The Boundary? ...................................................................................................................... 38
2.8. Distant Artificial Objects Exploring the Solar System ............................................................................... 39
3. Geological Time Scale – The Evolution of The Earth’s Surface ........................................................................ 41

3.1. Hadean Eon (4,540 mya to 4,000 mya) ....................................................................................................... 41


3.2. Archean Eon (4,000 mya to 2,500 mya) ...................................................................................................... 43
3.3. Proterozoic Eon (2,500 mya to 550 mya) ................................................................................................... 44
3.4. Phanerozoic Eon (550 mya to present) ....................................................................................................... 44
Paleozoic Era (550 mya to 250 mya) ....................................................................................................................................... 44
Mesozoic Era (250 mya to 66 mya) ......................................................................................................................................... 47
Cenozoic Era (65 mya to present) ............................................................................................................................................ 48

Unit 2: Geomorphology
4. Earth’s Interior ....................................................................................................................................................... 51

4.1. The Internal Structure of The Earth ............................................................................................................. 51


The Crust ............................................................................................................................................................................................ 51
The Mantle ........................................................................................................................................................................................ 53
The Core ............................................................................................................................................................................................. 54
Seismic Discontinuities ................................................................................................................................................................. 55
4.2. Understanding the Earth’s Interior .............................................................................................................. 55
Importance of Understanding the Earth’s Interior ............................................................................................................ 55
4.3. Direct Sources of Information...................................................................................................................... 56
4.4. Indirect Sources of Information................................................................................................................... 56
Seismic Waves ................................................................................................................................................................................. 57
Meteorites ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 57
Gravitation ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 57
Magnetic field .................................................................................................................................................................................. 57
Sources of Earth’s Internal Heat ............................................................................................................................................... 57
4.5. Seismic Waves (Earthquake Waves) ............................................................................................................ 58
Body Waves ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 59
Surface waves (L-Waves) ............................................................................................................................................................. 61
How Do Seismic Waves Help In Understanding The Earth’s Interior? ...................................................................... 62
5. Earth’s Magnetic Field (Geomagnetic Field) ...................................................................................................... 64

5.1. Magnetosphere .............................................................................................................................................. 64


Magnetopause................................................................................................................................................................................. 65
Plasmasphere ................................................................................................................................................................................... 65
Auroras ............................................................................................................................................................................................... 65
iv

5.2. Magnetosphere and Solar Wind .................................................................................................................. 65


Page

Geomagnetic Storms .................................................................................................................................................................... 67


A Planet’s Magnetic Field Protects its Atmosphere .......................................................................................................... 67
Van Allen Radiation Belt .............................................................................................................................................................. 68
5.3. Magnetic Field of Solar System Objects ..................................................................................................... 68
5.4. Dynamo Theory: Generation of Earth’s Magnetic Field and Sustaining it ............................................. 69
5.5. Magnetic Poles............................................................................................................................................... 70
Antipodal: situated on the opposite side of the earth. An antipodal line drawn between two surface points
passes through the centre. E.g., Earth’s Rotational AxisPoles of Earth’s Magnetic Field ................................... 71
Geomagnetic Poles ........................................................................................................................................................................ 71
Geomagnetic Reversal .................................................................................................................................................................. 73
Normal and Reversed Magnetic Field .................................................................................................................................... 74
The Current Location of the Magnetic Poles ....................................................................................................................... 74
5.6. Compass .......................................................................................................................................................... 75
Magnetic Declination .................................................................................................................................................................... 75
Magnetic Inclination or Magnetic Dip or Dip Angle ........................................................................................................ 76
6. Geomorphic Movements ...................................................................................................................................... 78

6.1. Endogenic Geomorphic Movements ........................................................................................................... 78


The Force Behind Endogenic Movements ............................................................................................................................ 79
Classification of Endogenic Movements ............................................................................................................................... 79
Diastrophism .................................................................................................................................................................................... 79
Sudden Movements ...................................................................................................................................................................... 81
6.2. Exogenic Geomorphic Movements.............................................................................................................. 82
Denudation ....................................................................................................................................................................................... 82
Weathering ....................................................................................................................................................................................... 82
Physical Weathering Processes ................................................................................................................................................. 83
Chemical Weathering ................................................................................................................................................................... 90
Biological Activity and Weathering ......................................................................................................................................... 91
7. Tectonics................................................................................................................................................................. 93

7.1. Major Concepts That Tried to Explain the Tectonic Processes ................................................................ 93
7.2. Continental Drift Theory............................................................................................................................... 93
Forces Behind The Drifting Of Continents (According to Wegener) ......................................................................... 95
Evidence in Support of Continental Drift .............................................................................................................................. 95
Drawbacks of Continental Drift Theory ................................................................................................................................. 98
7.3. Seafloor Spreading ........................................................................................................................................ 98
Convection Current Theory (CCT) ............................................................................................................................................ 98
Palaeomagnetism ........................................................................................................................................................................... 99
Evidence in Support of Seafloor Spreading ....................................................................................................................... 101
7.4. Plate Tectonics .............................................................................................................................................101
Major Tectonic Plates.................................................................................................................................................................. 102
Minor Tectonic Plates ................................................................................................................................................................. 105
Interaction of Tectonic Plates .................................................................................................................................................. 106
Evidence in Support of Plate Tectonics ............................................................................................................................... 107
The Significance of Plate Tectonics ....................................................................................................................................... 108
v

7.5. Comparison: Continental Drift – Seafloor Spreading – Plate Tectonics................................................109


Page

8. Convergent Boundary .........................................................................................................................................110


8.1. Ocean-Ocean Convergence (O-O Convergence) or The Island-Arc Convergence ...............................110
Formation of Island Arcs............................................................................................................................................................111
Formation of The Philippine Island Arc System ............................................................................................................... 112
Formation of The Indonesian Archipelago......................................................................................................................... 112
Formation of The Caribbean Islands ..................................................................................................................................... 113
Formation of The Isthmus of Panama .................................................................................................................................. 113
Formation of The Japanese Island Arc ................................................................................................................................. 114
8.2. Continent-Ocean (C-O) Convergence or The Cordilleran Convergence................................................115
Formation of Continental Arcs ................................................................................................................................................ 116
Formation of Fold Mountains (Orogeny) ............................................................................................................................ 116
Formation of The Andes ............................................................................................................................................................118
Formation of The Rockies ......................................................................................................................................................... 119
8.3. Continent-Continent Convergence or The Himalayan Convergence ....................................................119
Formation of The Himalayans and The Tibetan Plateau ............................................................................................... 120
Formation of Alps, Urals, Appalachians and the Atlas Mountains ............................................................................ 123
Volcanism and Earthquakes in Continent-Continent Convergence ......................................................................... 123
8.4. Continent-Arc Convergence or New Guinea Convergence ....................................................................124
9. Divergent Boundary ............................................................................................................................................126

9.1. Formation and Evolution of Rift Valleys, Rift Lakes, Seas, and Oceans ................................................126
Stage 1: Upwarping and Fault Zones ................................................................................................................................... 126
Stage 2: Rift Valley Formation ................................................................................................................................................. 126
Stage 3: Formation of Linear Sea or Rift Lakes ................................................................................................................. 128
Stage 4: Linear Sea Transforms Into Ocean ....................................................................................................................... 129
9.2. The Great Rift Valley ...................................................................................................................................129
Africa is Splitting ........................................................................................................................................................................... 129
Volcanism & Seismicity Along East African Rift Valley................................................................................................. 130
10. Types of Mountains.............................................................................................................................................132

10.1. Classification of Mountains ........................................................................................................................132


Classification of Mountains based on The Period Of Origin ....................................................................................... 132
Classification of Mountains based on Mode Of Origin ................................................................................................. 132
Classification of Mountains Based on Location................................................................................................................ 133
10.2. Fold Mountains ............................................................................................................................................134
‘Fold’ In Geology ........................................................................................................................................................................... 134
Classification of Fold Mountains ............................................................................................................................................ 134
Characteristics of Fold Mountains ......................................................................................................................................... 136
10.3. Block Mountains or Fault-Block Mountains .............................................................................................136
‘Fault’ in Geology .......................................................................................................................................................................... 136
Types of Faults ............................................................................................................................................................................... 137
11. Volcanism .............................................................................................................................................................139

11.1. What Causes Volcanism? ............................................................................................................................139


vi

11.2. Lava Types ....................................................................................................................................................139


Page

Andesitic Or Acidic Or Composite Or Stratovolcanic Lava .......................................................................................... 139


Basic Or Basaltic Or Shield Lava.............................................................................................................................................. 140
11.3. Types of Volcanoes ......................................................................................................................................140
Composite Type Volcano (Stratovolcano) .......................................................................................................................... 140
Shield Type Volcano .................................................................................................................................................................... 141
Fissure Type or Flood Basalt Volcanoe (Lava Plateaus) ................................................................................................. 141
11.4. Types of Volcanoes Based on Frequency of Eruption .............................................................................141
Active Volcanoes........................................................................................................................................................................... 141
Dormant Volcanoes ..................................................................................................................................................................... 142
Extinct or Ancient Volcanoes ................................................................................................................................................... 142
11.5. Volcanism Types ..........................................................................................................................................142
1) Exhalative (Vapour Or Fumes) ....................................................................................................................................... 142
2) Effusive (Lava Outpouring) ............................................................................................................................................. 142
3) Explosive (Violent Ejection Of Solid Material) ......................................................................................................... 142
4) Subaqueous Volcanism ................................................................................................................................................... 143
11.6. Eruptive Volcanism Types ...........................................................................................................................144
1) Hawaiian Eruption..............................................................................................................................................................145
2) Icelandic Eruption ..............................................................................................................................................................145
3) Strombolian Eruption ....................................................................................................................................................... 145
4) Vulcanian Eruption ............................................................................................................................................................ 146
5) Plinian Eruption................................................................................................................................................................... 146
6) Pelean Eruption ................................................................................................................................................................... 148
11.7. Volcanic Landforms .....................................................................................................................................148
Extrusive Volcanic Landforms .................................................................................................................................................. 149
Intrusive (Plutonic) Volcanic Landforms .............................................................................................................................. 154
11.8. Distribution of Earthquakes and Volcanoes across the World...............................................................154
Pacific Ring of Fire........................................................................................................................................................................ 155
Other regions ................................................................................................................................................................................. 156
Mediterranean Volcanism ......................................................................................................................................................... 156
Volcanos in India .......................................................................................................................................................................... 156
11.9. Geysers and Hot Springs .............................................................................................................................157
11.10. Destructive Effects of Volcanoes ...............................................................................................................159
Volcanism – Acid Rain, Ozone Destruction ........................................................................................................................ 160
11.11. Positive Effects of Volcanoes .....................................................................................................................160
12. Hotspot Volcanism ..............................................................................................................................................161

12.1. Mantle Plumes .............................................................................................................................................162


12.2. Mantle Plumes and Flood Basalt Volcanism (Large Igneous Provinces)...............................................162
Flood Basalt Events and Extinctions ...................................................................................................................................... 162
12.3. Mantle Plumes and Volcanic Hotspots .....................................................................................................162
Hotspot Volcano Chain ..............................................................................................................................................................162
Reunion Hotspot .......................................................................................................................................................................... 164
vii

12.4. Mantle Plumes and Uplifted Landforms (Epeirogenic Movements) .....................................................166


12.5. Mantle Plumes and Thinning of The Continental Crust ..........................................................................166
Page

12.6. Mantle Plumes and Supervolcanoes .........................................................................................................167


Supervolcano Eruptions .............................................................................................................................................................167
Disaster Potential.......................................................................................................................................................................... 168
13. Types of Rocks & Rock Cycle .............................................................................................................................169

13.1. Igneous Rocks or Primary rocks.................................................................................................................169


Intrusive Igneous Rocks (Plutonic Rocks) ........................................................................................................................... 169
Extrusive Igneous Rocks (Lava Or Volcanic Rocks) ......................................................................................................... 170
Hypabyssal or Dyke Rocks or Intermediate rocks ........................................................................................................... 170
Acid Rocks ....................................................................................................................................................................................... 170
Basic Rocks ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 170
Economic Significance of Igneous Rocks ............................................................................................................................ 170
13.2. Sedimentary Rocks or Detrital Rocks ........................................................................................................171
Mechanically Formed Sedimentary Rocks .......................................................................................................................... 171
Chemically Formed Sedimentary Rocks .............................................................................................................................. 171
Organically Formed Sedimentary Rocks ............................................................................................................................. 172
Chief Characteristics of Sedimentary Rocks....................................................................................................................... 172
The Spread of Sedimentary Rocks in India ........................................................................................................................ 172
Economic Significance of Sedimentary Rocks .................................................................................................................. 172
13.3. Metamorphic Rocks.....................................................................................................................................173
Causes of Metamorphism ......................................................................................................................................................... 173
Some Examples of Metamorphosis ....................................................................................................................................... 174
Metamorphic Rocks in India .................................................................................................................................................... 174
13.4. Rock Cycle.....................................................................................................................................................174
13.5. Some Rock-Forming Minerals ....................................................................................................................175
14. Earthquakes ..........................................................................................................................................................177

14.1. Terms.............................................................................................................................................................177
Focus and Epicentre .................................................................................................................................................................... 177
Foreshocks, Aftershocks & Swarms ...................................................................................................................................... 177
14.2. Causes of Earthquakes ................................................................................................................................178
Fault Zones...................................................................................................................................................................................... 178
Plate Tectonics ............................................................................................................................................................................... 178
Volcanic Activity ............................................................................................................................................................................ 179
Human-Induced Earthquakes .................................................................................................................................................. 179
14.3. Earthquakes Based on The Depth of Focus ..............................................................................................179
Shallow-Focus Earthquakes ...................................................................................................................................................... 180
Deep-Focus Earthquakes ...........................................................................................................................................................180
Wadati–Benioff Zone: Earthquakes Along the Convergent Boundary .................................................................... 180
14.4. Distribution of Earthquakes .......................................................................................................................181
14.5. Richter Magnitude Scale .............................................................................................................................182
14.6. Most Powerful Earthquakes Ever Recorded .............................................................................................183
14.7. Notable Earthquakes ...................................................................................................................................184
14.8. Earthquake Zones of India..........................................................................................................................187
Earthquakes in Delhi NCR Region ......................................................................................................................................... 188
viii

Earthquakes in the North East................................................................................................................................................. 188


Page

14.9. Effects of Earthquakes ................................................................................................................................189


15. Tsunami ................................................................................................................................................................190

15.1. Mechanism of Tsunami Waves...................................................................................................................191


Disturbance ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 191
Propagation of The Waves ....................................................................................................................................................... 191
15.2. Properties of Tsunami Waves ....................................................................................................................191
Basics ................................................................................................................................................................................................. 191
Normal Waves ............................................................................................................................................................................... 192
Normal Waves vs Tsunami Waves ......................................................................................................................................... 192
15.3. 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami .......................................................................................................................193
Plate Tectonics ............................................................................................................................................................................... 193
Tsunami Waves.............................................................................................................................................................................. 193
Shifts in Geography ..................................................................................................................................................................... 194
15.4. Tsunami Warning Systems .........................................................................................................................194
India’s Preparedness ................................................................................................................................................................... 195
16. Fluvial Landforms and Cycle of Erosion ............................................................................................................197

16.1. Fluvial Erosional Landforms .......................................................................................................................197


River Valley...................................................................................................................................................................................... 197
River Course.................................................................................................................................................................................... 198
Meanders ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 199
Oxbow Lake .................................................................................................................................................................................... 200
Waterfalls ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 200
Potholes ...........................................................................................................................................................................................201
Terraces ............................................................................................................................................................................................201
Gulleys/Rills..................................................................................................................................................................................... 202
Peneplane (Peneplain) ................................................................................................................................................................202
16.2. Fluvial Depositional Landforms .................................................................................................................203
Alluvial Fans and Cones .............................................................................................................................................................203
Floodplains ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 203
Natural Levees ............................................................................................................................................................................... 204
Delta .................................................................................................................................................................................................. 205
Estuaries ...........................................................................................................................................................................................206
Cuspate Delta ................................................................................................................................................................................. 207
High-Constructive Deltas – Elongate and Lobate Delta ............................................................................................... 207
High-Destructive Deltas .............................................................................................................................................................208
16.3. Drainage Basin or River Basin ....................................................................................................................208
Drainage Divide............................................................................................................................................................................. 209
Difference between a River Basin, Watershed and Catchment Area ....................................................................... 209
Some Important Drainage Basins Across The World ..................................................................................................... 209
16.4. Drainage Systems (Drainage Patterns) .....................................................................................................209
Concordant Drainage.................................................................................................................................................................. 209
Discordant or Insequent Drainage Patterns ...................................................................................................................... 211
Other Drainage Patterns ............................................................................................................................................................213
ix

17. Major Landforms and Cycle of Erosion .............................................................................................................216


Page
17.1. Marine Landforms and Cycle of Erosion ...................................................................................................216
Marine Erosional Landforms .................................................................................................................................................... 216
Marine Depositional Landforms ............................................................................................................................................. 218
Coral Reefs ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 219
Coastlines ........................................................................................................................................................................................ 223
17.2. Karst Landforms and Cycle of Erosion ......................................................................................................226
Chemistry Behind Karst Landforms ....................................................................................................................................... 227
Conditions for The Formation of Karst Topography ...................................................................................................... 227
Karst Landforms ............................................................................................................................................................................ 227
The Karst Cycle of Erosion ........................................................................................................................................................ 230
17.3. Glacial Landforms and Cycle of Erosion ....................................................................................................230
Glacial Erosional Landforms ..................................................................................................................................................... 231
Glacial Depositional Landforms .............................................................................................................................................. 232
Glacial Cycle of Erosion ..............................................................................................................................................................233
17.4. Arid Landforms and Cycle of Erosion ........................................................................................................234
Water Eroded Arid Landforms................................................................................................................................................. 234
Wind Eroded Arid Landforms .................................................................................................................................................. 235
Arid Depositional Landforms ................................................................................................................................................... 237

Unit 3: Climatology and Climatic Regions


18. Latitudes and Longitudes ...................................................................................................................................240

18.1. Latitude or Parallel ......................................................................................................................................240


Important Parallels of Latitudes .............................................................................................................................................. 240
The Shape of The Earth and Latitudinal Heat Zones ...................................................................................................... 241
18.2. Longitude or Meridian ................................................................................................................................242
Longitude and Time .................................................................................................................................................................... 243
Standard Time and Time Zones .............................................................................................................................................. 243
Indian Standard Time.................................................................................................................................................................. 245
The International Date Line (IDL) ........................................................................................................................................... 246
18.3. Comparison: Latitude vs. Longitude..........................................................................................................250
19. The Motions of The Earth and Their Effects .....................................................................................................251

19.1. Rotation of Earth .........................................................................................................................................251


19.2. Revolution of Earth .....................................................................................................................................252
Solstice.............................................................................................................................................................................................. 252
Equinox .............................................................................................................................................................................................254
Perihelion and Aphelion ............................................................................................................................................................255
19.3. Eclipse ...........................................................................................................................................................257
Phases of The Moon.................................................................................................................................................................... 257
Solar Eclipse .................................................................................................................................................................................... 261
Lunar Eclipse ................................................................................................................................................................................... 264
x

20. Earth’s Atmosphere .............................................................................................................................................269


Page

20.1. Composition of The Earth’s Atmosphere ..................................................................................................269


Evolution of The Earth’s atmosphere.................................................................................................................................... 270
Permanent Gases of The Atmosphere ................................................................................................................................. 271
Important Constituents of The Atmosphere ..................................................................................................................... 272
20.2. Structure of The Earth’s Atmosphere ........................................................................................................274
Troposphere (0 to 12 km) ......................................................................................................................................................... 274
Stratosphere (12 to 50 km) ....................................................................................................................................................... 275
Mesosphere (50 to 80 km) ........................................................................................................................................................ 277
Thermosphere (80 to 700 km) ................................................................................................................................................. 277
Exosphere (700 to 1,000 km) ................................................................................................................................................... 279
20.3. Importance of Earth’s Atmosphere ...........................................................................................................280
21. Horizontal Distribution of Temperature ..........................................................................................................282

21.1. Ways of Transfer of Heat Energy ...............................................................................................................282


Radiation .......................................................................................................................................................................................... 282
Conduction ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 282
Convection ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 282
21.2. Factors Affecting Temperature Distribution ............................................................................................282
The Angle of Incidence (Inclination) of The Sun’s Rays ................................................................................................ 282
Duration of Sunshine .................................................................................................................................................................. 283
Transparency of Atmosphere .................................................................................................................................................. 283
Albedo .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 283
Land-Sea Differential .................................................................................................................................................................. 286
Prevailing Winds ........................................................................................................................................................................... 287
Aspects of Slope ........................................................................................................................................................................... 287
Ocean Currents.............................................................................................................................................................................. 287
Altitude .............................................................................................................................................................................................287
21.3. The Mean Annual Temperature Distribution ...........................................................................................288
General Characteristics of Isotherms .................................................................................................................................... 288
General Temperature Distribution ......................................................................................................................................... 288
Seasonal Temperature Distribution ...................................................................................................................................... 289
21.4. Latitudinal Heat Balance .............................................................................................................................292
21.5. Heat Budget .................................................................................................................................................293
22. Vertical Distribution of Temperature................................................................................................................294

22.1. Latent Heat of Condensation .....................................................................................................................294


Latent Heat...................................................................................................................................................................................... 294
22.2. Lapse Rate.....................................................................................................................................................295
22.3. Adiabatic Lapse Rate (ALR) ........................................................................................................................296
Relation Between Pressure, Temperature and Volume ................................................................................................. 296
Adiabatic Process: Temperature Changes In A Parcel of Rising or Falling Air ..................................................... 296
Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate (DALR) ........................................................................................................................................... 298
Wet Adiabatic Lapse Rate (WALR) ......................................................................................................................................... 299
Significance In Meteorology (Weather Forecasting) ...................................................................................................... 299
22.4. Temperature Inversion................................................................................................................................300
xi

Types of Temperature Inversion ............................................................................................................................................. 300


Page
23. Pressure Systems and Wind System..................................................................................................................304

23.1. Atmospheric Pressure .................................................................................................................................304


Atmospheric Pressure Cells ...................................................................................................................................................... 304
Isobars............................................................................................................................................................................................... 304
Vertical Variation of Atmospheric Pressure ....................................................................................................................... 305
23.2. Factors Affecting Wind Movement ...........................................................................................................306
Pressure Gradient Force .............................................................................................................................................................306
Buoyant Force ................................................................................................................................................................................ 306
Frictional Force .............................................................................................................................................................................. 307
Coriolis Force.................................................................................................................................................................................. 307
Centripetal Acceleration ............................................................................................................................................................309
23.3. Horizontal Distribution of Pressure ..........................................................................................................311
Equatorial Low-Pressure Belt or ‘Doldrums’ ...................................................................................................................... 311
Sub-Tropical High-Pressure Belt or Horse Latitudes...................................................................................................... 312
Sub-Polar Low-Pressure Belt.................................................................................................................................................... 313
Polar High-Pressure Belt ............................................................................................................................................................313
Factors Controlling Pressure Systems .................................................................................................................................. 314
Pressure Belts In July ................................................................................................................................................................... 314
Pressure Belts In January ...........................................................................................................................................................314
23.4. Pressure systems and General Circulation ................................................................................................315
Hadley Cell ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 316
Ferrel Cell ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 317
Polar Cell .......................................................................................................................................................................................... 317
23.5. Classification of Winds................................................................................................................................318
Primary winds or Prevailing Winds or Planetary Winds ................................................................................................ 318
Secondary or Periodic Winds................................................................................................................................................... 320
Land Breeze and Sea Breeze .................................................................................................................................................... 321
Valley Breeze and Mountain Breeze ..................................................................................................................................... 322
Tertiary or Local Winds ..............................................................................................................................................................322
24. Hydrological Cycle (Water Cycle) ......................................................................................................................325

24.1. Humidity .......................................................................................................................................................325


Water Vapour In Atmosphere ................................................................................................................................................. 325
Absolute Humidity ....................................................................................................................................................................... 326
Relative Humidity ......................................................................................................................................................................... 326
Specific Humidity .......................................................................................................................................................................... 327
24.2. Evaporation ..................................................................................................................................................328
Factors Affecting Rate of Evaporation ................................................................................................................................. 328
24.3. Condensation ...............................................................................................................................................329
Processes of Cooling For Producing Condensation ....................................................................................................... 330
24.4. Forms of Condensation ...............................................................................................................................330
Dew .................................................................................................................................................................................................... 331
xii

White Frost ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 331


Fog ..................................................................................................................................................................................................... 332
Page
Mist .................................................................................................................................................................................................... 333
Clouds ............................................................................................................................................................................................... 333
Precipitation.................................................................................................................................................................................... 337
24.5. Types of Rainfall ..........................................................................................................................................338
Convectional Rainfall................................................................................................................................................................... 338
Orographic Rainfall ...................................................................................................................................................................... 339
Cyclonic Rainfal ............................................................................................................................................................................. 339
World Distribution of Rainfall .................................................................................................................................................. 340
25. Thunderstorm ......................................................................................................................................................342

25.1. Formation of A (Thermal) Thunderstorm .................................................................................................342


Stage 1: Cumulus Stage .............................................................................................................................................................342
Stage 2: Mature stage................................................................................................................................................................. 342
Stage 3: Dissipating stage ......................................................................................................................................................... 344
25.2. Types of Thunderstorms .............................................................................................................................344
Single-Cell Thunderstorm (Isolated Thermal Thunderstorm) ..................................................................................... 344
A Multi-Cell Thunderstorm ....................................................................................................................................................... 345
A Supercell Thunderstorm ........................................................................................................................................................ 345
25.3. Tornado.........................................................................................................................................................346
Tornadogenesis (Formation of A Tornado)........................................................................................................................ 347
Waterspout ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 347
Distribution of Tornadoes ......................................................................................................................................................... 348
25.4. Lightning And Thunder...............................................................................................................................348
Thunder ............................................................................................................................................................................................349
Lightning From Cloud To Earth............................................................................................................................................... 349
Lightning Deaths .......................................................................................................................................................................... 350
25.5. Hailstorm ......................................................................................................................................................351
Favourable Conditions For Hail Formation ........................................................................................................................ 351
Formation of Hail.......................................................................................................................................................................... 351
25.6. Hazards Posed by Thunderstorms .............................................................................................................352
Pyrocumulonimbus Clouds And Forest Fires .................................................................................................................... 353
26. Tropical Cyclones.................................................................................................................................................354

26.1. Conditions Necessary for The Formation of A Tropical Cyclone ...........................................................355


Good Source of Latent Heat .................................................................................................................................................... 355
Coriolis Force.................................................................................................................................................................................. 356
Low-level Disturbances ..............................................................................................................................................................357
Why Fewer Cyclones Form Over The Arabian Sea As Compared To The Bay Of Bengal? .............................. 357
Temperature Contrast Between Air Masses ....................................................................................................................... 359
Wind Shear...................................................................................................................................................................................... 359
Upper Air Disturbance ................................................................................................................................................................360
26.2. Convective Cyclogenesis (Development of Tropical Cyclones)..............................................................361
xiii

Stage 1: Tropical Disturbance .................................................................................................................................................. 361


Stage 2: Tropical Depression (Maximum Sustained Wind Speed < 63 Kmph) .................................................... 362
Page

Stage 3: Tropical Storm (63 Kmph < Maximum Sustained Wind Speed < 119 Kmph) .................................... 363
Stage 4: Tropical Cyclone (Maximum Sustained Wind Speed > 119 Kmph) ........................................................ 363
Convective Cyclogenesis Mechanism – Early stage ........................................................................................................ 364
Convective Cyclogenesis Mechanism – Mature stage ................................................................................................... 366
26.3. Breeding Grounds for Tropical Cyclones ..................................................................................................367
Regional Names For Tropical Cyclones ............................................................................................................................... 370
26.4. Path of Tropical Cyclones ...........................................................................................................................370
Which Sector Of The Cyclone Experiences The Strongest Winds? ........................................................................... 371
26.5. Tropical Cyclone Scale.................................................................................................................................371
Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Wind Scale .................................................................................................................................. 371
Tropical Cyclone Scale by Indian Meteorological Department .................................................................................. 372
26.6. Damage Associated with Tropical Cyclones .............................................................................................372
Floods ................................................................................................................................................................................................ 373
Wind .................................................................................................................................................................................................. 373
Storm Surge .................................................................................................................................................................................... 373
States Vulnerable to Cyclones ................................................................................................................................................. 374
26.7. Positive Effects of Tropical Cyclones .........................................................................................................376
Heat Balance................................................................................................................................................................................... 376
Tropical Cyclones Bring Rainfall To The Rain Shadow And Other Parched Regions ......................................... 376
Break Up Red Tide........................................................................................................................................................................ 376
Replenish Barrier Islands............................................................................................................................................................376
Speed Dispersal To Faraway Locations ................................................................................................................................ 376
26.8. Naming of Tropical Cyclones .....................................................................................................................376
Northern Indian Ocean Region ............................................................................................................................................... 377
26.9. Changing Cyclone Patterns in The Indian Ocean .....................................................................................377
Cyclone Patterns in The Arabian Sea .................................................................................................................................... 378
26.10. Twin Cyclones...............................................................................................................................................379
Fujiwhara Effect ............................................................................................................................................................................. 379
Madden-Julian Oscillation (MJO) ........................................................................................................................................... 380
Madden-Julian Oscillation’s Impact on Weather ............................................................................................................. 381
How Does MJO Help The Formation of Twin Cyclones? .............................................................................................. 381
26.11. Warning of Tropical Cyclones ....................................................................................................................382
4-Stage IMD Warning System For Tropical Cyclones .................................................................................................... 382
27. Jet streams ...........................................................................................................................................................383

27.1. Explanation of Jet Streams .........................................................................................................................384


Geostrophic Wind ........................................................................................................................................................................ 384
Upper Tropospheric Westerlies .............................................................................................................................................. 385
High Velocity .................................................................................................................................................................................. 385
Meandering (Rossby Waves) ................................................................................................................................................... 386
27.2. Permanent Jet Streams ...............................................................................................................................387
xiv

Subtropical Jet Stream (STJ) ..................................................................................................................................................... 387


Polar Front Jet (PFJ) ..................................................................................................................................................................... 388
Page

27.3. Temporary Jet Streams ...............................................................................................................................388


The Somali Jet ................................................................................................................................................................................ 389
The Tropical Easterly (TEJ) Jet or African Easterly Jet ..................................................................................................... 389
27.4. Influence of Jet Streams on Weather ........................................................................................................389
Jet Streams And Weather In Temperate Regions ............................................................................................................ 389
Polar Vortex .................................................................................................................................................................................... 391
Heat Domes .................................................................................................................................................................................... 392
27.5. Jet Streams And Aviation ...........................................................................................................................393
28. Temperate Cyclones ............................................................................................................................................395

28.1. Air Masses.....................................................................................................................................................395


Source Regions.............................................................................................................................................................................. 395
Air Masses Based On Source Regions .................................................................................................................................. 396
Influence of Air Masses on World Weather ....................................................................................................................... 397
28.2. Fronts ............................................................................................................................................................398
Front Formation ............................................................................................................................................................................ 398
28.3. Classification of Fronts................................................................................................................................398
Stationary Front............................................................................................................................................................................. 399
Cold Front ........................................................................................................................................................................................ 400
Warm Front ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 401
Occluded Front .............................................................................................................................................................................. 402
28.4. Origin and Development of Temperate Cyclones ...................................................................................404
Polar Front Theory ....................................................................................................................................................................... 405
Characteristics of Temperate Cyclones ................................................................................................................................ 406
28.5. Tropical Cyclones vs. Temperate Cyclones ...............................................................................................408
29. El Nino, La Nina & El Nino Modoki ...................................................................................................................411

29.1. Normal Conditions ......................................................................................................................................412


Walker Circulation (Normal Years) ........................................................................................................................................ 412
29.2. El Nino ...........................................................................................................................................................413
El Nino Southern Oscillation (ENSO) .................................................................................................................................... 413
El Nino Modoki.............................................................................................................................................................................. 413
Effects of El Nino & ENSO......................................................................................................................................................... 414
29.3. Impact of El Nino on Indian Monsoons ....................................................................................................415
Southern Oscillation Index and Indian Monsoons .......................................................................................................... 415
Indian Ocean Dipole Effect (Not Every El Nino Year Is The Same In India) ........................................................... 415
29.4. La Nina ..........................................................................................................................................................417
Effects of La Nina .......................................................................................................................................................................... 417
30. Climatic Regions ..................................................................................................................................................420

30.1. Koppen’s Scheme of Classification of Climate .........................................................................................420


Climatic Groups According to Koppen ................................................................................................................................ 420
xv

Major Climatic Types According to Koppen ...................................................................................................................... 421


Köppen–Geiger Climate Classification ................................................................................................................................. 421
Page
30.2. A – Tropical Humid Climates ......................................................................................................................423
Tropical Wet Climate (Af: A – Tropical, f – no dry season) ........................................................................................... 423
Tropical Monsoon Climate (Am: A – Tropical, m – monsoon) .................................................................................... 429
Savanna or Tropical Wet and Dry Climate (Aw: A – Tropical, w – dry winter) ...................................................... 435
30.3. B – Dry Climate ............................................................................................................................................439
Hot Desert Climate (BWh: B – Dry, W – Desert, h – low latitude) ............................................................................. 440
Mid-Latitude Desert Climate (BWk: B – Dry, W – Desert, k – high latitude) ......................................................... 441
Desert Climate ............................................................................................................................................................................... 441
Desert Vegetation ........................................................................................................................................................................ 443
Life In The Deserts ........................................................................................................................................................................ 444
Steppe Or Temperate Grassland (Continental) Climate (BSk: B – Dry, S – Steppe, k – High Latitude)....... 444
30.4. C – Warm Temperate (Mid-latitude) Climates .........................................................................................447
Mediterranean Climate (Cs: C – Warm Temperate, s – Dry summer) ...................................................................... 447
Warm Temperate Eastern Margin Climate (Cfa: C – warm temperate, f – no dry season, a – hot summer)451
Cool Temperate Western Margin Climate (Cf: C – Warm temperate, f – no dry season) ................................ 455
30.5. D – Cold Snow-Forest Climates ..................................................................................................................460
Cool Temperate Eastern Marine Climate (Dfb: D – cool temperate, f – no dry season, b – warm summer)460
Taiga Climate or Boreal Climate (Dfc: D – cool temperate, f – no dry season, c – cold summer) ................ 466
30.6. E – Cold Climates..........................................................................................................................................471
Tundra Climate or Polar Climate or Arctic Climate (ET) ................................................................................................ 471
Polar Ice Cap Climate (EF) ......................................................................................................................................................... 472
30.7. Previous Year UPSC Prelims Questions .....................................................................................................472

Unit 4: Oceanography
31. Ocean Relief .........................................................................................................................................................479

31.1. Major Ocean Relief Features ......................................................................................................................479


Continental Shelf .......................................................................................................................................................................... 479
Continental Slope ......................................................................................................................................................................... 481
Continental Rise ............................................................................................................................................................................ 481
Deep Sea Plain or Abyssal Plain ............................................................................................................................................. 481
31.2. Minor Ocean Relief Features ......................................................................................................................481
Oceanic Deeps or Trenches ...................................................................................................................................................... 481
Mid-Oceanic Ridges or Submarine Ridges ........................................................................................................................ 482
Abyssal Hills (Seamounts And Guyots) ................................................................................................................................ 482
Submarine Canyons..................................................................................................................................................................... 483
Atoll.................................................................................................................................................................................................... 483
Bank, Shoal and Reef .................................................................................................................................................................. 484
32. Ocean Movements – Ocean Currents And Tides ..............................................................................................486

32.1. Ocean Currents.............................................................................................................................................486


Forces That Influence Ocean Currents ................................................................................................................................. 486
xvi

Types of Ocean Currents ...........................................................................................................................................................488


Pacific Ocean Currents ...............................................................................................................................................................488
Page

Atlantic Ocean Currents .............................................................................................................................................................491


Indian Ocean Currents ................................................................................................................................................................494
Effects of Ocean Currents.......................................................................................................................................................... 496
32.2. Tides ..............................................................................................................................................................500
Tidal Bulge: Why There Are Two Tidal Bulges?................................................................................................................. 501
Types of Tides Based On Frequency ..................................................................................................................................... 501
Types of Tides Based On The Sun, Moon And The Earth’s Positions ...................................................................... 503
Magnitude Of Tides ..................................................................................................................................................................... 506
Importance of Tides .................................................................................................................................................................... 506
Characteristics of Tides ..............................................................................................................................................................508
Tidal Bore ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 509
33. Ocean Temperature And Salinity.......................................................................................................................511

33.1. Ocean Temperature .....................................................................................................................................511


Source Of Heat In Oceans ......................................................................................................................................................... 511
Factors Affecting Temperature Distribution of Oceans ................................................................................................ 511
Vertical Temperature Distribution of Oceans.................................................................................................................... 512
Horizontal Temperature Distribution ................................................................................................................................... 516
Range of Ocean Temperature ................................................................................................................................................. 517
33.2. Ocean Salinity ..............................................................................................................................................518
Share of Dissolved Minerals and Salts in Sea Water ...................................................................................................... 518
Factors Affecting Ocean Salinity............................................................................................................................................. 518
Horizontal Distribution Of Salinity......................................................................................................................................... 518
Vertical Distribution of Salinity ............................................................................................................................................... 520
33.3. Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation (AMOC) ............................................................................520
Importance of AMOC.................................................................................................................................................................. 520

xvii
Page
1. The Universe, The Big Bang Theory, Galaxies & Stellar Evolution

Basic Terms
 Cosmos: another word for universe.
 Cosmic: relating to the universe or cosmos.
 Cosmic rays: highly energetic atomic nucleus or other particle travelling through space at a speed ap-
proaching that of light. Direct exposure to cosmic rays can cause gene mutations resulting in cancer.
 Cosmology: the scientific study of the large-scale properties of the universe.
 Cosmological: relating to the origin and development of the universe.
 Astronomy: the scientific study of celestial objects (stars, planets, comets, etc.) and phenomena that orig-
inate outside the Earth's atmosphere (such as the solar wind, gravitational waves, etc.).

• The Universe is all existing matter & space. It is incomprehensively large (beyond mental grasp). It consists
of both physical (subatomic particles like electrons, protons to galactic super-clusters) and non-physical
(light, gravitation, space etc.) components.
• The universe, at present, is said to possess about 100 billion galaxies, each comprising an average of 100
billion stars. In comparison, Milky Way Galaxy is believed to possess 100 billion to 400 billion stars.
(1,000,000 = 1 Million = 10 Lakhs; 1,000,000,000 = 1 Billion = 100 Crore; 1,000,000,000,000 = 1 Trillion

1.2. The Big Bang of Theory

The Expanding Universe

• The Big Bang Theory is the prevailing cosmological model for the universe’s birth. It states that, 13.8
billion years ago, all of space was contained in a single point of very high-density and high-tempera-
1

ture state from which the universe has been expanding in all directions ever since.
Page
The Evolution of The Universe Since the Big Bang
T in °C Event
Time
10-43 Sec 1032 The cosmos goes through a superfast “inflation,” expanding from the
size of an atom to that of a grapefruit in a tiny fraction of a second.
10-32 Sec 1027 Post-inflation, the universe is a seething, hot soup of electrons,
quarks, and other particles.
10-6 Sec 1013 A cooling cosmos permits quarks to clump into protons & neutrons.
3 min 108 Still too hot to form into atoms, charged electrons and protons pre-
vent light from shining.
3,00,000 years 103 Electrons combine with protons & neutrons to form atoms, mostly hy-
drogen & helium. Lithium & beryllium were formed in trace
amounts. Light can finally shine.
1 billion years -200 Gravity makes hydrogen and helium (primordial elements) coalesce
to form the giant clouds that will become galaxies; smaller clumps of
gas collapse to form the first stars.
15 billion years -270 As galaxies cluster together under the influence of gravity, the first
stars die and spew heavy elements into space: those will eventually
turn into new stars and planets.
2

Big Crunch (The Death of The Universe)


Page
2. The Solar system

The Formation of the Solar System: Nuclear Disc Model (Neo-Laplacian model)

Earlier Theories
• German philosopher Immanuel Kant’s Nebular Hypothesis (Theory) of Laplace (1796) tried to explain
the formation of the solar system. But it had many drawbacks as the theory was based on scientifically
erroneous assumptions. But one assumption it got right was that the solar system was born from a giant
interstellar cloud called nebula (a vast, swirling cloud of gas and dust).
• In 1900, Chamberlain and Moulton considered that a wandering star approached the sun. As a result, a
cigar-shaped extension of material was separated from the solar surface. As the passing star moved away,
the material separated from the solar surface continued to revolve around the sun and slowly condensed
into planets. Sir James Jeans and later Sir Harold Jeffrey supported this argument.
• In 1950, Otto Schmidt in Russia and Carl Weizascar in Germany somewhat revised the Nebular Hypothesis.
They considered that the sun was surrounded by solar nebula containing mostly hydrogen and helium
along with what may be termed as dust. The friction and collision of particles led to the formation of a
disk-shaped cloud and the planets were formed through the process of accretion.
• The most popular argument is the Big Bang Theory (expanding universe hypothesis (Edwin Hubble,
in 1920, provided evidence that the universe is expanding)). It was followed up by the Nuclear Disc Model
(Neo-Laplacian model) which dealt primarily with the formation of the solar system.

• According to the Nuclear Disc Model (Neo-Laplacian model), the nebula started its collapse and core
formation some 5-5.6 billion years ago, and the Sun and the planets were formed about 4.6 billion
years ago (the age of the earth is 4.543 billion years).

The Formation of the Sun


• The nebula began to collapse (gravitational collapse) in on itself after becoming gravitationally unstable.
This was possibly because of a nearby supernova sending shock waves rippling through space.
• Gravity then caused dust and gas to coalesce to the centre of the nebular cloud. As more matter got pulled
in, the centre got denser and hotter, increasing the gravity and pulling even more dust inwards causing a
snowball effect.
• About 99.9% of the material fell into the centre and became the protosun (no sunlight yet). Once the
centre of the cloud became hot enough it triggered nuclear fusion, and the Sun was born. The 0.1% of
matter that remained orbited around the Sun, causing the randomly shaped gas cloud to form a flat disc
shape. This flat disc, called the protoplanetary disc, was where the planets formed.
17

The Formation of the Planets


Page
Page 34
3. Geological Time Scale – The Evolution of The Earth’s Surface

• The geological time scale (GTS) divides and chronicles the earth’s evolutionary history into various periods
based on definite events that marked a major change in the earth’s physical, chemical, and biological
features.
• Major changes in earth’s physical and biological history stretch over several millions of years and hence in
GTS all the divisions are expressed in ‘million years (mya – million years ago).’
• The primarily defined divisions of time are eons, the Hadean, the Archean, the Proterozoic and the Phan-
erozoic. The first three of these can be referred to collectively as the Precambrian supereon. Each eon is
subsequently divided into eras, which in turn are divided into periods, which are further divided into
epochs.

SuperEon  Eon  Era  Period  Epoch

3.1. Hadean Eon (4,540 mya to 4,000 mya)

• The Hadean eon represents the time before a reliable (fossil) record of life. Temperatures are extremely
hot, and much of the Earth was molten because of frequent collisions with other bodies, extreme vol-
canism, and the abundance of short-lived radioactive elements.
• A giant impact collision with a planet-sized body named Theia (approximately 4.5 billion years ago) is
thought to have formed the Moon. The moon was subjected to Late Heavy Bombardment (lunar cata-
clysm – 4 billion years ago).
• During the LHB phase, a disproportionately large number of asteroids are theorised to have collided with
the early terrestrial planets in the inner Solar System, including Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars.
• Volcanic outgassing probably created the primordial atmosphere and then the ocean. The early atmos-
phere contained almost no oxygen. Over time, the Earth cooled, causing the formation of a solid crust,
41

leaving behind hot volatiles which probably resulted in a heavy CO2 atmosphere with hydrogen & water
vapour.
Page
Page 42
4. Earth’s Interior

4.1. The Internal Structure of The Earth

• The earth’s interior is made up of several concentric layers of which the crust, mantle, outer core & inner
core are significant because of their unique physical and chemical properties. The crust is a silicate solid,
the mantle is a viscous molten rock, the outer core is a viscous liquid, & the inner core is a dense
solid.

• Mechanically, the earth’s layers can be divided into lithosphere, asthenosphere (upper viscous part of
the mantle), mesospheric mantle (part of the mantle below the asthenosphere), outer core, & inner
core. Chemically, Earth can be divided into the crust, upper mantle, lower mantle, outer & inner core.

The Crust
• The crust is the outermost layer of the earth making up 0.5-1.0 per cent of the earth’s volume and less
than 1 per cent of Earth’s mass.
• Density increases with depth, and the average density is about 2.7 g/cm3 (the average density of the
earth is 5.51 g/cm³).
• The thickness of the crust varies in the range of 5-30 km in the case of the oceanic crust and 50-70 km
in the case of the continental crust.
51

• The continental crust can be thicker than 70 km in the areas of major mountain systems. It is as much as
Page

70-100 km thick in the Himalayan region.


Lithosphere
• The lithosphere is the rigid outer part of the earth with thickness varying between 10-200 km. It includes
the crust and the upper part of the mantle. It is broken into tectonic plates (lithospheric plates), and
the movement of these tectonic plates causes large-scale changes in the earth’s geological structure (fold-
ing, faulting).
• The source of heat that drives plate tectonics is the primordial heat left over from the planet’s formation
as well as the radioactive decay of uranium, thorium, and potassium in Earth’s crust and mantle.

The Mantle
• The Mantle forms about 83 per cent of the earth's volume & holds 67% of the earth’s mass. It extends
from Moho’s discontinuity to a depth of 2,900 km.
• The density of the upper mantle varies between 2.9-3.3 g/cm3. The lower mantle extends beyond the
asthenosphere. It is in a solid state. The density ranges from 3.3-5.7 g/cm3 in the lower mantle.
• Mantle comprises 45% oxygen, 23% magnesium and 21% silicon. The silicate rocks in the mantle are
rich in iron and magnesium relative to the overlying crust.
• In the mantle, temperatures range from approximately 200 °C at the upper boundary with the crust to
approximately 4,000 °C at the core-mantle boundary. Because of the temperature difference, there is a
convective material circulation in the mantle (although solid, the high temperatures within the mantle
cause the silicate material to be sufficiently ductile). Convection of the mantle is expressed at the surface
through the motions of tectonic plates.
• High-pressure conditions ought to inhibit seismicity in the mantle. However, in subduction zones, earth-
53

quakes are observed down to 670 km.


Page
Asthenosphere
• The upper portion of the mantle is called as asthenosphere (astheno means weak). It lies just below
the lithosphere extending up to 80-200 km. It is highly viscous, mechanically weak and ductile and its
density is higher than that of the crust.
• The properties of the asthenosphere aid in plate tectonic movement and isostatic adjustments (the
elevated part at one part of the crust area is counterbalanced by a depressed part at another). It is the
main source of magma that finds its way to the surface during volcanic eruptions.

The Core
• The core (inner core and the outer core) accounts for just about 16 per cent of the earth's volume but
33% of the earth’s mass.

The Outer Core


• The outer core, surrounding the inner core, lies between 2900 km and 5100 km below the earth's surface.
It is composed of iron mixed with nickel (nife) and trace amounts of lighter elements.
• The density ranges from 9.9 g/cm3 to 12.2 g/cm3. The temperature of the outer core ranges from 4400
°C in the outer regions to 6000 °C near the inner core. Heat sources include energy released by the com-
pression of the core, energy released at the inner core boundary as it grows (the latent heat of
crystallisation), and radioactivity of potassium, uranium, and thorium.
• The outer core is not under enough pressure to be solid, so it is liquid (fluid) even though it has a
composition similar to the inner core. Dynamo theory suggests that convection in the outer core, com-
bined with the Coriolis effect, gives rise to Earth's magnetic field.

The Inner Core


• The inner core is solid and extends from the centre of the earth to 5100 km below the earth's surface. It
is generally believed to be composed primarily of iron (80%) and some nickel (nife). It rotates slightly
faster relative to the rotation of the surface and is too hot to hold a permanent magnetic field. The density
ranges from 12.6 g/cm3 to 13 g/cm3.

[UPSC Prelims 2009] In the structure of planet Earth, below the mantle, the core is mainly
made up of which one of the following?
a) Aluminium
b) Chromium
c) Iron
d) Silicon
54
Page
• Secondary waves (secondary  they are recorded second on the seismograph) or S-waves are also called
transverse waves or shear waves or distortional waves. They are analogous to water ripples or light
waves. They arrive at the surface after the P-waves.
• Transverse waves or shear waves mean that the direction of vibrations of the particles in the medium is
perpendicular to the direction of propagation of the wave. Hence, they create troughs and crests in the
material through which they pass (they distort the medium).
• These waves are of high frequency and possess slightly higher destructive power compared to P-
waves. The trembling on the earth’s surface caused due to these waves is from side to side (horizontal).
• S-waves cannot pass through fluids (liquids and gases) as fluids do not support shear stresses, unlike
solids. They travel at varying velocities (proportional to shear strength) through the solid part of the Earth.

Surface waves (L-Waves)

• The body waves interact with the surface rocks and generate a new set of waves called surface waves
(long or L-waves). These waves move only along the surface. They are the slowest among the earth-
quake waves and are recorded last on the seismograph.
61
Page
No Shadow Zone
• The seismographs located at any distance within 103° from the epicentre, recorded the arrival of both
P and S-waves. Since this layer (crust and mantle) can transmit shear waves (transverse seismic waves), it
is solid.

Shadow Zone For Both P Wave and S Wave


• The seismographs located beyond 142° from the epicentre, record the arrival of P-waves, but not that
of S-waves. This gives clues about the solid inner core. Thus, a zone between 103° and 142° from the
epicentre was identified as the shadow zone for both types of waves.

Why Do Sound Waves Travel Faster In A Denser Medium Whereas Light Travels Slower?
• The sound is a mechanical wave and travels by compression and rarefaction of the medium. A higher
density leads to more elasticity in the medium and hence the ease by which compression and rarefaction
can take place. This way the velocity of sound increases with an increase in density.
• Light, on the other hand, is a transverse electromagnetic wave. An increase in the density increases
effective path length, and hence it leads to a higher refractive index and lower velocity.
63
Page
5. Earth’s Magnetic Field (Geomagnetic Field)

• Earth's magnetic field (geomagnetic field) is the magnetic field that extends from Earth's interior out
into space. In space, it interacts with the solar wind. This interaction shapes the earth’s magnetosphere.
• A 'field' is a region in which a body experiences a force owing to the presence of other bodies.
1. Gravitational fields determine how bodies with mass are attracted to each other.
2. In electric fields, objects that have an electric charge are attracted or repelled by each other.
3. Magnetic fields determine how electric currents that contain moving electric charges exert a force
on other electric currents. (Refer to PMF IAS NCERT Physics compilation to understand the concept of
“magnetic fields”)

 All magnets have two poles, a north pole and a south pole, and the north pole of one magnet is attracted
to the south pole of another magnet.

5.1. Magnetosphere

• The magnetosphere is the region above the ionosphere that is defined by the extent of the Earth's
magnetic field in space. It extends several tens of thousands of kilometres into space. It protects the
Earth from the charged particles of the solar wind and cosmic rays that would otherwise strip away the
upper atmosphere, including the ozone layer that protects the Earth from harmful ultraviolet radiation.
• The solar wind is responsible for the overall shape of the magnetosphere. It is roughly shaped like a
64

hemisphere on the side facing the Sun, then is drawn out in a long trail (magnetotail) on the opposite side.
Page

 The cosmic rays are kept out of the Solar system by the Sun's magnetosphere called the heliosphere.
Magnetopause
• The magnetopause is the boundary of the magnetosphere. It is the area where the pressures exerted
by the solar wind is balanced by the earth’s magnetic field. Despite its name, the magnetosphere is
asymmetric, with the sunward side being about 10 Earth radii out but the other side stretching out in a
magnetotail that extends beyond 200 Earth radii.

Bow Shock
• Sunward of the magnetopause is the bow shock, the area where the solar wind slows abruptly as a result
of its approach to the magnetopause.

Magnetosheath
• The turbulent magnetic region between the magnetopause and the bow shock is known as the mag-
netosheath.

Plasmasphere
• Plasmasphere is a region inside the magnetosphere that contains low-energy charged particles and
rotates with the Earth. It begins at the height of 60 km, extends up to 3 or 4 Earth radii, and includes the
ionosphere.

Auroras
• Aurora is the name given to the luminous glow in the upper atmosphere of the Earth which is produced
by charged particles (solar wind) descending from the planet's magnetosphere.
• Positive ions slowly drift westward, and negative ions drift eastward, giving rise to a ring current. This
current reduces the magnetic field at the Earth's surface.

5.2. Magnetosphere and Solar Wind


65
Page
Page 66
6. Geomorphic Movements

• Earth’s crust and its surface are constantly evolving (changing) due to various forces emanating from below
(endogenic forces) as well as above the surface of the earth (exogenic forces). These forces cause phys-
ical and chemical changes to the geomorphic structure (earth’s surface). Some of these changes are im-
perceptibly slow (e.g., weathering, folding), some others are gradual (e.g., erosion) while the remaining are
quite sudden (earthquakes, volcanic eruptions).
 Geomorphic: relating to the form of the landscape and other natural features of the earth's surface.
 Geomorphic agents: mobile medium (like running water, glaciers, wind, waves, currents etc.) which removes,
transports and deposits earth materials.
 Geomorphic processes: physical and chemical processes that take place on the earth’s surface (folding,
faulting, weathering, erosion, etc.) due to endogenic and exogenic forces.
 Geomorphic movements: large-scale physical and chemical changes that take place on the earth’s surface
due to geomorphic processes.

6.1. Endogenic Geomorphic Movements

• The large-scale movements on the earth’s crust or its surface brought down by the forces emanating
from deep below the earth’s surface are called endogenic geomorphic movements or simply endo-
78

genic movements (endo: internal; genic: origin; geo: earth; morphic: form). The geomorphic processes that
Page
7. Tectonics

• The discovery of ridges, trenches, seamounts, and other oceanic relief features during WW II gave rise to
the field of tectonics and gave insights into natural boundaries between various tectonic (lithospheric)
plates.
• Tectonics is the scientific study of forces (convection currents in the mantle) and processes (collisions
of the lithospheric plates, folding, faulting, volcanism) that control the structure of the Earth's crust and its
evolution. It is basically about understanding the large-scale deformation of the lithosphere (crust and
upper mantle above asthenosphere) and the forces that produce such deformation.
• The field of tectonics deals mainly with the study of:
1. folding and faulting associated with mountain building (orogeny);
2. large-scale, gradual upward and downward movements of the crust (epeirogenic movements);
3. growth and behaviour of old cores of continents known as cratons; and
4. sudden horizontal displacements (that produce seismic waves) along faults.

7.1. Major Concepts That Tried to Explain the Tectonic Processes

 Continental Drift Theory (CDT): Continental drift refers to the movement of the continents relative to
each other.
 Polar wandering (similar to Continental Drift Theory): Polar wandering is the relative movement of the
earth's crust and upper mantle with respect to the rotational poles of the earth.
 Seafloor Spreading Theory (SST): It describes the movement of oceanic plates relative to one another.
 Plate Tectonics (PT): Plate tectonics is the movement of lithospheric plates relative to each other.
 Convection Current Theory (CCT): Convection current theory forms the basis for SST and PT. It explains
the force behind plate movements.

7.2. Continental Drift Theory

93
Page
Page 94
Minor Tectonic Plates

1. Cocos plate: Between Central America and the Pacific plate


2. Nazca plate: Between South America and the Pacific plate
3. Arabian plate: Mostly the Saudi Arabian landmass
4. Philippine plate: Between the Asiatic and Pacific plate
5. Caroline plate: Between the Philippine and Indian plates (North of New Guinea)
6. Fuji plate: North-east of Australia
105

7. Turkish plate
Page

8. Aegean plate (Mediterranean region)


8. Convergent Boundary

In convergence there are subtypes namely:

1. Collision of oceanic plates or ocean-ocean convergence (formation of volcanic island arcs).


2. Collision of continental and oceanic plates or ocean-continent convergence (formation of continen-
tal arcs and fold mountains).
3. Collision of continental plates or continent-continent convergence (formation of fold mountains)
4. Collision of continent and arc, or continent-arc convergence.

8.1. Ocean-Ocean Convergence (O-O Convergence) or The Island-Arc Convergence

110
Page
• Formation of the Isthmus of Panama involved subduction of the Pacific-Farallon Plate beneath the Car-
ibbean and South American plates, forming a volcanic Panama arc on the edge of the Caribbean Plate.
The remains of the ancient Farallon Oceanic Plate are the Juan de Fuca Plate, parts of the North American
Plate and the South American Plate, the Cocos Plate and the Nazca Plate.
• The North and South American plates continued to move westward past the eastward-moving Carib-
bean Plate. In addition to their east-west (strike-slip or transform) motion, the plates also acquired a
north-south component of convergence, leading to the collision of the Panama Arc with South America.
This collision drove uplift in both the Northern Andes and the Panama Arc, forming the Isthmus of Pan-
ama.

Formation of The Japanese Island Arc


• Japan's volcanoes are part of three volcanic arcs. The arcs meet at a triple junction on the island of Honshu.
The northern arc is formed due to the subduction of the Pacific Plate under the Eurasian Plate. The trench
formed is Japan Trench.
• Central arc is formed due to the subduction of the Pacific Plate under the Philippine Plate (island for-
mation is not significant along this arc). The trench formed is Izu Trench. Southern Arc is formed due to
the subduction of the Philippine Plate under the Eurasian Plate. The trench formed is Ryukyu Trench.
• Japanese island arc was very close to the mainland. The force exerted by the Pacific Plate and the Philippine
Plate tilted the arc towards its east giving rise to the Sea of Japan.

114
Page
The Mariana Trench or Marianas Trench
 The Mariana Trench or Marianas Trench, the deepest trench, is located in the western Pacific Ocean.
It is formed due to the subduction of the Pacific Plate below the Mariana Plate. The maximum known
depth is between 10,994 & 11,034 metres on its floor known as the Challenger Deep.
 The Mariana trench is not the part of the seafloor closest to the centre of the Earth. This is because the
Earth is not a perfect sphere (its Geoid); its radius is about 25 kilometres smaller at the poles than at
the equator. As a result, parts of the Arctic Ocean seabed are at least 13 kilometres closer to the Earth's
centre than the Challenger Deep seafloor.

8.2. Continent-Ocean (C-O) Convergence or The Cordilleran Convergence


• Continent-Ocean Convergence is also called Cordilleran Convergence because this kind of convergence
gives rise to extensive fold mountain systems close to the coastline like the Rockies, the Andes, etc.
 A cordillera is an extensive chain of mountains or mountain ranges. Some mountain chains in North America
and South America are called cordilleras.
115

• Continent-Ocean Convergence is similar to ocean-ocean convergence with the major difference being that
in C-O convergence continental arcs and fold mountains are formed instead of islands.
Page
9. Divergent Boundary

• Divergence (divergent boundary) is responsible for the evolution and creation of new seas and oceans
just like convergent boundaries are responsible for the formation of fold mountains, and volcanic arcs.

9.1. Formation and Evolution of Rift Valleys, Rift Lakes, Seas, and Oceans

• The process of formation of a new sea begins with the formation of a divergent boundary.
 Upwarp: a broad elevated area of the earth's surface.
 Plume: a column of magma rising by convection in the earth's mantle.
 Rift Valley: a linear-shaped lowland (graben) between several highlands (horst) or mountain ranges
created by the action of a geologic rift or fault.

Stage 1: Upwarping and Fault Zones


• Rising limbs of the convection currents create a plume that tries to escape to the surface by upwarping
the lithosphere (doming the lithosphere upwards). During upwarping, a series of faults are created. Both
normal & thrust (reverse) faults occur during upwarping. The divergence of plates begins.
126

Stage 2: Rift Valley Formation


Faulting due to divergence creates an extensive rift system (fault zones, rift valleys).
Page


10. Types of Mountains

10.1. Classification of Mountains

Classification of Mountains based on The Period Of Origin


• A total of nine orogenic or mountain-building movements have taken place so far. The three most recent
orogenies are the Caledonian, Hercynian and Alpine.

Precambrian Mountains
• Precambrian mountains belong to the Precambrian Period (4,600 mya to 541 mya). The mountains have
been subjected to upheaval, denudation and metamorphosis and the remnants appear as residual moun-
tains. E.g. Laurentian & Algoman mountains (north of the St. Lawrence River and Ottawa River).

Caledonian Mountains
• Caledonian mountains originated due to the great mountain-building movements of the late Silurian and
early Devonian periods (approximately 430 mya to 380 mya). E.g. the Appalachians, Aravallis, Mahadeo
etc.

Hercynian Mountains
• These mountains originated during the upper Carboniferous to Permian Period in Europe (approximately
340 mya to 225 mya). E.g. Vosges and the Black Forest, Altai, Tien Shan mountains of Asia, Ural Moun-
tains etc.

Alpine Mountain System


• Alpine mountain system has its origin in the Tertiary Period (65 million years to 7 million years ago).
Examples are:
 the Rockies of North America,
 the Alpine mountains of Europe,
 the Atlas Mountains of north-western Africa,
 the Himalayas of the Indian subcontinent
 the mountains radiating from Pamir knot like Pontic, Taurus, Elburz, Zagros and Kunlun etc.
• Being the most recently formed, these ranges, such as the Alps, Himalayas, Andes and Rockies are the
loftiest with rugged terrain.

Classification of Mountains based on Mode Of Origin

Original or Tectonic Mountains


132

• Original or Tectonic mountains may be categorized into:


1. Fold mountains (the Himalayas, Rockies, Andes),
Page
10.2. Fold Mountains

• Fold mountains are formed when sedimentary rock strata in geosynclines are subjected to compressive
forces. They are the loftiest mountains, and they are generally concentrated along continental margins.
 Geosyncline: a large-scale depression in the earth's crust containing very thick deposits. E.g. Tethys geosyn-
cline.

‘Fold’ In Geology
• A fold is an undulating structure (wave-like) that forms when rocks or a part of the earth’s crust is folded
(deformed by bending) under compressional stress. The folds are made up of multiple strata (rock lay-
ers).
• The folds that are upwardly convex are called anticlines. The core (centre) of an anticline fold consists of
the older strata, and the strata are progressively younger outwards. In contrast, the folds that are down-
wardly convex are called synclines. The core of a syncline fold consists of the younger strata, and the strata
are progressively older outwards.

Types of Folds
• Symmetrical fold: the axial plane is vertical.
• Asymmetrical fold: the axial plane is inclined.
• Isoclinal fold: the limbs are approximately parallel to the axial plane.
• Overturned fold: highly inclined axial plane such that the strata on one limb are overturned.
• Recumbent fold: has an essentially horizontal axial plane.
134

Classification of Fold Mountains


Page
11. Volcanism

• A volcano is a vent or a fissure (rupture) in the earth’s crust from which lava (molten rock), ash, gases,
and rock fragments erupt from a magma chamber below the surface. Volcanism is the phenomenon of
the eruption of pyroclastics (a hot mixture of molten rock, rock fragments, gas, and ash).

11.1. What Causes Volcanism?

• The convection currents in the mantle create convergent and divergent boundaries (weak zones). At
the divergent boundary, volcanism appears at the first available opportunity through the fault zones. At
the convergent boundary, the subduction of the denser plate creates magma at high pressure which will
escape to the surface in the form of violent eruptions. In some other cases, volcanism is caused at unusual
locations by mantle plumes (hotspot volcanism).

11.2. Lava Types

• Magma is composed of molten rock and is stored in the Earth's crust. Lava is magma that reaches the
surface through a volcano vent.

Andesitic Or Acidic Or Composite Or Stratovolcanic Lava


• Andesitic lava flow occurs mostly along the destructive boundaries (convergent boundaries). Here the
lava is produced due to the melting of the subducting plate and the sediments brought down by it.
• Andesitic lavas have a high percentage of silica (because the source is the crust — felsic) and hence
they are highly viscous with a high melting point, are light-coloured and of low density.
• They flow slowly and seldom travel far before solidifying. The resultant volcanic cone is therefore strat-
ified (hence the name composite or stratovolcano) and steep-sided.

Volcanic plug (lava plug) at the crater


139

• The rapid solidifying of lava in the vent obstructs the flow of the out-pouring lava, resulting in loud
explosions, throwing out many volcanic bombs or pyroclasts. Sometimes the lavas are so viscous that
Page
they form a volcanic plug (object created when magma hardens within a vent on an active volcano) at
the crater, like that of Mt. Pelée in Martinique (an island in the Lesser Antilles, Caribbean Islands).

Basic Or Basaltic Or Shield Lava


• Basaltic lava flow occurs mostly along the constructive boundaries (divergent boundaries — fissure
type or flood basalt volcanism) and through volcanic hotspots (shield and/or flood basalt volcan-
ism). Here the lava comes directly from the mantle (less silica compared to the crust) and hence they
are the hottest lavas (about 1,000 °C).
• Basaltic lavas are rich in iron and magnesium (hence dark coloured) but poor in silica. Hence they are
relatively less viscous (highly fluid). They flow out of the volcanic vent quietly and are not very explo-
sive.
• Due to their high fluidity, they flow readily with a speed of 10 to 30 miles per hour. They affect extensive
areas, spreading out as thin sheets over great distances before they solidify. The resultant shield volcano
is gently sloping with a wide diameter and forms a flattened shield or dome.

11.3. Types of Volcanoes

Composite Type Volcano (Stratovolcano)


• A composite volcano or a stratovolcano is a large and steep conical volcano built up by many layers
(strata) of hardened andesitic lava, pyroclastic and mudflow (lahar) deposits, and tephra.
• Unlike shield volcanoes, stratovolcanoes are characterized by a steep profile with a summit crater and
periodic intervals of explosive eruptions and effusive eruptions, although some have collapsed summit
craters called calderas.

140
Page
12. Hotspot Volcanism

• Hotspot volcanism is a type of volcanism that typically occurs at the interior parts of the lithospheric
161

plates rather than at the plate margins. The Iceland Hotspot and Afar Hotspot which are situated at the
divergent boundary are exceptions. Hotspot volcanism occurs due to abnormally hot centres in the
Page
13. Types of Rocks & Rock Cycle

• Rocks are aggregates of one or more minerals held together by chemical bonds.
• Feldspar and quartz are the most common minerals found in rocks.
• Based on the mode of formation three major groups of rocks are defined:
1. Igneous Rocks — solidified from magma and lava.
2. Sedimentary Rocks — the result of deposition of fragments of rocks.
3. Metamorphic Rocks — formed out of existing rocks undergoing recrystallisation.
 The scientific study of rocks is called petrology.

13.1. Igneous Rocks or Primary rocks

• Rocks formed out of solidification of magma (molten rock below the surface) and lava (molten rock above
the surface) and are known as igneous or primary rocks. Having their origin under conditions of high
temperatures the igneous rocks are unfossiliferous. Granite, gabbro, and basalt are some examples of
igneous rocks.
• There are three types of igneous rocks based on place and time taken in cooling of the molten matter,
plutonic rocks, volcanic rocks and intermediate rocks. There are two types of rocks based on the pres-
ence of acid-forming silicon radical, acidic rocks and basic rocks.

Intrusive Igneous Rocks (Plutonic Rocks)


• If magma cools slowly at great depths, mineral grains formed in the rocks may be very large. Such rocks
169

are called intrusive rocks or plutonic rocks (e.g. Granite). These rocks appear on the surface only after
Page

being uplifted and denuded.


13.5. Some Rock-Forming Minerals

• Feldspar: Half of the crust is composed of feldspar. It has a light colour, and its main constituents are
silicon, oxygen, sodium, potassium, calcium, and aluminium. It is used for ceramics and glass making.
• Quartz: It has two elements, silicon and oxygen. It has a hexagonal crystalline structure. It is uncleaved,
white or colourless. It cracks like glass and is present in sand and granite. It is used in the manufacture of
radio and radar.
• Bauxite: A hydrous oxide of aluminium, it is the ore of aluminium. It is non-crystalline and occurs in small
pellets.
• Cinnabar (mercury sulphide): Mercury is derived from it. It has a brownish colour.
• Dolomite: A double carbonate of calcium and magnesium. It is used in the cement and iron and steel
industries.
• Gypsum: It is hydrous calcium sulphate and is used in cement, fertiliser and chemical industries.
• Haematite: It is a red ore of iron.
• Magnetite: It is the black ore (or iron oxide) of iron.
175

• Amphibole: It forms about 7 per cent of the earth's crust and consists mainly of aluminium, calcium, silica,
iron, magnesium, etc. It is used in the asbestos industry. Hornblende is another form of amphiboles.
Page
14. Earthquakes

• An earthquake is a shaking or trembling of the earth’s surface caused by the seismic waves or earthquake
waves that are generated due to a sudden movement (sudden release of energy) in the earth’s crust
(shallow-focus earthquakes) or upper mantle (some shallow-focus and all intermediate and deep-
focus earthquakes).

14.1. Terms

Focus and Epicentre


• A seismograph or seismometer is used to detect and record earthquakes. The point where the energy is
released is called the focus or the hypocentre of an earthquake. The point on the surface directly above
the focus is called the epicentre (the first surface point to experience the earthquake waves). A line con-
necting all points on the surface where the intensity is the same is called an isoseismic line.

Foreshocks, Aftershocks & Swarms


• Usually, a major or even moderate earthquake of shallow focus is followed by many smaller earthquakes
known as aftershocks. A mild earthquake preceding the violent shaking movement of an earthquake is
known as a foreshock.
• Large numbers of small earthquakes may occur in a region for months without a major earthquake. Such
177

a series of earthquakes are called earthquake swarms. Earthquakes associated with volcanic activity often
Page
15. Tsunami

• Tsunami is a Japanese word for “Harbour wave”. A tsunami is a series of very long-wavelength waves in
190

large water bodies like seas or large lakes caused by a major disturbance above or below the water surface
or due to the displacement of a large volume of water. They are sometimes referred to as tidal waves
Page
16. Fluvial Landforms and Cycle of Erosion

• Soil erosion is the loosening and displacement of topsoil from the land due to the action of agents like
wind and water. Soil erosion in nature may be a slow process (geological erosion) or a fast process pro-
moted by human activities like overgrazing, and deforestation.
• Weathering and erosion lead to the simultaneous process of ‘degradation' and ‘aggradation'. Erosion is a
mobile process while weathering is a static process (there is no motion of disintegrated material except
the falling under the force of gravity). The landforms created as a result of degradational action (erosion
and transportation) or aggradational work (deposition) of running water are called fluvial landforms.

16.1. Fluvial Erosional Landforms

• Fluvial Erosional Landforms are landforms created by the erosional activity of rivers. Various aspects of
fluvial erosive action include:
 Hydration: the force of running water wearing down rocks.
 Corrosion: chemical action that leads to weathering.
 Attrition: river load particles striking, colliding against each other and breaking down in the process.
 Abrasion: solid river load striking against rocks and wearing them down.
 Downcutting (vertical erosion): the erosion of the base of a stream (downcutting leads to valley
deepening).
 Lateral erosion: the erosion of the walls of a stream (leads to valley widening).
 Headward erosion: erosion at the origin of a stream channel, which causes the origin to move back
away from the direction of the stream flow, and so causes the stream channel to lengthen.
 Braiding: the main water channel splits into multiple, narrower channels. A braided river or braided
channel consists of a network of river channels separated by small, and often temporary, islands called
braid bars. Braided streams occur in rivers with low slopes and/or large sediment loads.

River Valley
• The extended depression on the ground through which a stream flows is called a river valley. At different
stages of the erosional cycle, the valley acquires different profiles.
• At a young stage, the valley is deep, and narrow with steep wall-like sides and a convex slope. The erosional
action here is characterized by predominantly vertical downcutting. The profile of the valley here is typical
V-shaped. A tributary valley lies above the main valley and is separated from it by a steep slope, down
which the stream may flow like a waterfall or a series of rapids.
• A deep and narrow V-shaped valley is also referred to as a gorge and may result due to downcutting
197

erosion or because of the recession of a waterfall (the position of the waterfall receding due to headward
erosive action). Most Himalayan rivers pass through deep gorges (at times more than 500 metres deep)
Page
before they descend to the plains. An extended form of the gorge is called a canyon. The Grand Canyon
of the Colorado River in Arizona (USA) runs for 483 km and has a depth of 2.88 km.
• As the cycle attains maturity, the lateral erosion (erosion of the walls of a stream) becomes prominent,
and the valley floor flattens out (attains a ‘V’ to ‘U’ shape). The valley profile now becomes typically ‘U’
shaped with a broad base and a concave slope.

River Course

198
Page
17. Major Landforms and Cycle of Erosion

17.1. Marine Landforms and Cycle of Erosion

• Sea waves, aided by winds, currents, tides and storms carry on the erosional and depositional processes.
The erosive work of the sea depends upon the size and strength of waves, slope, the height of the shore
between low and high tides, the shape of the coast, the composition of rocks, depth of water, human
activity etc.
• The wave pressure compresses the air trapped inside rock fissures, joints, faults, etc. forcing them to ex-
pand and rupture along the weak points. This is how rocks undergo weathering under wave action.
• Waves also use rock debris as instruments of erosion (glaciers are far good at this). These rock fragments
carried by waves themselves get worn down by striking against the coast or one another.
• The solvent or chemical action of waves is another mode of erosion, but it is pronounced only in the case
of soluble rocks like limestone and chalk.

Marine Erosional Landforms

Chasms
• Chasms are narrow, deep indentations (a deep recess or notch) carved due to headward erosion (downcut-
ting) through vertical planes of weakness in the rocks by wave action. With time, further headward erosion
216

is hindered by lateral erosion of the chasm mouth, which itself keeps widening till a bay is formed.
Page
Blow Holes or Spouting Horns
• The burst of water through a small hole in a sea cave due to the compression of air in the cave by strong
waves gives rise to spouting horns or blow holes which make a peculiar noise.

Plain of Marine Erosion/Peneplain


• The eroded plain left behind by marine action is called a plain of marine erosion. If the level difference
between this plain and the sea level is not much, the agents of weathering convert it into a peneplain.

Marine Depositional Landforms

Beach
• Beach is the temporary covering of rock debris and sand on or along a wave-cut platform.

Bar
• Currents and tidal currents deposit rock debris and sand (sandbar) along the coast at a distance from the
shoreline. The resultant landforms which remain submerged are called bars. The enclosed water body so
created is called a lagoon.
218

Barrier
Page
18. Latitudes and Longitudes

• Latitudes and Longitudes (coordinate system) are imaginary lines used to determine the location of a place
on earth. For example, New Delhi is situated near the intersection of 28° N Latitude and 77° E Longitude.

18.1. Latitude or Parallel

• Latitude is the angular distance of a place north or south of the equator measured in degrees from the
earth’s centre. As the earth is slightly flattened at the poles, the linear distance of a degree of latitude
at the pole is slightly longer than that at the equator. For example, at the equator linear distance of a
degree of latitude is 110.57 km (68.7 miles), at 45° it is 111.13 km (69 miles), and at the poles, it is 111.7
km (69.4 miles). The average is taken as 111 km (69 miles).

Important Parallels of Latitudes


• Besides the Equator (0°), the North Pole (90° N) and the South Pole (90° S), there are four important
parallels of latitudes:
1. The Tropic of Cancer (23½° N) in the northern hemisphere.
2. The Tropic of Capricorn (23½° S) in the southern hemisphere.
240

3. The Arctic Circle (66½° N) in the northern hemisphere.


4. The Antarctic Circle (66½° S) in the southern hemisphere.
Page
• The mid-day sun is exactly overhead at least once a year on all latitudes in between the Tropic of Cancer
and the Tropic of Capricorn. This area, therefore, receives the maximum heat and is called the torrid zone.
• The mid-day sun never shines overhead on any latitude beyond the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of
Capricorn. The angle of the sun’s rays goes on decreasing towards the poles. As such, the areas
bounded by the Tropic of Cancer and the Arctic circle, and the Tropic of Capricorn and the Antarctic circle,
have moderate temperatures. These are, therefore, called temperate zones.
• Areas lying beyond the Arctic circle and the Antarctic circle are very cold. Here the sun does not rise
much above the horizon. Therefore, its rays are always slanting. These are, therefore, called frigid zones.

Temperature Falls as We Move From The Equator Towards The Poles


• Temperature falls at the surface of the earth as one moves away from the equator towards the poles. This
is because of the spherical (geoid) shape of the earth and the position of the sun relative to earth.
• The energy received per unit area decreases from the equator towards the poles as the equator re-
ceives direct sunlight and the sun’s rays become slant or oblique as we move poleward.

18.2. Longitude or Meridian


• Longitude is an angular distance of a place east or west of the Prime (First) Meridian measured in degrees
from the earth’s centre. On the globe, longitude is shown as a series of semi-circles that run from pole to
pole passing through the equator. Such lines are also called meridians. It was decided in 1884 to choose
the meridian which passes through the Royal Astronomical Observatory at Greenwich, near London, as
242

the Zero Meridian or Prime Meridian. All other meridians radiate eastwards and westwards of the prime
Page

meridian up to 180°.
19. The Motions of The Earth and Their Effects

19.1. Rotation of Earth

• The spinning movement of the earth is called rotation. The earth rotates around its axis in the west to east
direction. It takes earth approximately 24 hrs (23 hours, 56 minutes, and 4 seconds) to complete one
rotation.
• Earth’s axis is an imaginary line that is antipodal ― meaning it passes through the centre of the earth
connecting two exactly opposite ends. It passes through the North Pole, the earth’s centre, and the South
Pole
• Days and nights occur due to the rotation of the earth. The circle dividing day from night on the globe
is called the circle of illumination.
• Earth rotates on a tilted axis. Earth’s rotational axis makes an angle of 23.5° with the normal, i.e. it makes
251

an angle of 66.5° with the orbital plane of the earth (the ecliptic plane – the plane in which the earth
revolves around the sun).
Page
19.2. Revolution of Earth

• While the Earth spins on its axis, it also orbits or revolves around the Sun. This movement is called revo-
lution.
• The plane in which the earth revolves around the sun is called an orbital plane or the ecliptic. It takes
365¼ days (one year) for the earth to complete one revolution around the sun.
• Six surplus hours saved every year are added to make one day over a span of four years. This surplus day
is added to the month of February. Thus, every fourth year, February is of 29 days instead of 28 days. Such
a year with 366 days is called a leap year.

Solstice

Summer Solstice
• On 21st June, the northern hemisphere is tilted towards the sun, and the rays of the sun fall directly on
the Tropic of Cancer. As a result, these areas receive more heat. Since a large portion of the northern
hemisphere is getting light from the sun, it is summer in the regions north of the equator. The longest
day and the shortest night across the northern hemisphere occur on the 21st of June. This position of
the earth is called the summer solstice. During summer solstice the whole Arctic region falls within
the ‘zone of illumination’ all day long.
• At this time in the southern hemisphere, all these conditions are reversed. It is winter season there. The
252

nights are longer than the days. (For the southern hemisphere 21st of June is the winter solstice)
Page
20. Earth’s Atmosphere

• Our planet earth is enveloped by a deep blanket of gases extending several hundreds of kilometres above
its surface. This gaseous cover of the earth is known as the atmosphere. Like land (lithosphere) and water
(hydrosphere), the atmosphere is also an integral part of the earth, and it is held in place by the gravita-
tional influence of the earth.
269

20.1. Composition of The Earth’s Atmosphere


Page
21. Horizontal Distribution of Temperature

• The differential amount of sun’s energy received by various latitudinal zones on earth is the primary
reason behind the occurrence of seasonal patterns of weather and climate. Thus, understanding the pat-
terns of distribution of temperature in different seasons is important for understanding various climatic
features like wind systems, pressure systems, precipitation, etc.

21.1. Ways of Transfer of Heat Energy

Radiation
• Radiation doesn’t require a medium for heat transfer. Heat is transferred from one body to another
without actual contact or movement in the medium. E.g. Heat transfer from the sun to earth through
space.

Insolation
• Insolation is the amount of sun’s energy received in the form of radiation by the earth. It is measured as
the amount of solar energy received per square centimetre per minute.
• Earth receives the sun’s radiation in the form of short waves (visible light or wavelengths below visible
light — most of it is ultraviolet radiation) which are electromagnetic.
• The earth absorbs short wave radiation during daytime and reflects the heat received into space as
long-wave radiation (mostly infrared radiation which is nothing but heat) during the night.

Conduction
• The heat transfer through conduction happens due to molecular activity in a conducting medium. There
is no actual movement of the medium itself. Generally, denser materials like iron, and water are good
conductors, and lighter mediums like air are bad conductors of heat.

Convection
• Convection is the transfer of heat energy by the actual transfer of matter or substance from one place
to another. E.g. Heat transfer by convection cells in a boiling pot of water, atmosphere, oceans or in the
earth’s mantle.

21.2. Factors Affecting Temperature Distribution

The Angle of Incidence (Inclination) of The Sun’s Rays


• The area lying close to the equator receives maximum heat due to near vertical rays of the sun. The sun’s
rays get progressively slanting as one moves away from the equator towards the poles. As a result, the
282

heat received from the sun decrease as the distance increases from the equator. Areas lying close to the
Page

poles receive the least of the sun’s energy as the sun’s rays are near horizontal.
Duration of Sunshine
• Heat received depends on day or night; clear sky or overcast, summer or winter, etc. Earth’s atmosphere
plays an important role in moderating the temperatures between seasons and between days and nights.

Transparency of Atmosphere
• Aerosols (smoke, soot, pollen), dust, water vapour, clouds etc. affect transparency.
• If the wavelength of the radiation is more than the radius of the obstructing particle (such as a gas),
scattering of radiation takes place. Most of the light received by earth is scattered light. If the wave-
length is less than the obstructing particle (such as a dust particle), then reflection takes place.
• Absorption of solar radiation takes place if the obstructing particles happen to be water vapour, ozone
molecules, carbon dioxide molecules or clouds (Greenhouse effect).

Albedo
• Albedo of a surface is the proportion of sunlight that the surface can reflect back into space. The
283

albedo of land is much greater than that of oceans and water bodies. Snow-covered areas have the
highest albedo and can reflect up to 70-90% of insolation.
Page
22. Vertical Distribution of Temperature

• To understand the vertical distribution of temperature we need to know about latent heat, lapse rate and
adiabatic lapse rate. The terms ‘Adiabatic Lapse Rate’ and ‘Latent Heat of Condensation’ frequently occur
in climatology. Understanding these terms once and for all will help immensely in understanding the sub-
sequent topics.

22.1. Latent Heat of Condensation

• Adiabatic lapse rate determines the rate of condensation in the atmosphere which in turn determines the
amount of latent heat of condensation released. The heat released in the form of latent heat of con-
densation supplies the energy necessary for the formation of towering cumulonimbus thunderstorm
clouds and tropical cyclones.

Latent Heat
• Latent heat is the amount of energy absorbed or released by a substance during a change in its physical
state (phase change) that occurs without changing its temperature.
• For example, when a pot of water is kept boiling, the temperature remains at 100 °C until the last drop
evaporates because all the heat being added to the liquid is absorbed as latent heat of vaporisation and
carried away by the escaping vapour molecules. Similarly, while the ice melts, it remains at 0 °C, and the
liquid water that is formed with the latent heat of fusion is also at 0 °C.

Explanation

294
Page
23. Pressure Systems and Wind System

23.1. Atmospheric Pressure

• The weight of a column of air contained in a unit area from the mean sea level to the top of the atmosphere
is called the atmospheric pressure. It varies from place to place due to differences in topography, insolation
and related weather and climatic factors. The atmospheric pressure at sea level is 1034 gm per square
centimetre.
• Atmosphere (atm) is an internationally recognised unit for measuring atmospheric pressure at a place. The
units used by meteorologists are millibars (mb) and Pascal (Pa).
• One millibar is equal to the force of one gram on a square centimetre. A pressure of 1000 millibars is equal
to the weight of 1.053 kilograms per square centimetre. The normal pressure at sea level is taken to be
about 1013.25 millibars (equal to the weight of a column of mercury 75 cm high).
 1 atm = 1013.25 millibars (mb) = 101325 pascals (Pa) = 101.325 kilopascals (kPa)

Atmospheric Pressure Cells


• When heated, the volume of a parcel of air increases (air expands) and hence the pressure within the air
parcel falls creating a low-pressure cell (low-pressure centre). When cooled, the volume of the air parcel
decreases (air is compressed) and hence the pressure within the air parcel increases creating a high-pres-
sure cell (high-pressure centre). A combination of atmospheric pressure cells gives rise to distinct pressure
systems within the atmosphere.
• The distribution of continents and oceans has a marked influence on the distribution of pressure. In winter,
the continents are cooler than the oceans and tend to develop high-pressure centres, whereas, in
summer, they are relatively warmer and develop low pressure. It is just the reverse with the oceans.

Isobars
• Isobars are lines connecting places having equal atmospheric pressure. The spacing of isobars expresses
the rate of pressure changes and is referred to as pressure gradient. Close spacing of isobars indicates a
steep or strong pressure gradient, while wide spacing suggests a weak gradient. The pressure gradient
may thus be defined as the decrease in pressure per unit distance in the direction in which the pressure
decreases most rapidly.

Closed Isobars or Closed Pressure Centres


• Low-pressure system (low-pressure cell) is enclosed by one or more isobars with the lowest pressure in
the centre.
High-pressure system (high-pressure cell) is enclosed by one or more isobars with the highest pressure in
304


the centre.
Page
• The vertical pressure gradient force is much larger than that of the horizontal pressure gradient. How-
ever, it is generally balanced by a nearly equal but opposite gravitational force. Hence, we do not expe-
rience strong upward winds.

23.2. Factors Affecting Wind Movement

 Wind: horizontal movement of air. Currents: vertical movement of air.


• The factors that affect wind movement are pressure gradient force, buoyant force, friction, Coriolis
force, gravitational force, and centripetal acceleration.

Pressure Gradient Force


• The pressure gradient (difference in pressure) between atmospheric pressure cells and the surround-
ings causes the movement of air from relatively high-pressure centres to relatively low-pressure cen-
tres. This movement (motion) of air is called wind. Greater the pressure difference, the greater the wind
speed.
• Small pressure gradients (small differences in pressure) are highly significant in terms of the wind direction
and velocity. The pressure gradient is strong where the isobars are close to each other and weak where
the isobars are apart. The wind direction follows the direction of the pressure gradient, i.e. perpendicular
to the isobars.

Buoyant Force
• The atmospheric pressure cells also determine whether the air sinks or rises at a place. The surrounding
atmosphere exerts a buoyant force on low-pressure cells and hence the air within a low-pressure cell
rises. On the other hand, the air within a high-pressure cell sinks as it is denser than the surrounding
atmosphere.

306
Page
• The pattern of the movement of the planetary winds (permanent winds) is called the general circula-
tion of the atmosphere. The general circulation of the atmosphere also sets in motion the ocean water
circulation which influences the earth’s climate.
• The pattern of planetary winds depends on:
 latitudinal variation of atmospheric heating;
 emergence of pressure belts;
 the migration of belts following the apparent path of the sun;
 the distribution of continents and oceans;
 the rotation of earth.

Hadley Cell
The air at the equatorial low-pressure belt rises because of the convection currents. The air reaches the
316


top of the troposphere up to an altitude of 14 km and moves towards the poles. This causes accumulation
Page

of air at about 30° N and S. Part of the accumulated air sinks to the ground and forms a subtropical high.
24. Hydrological Cycle (Water Cycle)

• There is a continuous exchange of water between the atmosphere, the oceans and the continents through
the processes of evaporation, transpiration, condensation and precipitation. The moisture in the at-
mosphere is derived from water bodies through evaporation and from plants through transpiration
(evapotranspiration). Evaporated water undergoes condensation and forms clouds. When saturation is
reached, clouds give away water in the form of precipitation. Since the total amount of moisture in the
entire system remains constant, a balance is required between evapotranspiration and precipitation. The
hydrological cycle maintains this balance.

24.1. Humidity

• Water vapour present in the air is known as humidity.

Water Vapour In Atmosphere


• Water vapour in air varies from zero to four per cent by volume of the atmosphere (averaging around
325

2% in the atmosphere). The amount of water vapour in the atmosphere (humidity) is measured by a
hygrometer.
Page
• As their name implies, these are layered clouds covering large portions of the sky. These clouds are gen-
erally formed either due to loss of heat or the mixing of air masses with different temperatures.

Nimbus Clouds
• Nimbus clouds are black or dark grey masses of thick vapour. They form at middle levels or very near the
surface of the earth. These are extremely dense and opaque to the rays of the sun. Sometimes, the clouds
are so low that they seem to touch the ground.
334

Types of Clouds
Page
• Everyone sees their particular halo, made by particular ice crystals, which are different from the ice crys-
tals making the halo of the person standing next.

336
Page
25. Thunderstorm

• Thunderstorms and tornadoes are severe (violent), short-duration, localized storms (occurring over a
small area) that involve rapid convection or upliftment of air.
• Thunderstorms are storms with thunder and lightning and typically also heavy rain or hail. They mostly
occur in areas where the temperature is high and the air has good humidity. They are less frequent on
water bodies due to low temperature.
• Worldwide, there are an estimated 16 million thunderstorms each year, and at any given moment, there
are roughly 2,000 thunderstorms in progress.

25.1. Formation of A (Thermal) Thunderstorm

Stage 1: Cumulus Stage


• Thermal thunderstorms (cumulonimbus cloud and convectional rain) are caused due to intense heat-
ing of the ground during summer and the subsequent rapid upliftment of the warm humid parcel of air. A
low pressure starts to establish due to the intense upliftment of an air parcel (convention). Air from the
surroundings start to rush in to fill the low pressure. Intense convection of humid warm air builds up a
towering cumulonimbus cloud.

Stage 2: Mature stage


342
Page
25.5. Hailstorm

• Hail is a form of solid precipitation in which frozen pellets fall in showers from a cumulonimbus cloud.
A hailstone is a layered irregular lump of ice. It is made of thick and translucent layers, alternating with
layers that are thin, white and opaque. Hailstones are produced in almost all thunderstorms, but in most
cases, they don’t reach the surface. Any thunderstorm which produces hail that reaches the ground is
known as a hailstorm.

Favourable Conditions For Hail Formation


 Strong, upward motion of air (strong updraft) within the parent thunderstorm
 High liquid water content
 Great vertical extent of the cumulonimbus cloud
 Good portion of the cloud layer is below freezing (0 °C or below)
 High surface temperatures (hail growth is greatly inhibited during cold surface temperatures)

Formation of Hail
351

• Hail begins as water droplets in a cumulonimbus cloud. As the droplets rise and the temperature goes
below freezing, they freeze on coming in contact with condensation nuclei.
Page
• The storm's updraft with great wind speeds (180 kmph) blows the forming hailstones up the cloud. When
the hailstone moves into an area with a high concentration of supercooled water droplets, it acquires a
new opaque layer.
• The hailstone will keep rising in the thunderstorm until its mass can no longer be supported by the updraft.
It doesn’t fall immediately to the surface because of melting, friction with air, wind, and interaction with
rain and other hailstones that slow its descent. In the process, it acquires more layers. It then falls toward
the ground while continuing to grow, based on the same processes, until it leaves the cloud. Finally, it may
fall to the surface as hailstone if it can overcome the frictional force of the wind and ground temperature.
• Hailstones can grow up to 15 centimetres and weigh more than 0.5 kg. Generally, the larger hailstones will
form some distance from the stronger updraft where they can pass more time growing.
• Hail is less common in the tropics despite a much higher frequency of thunderstorms than in the mid-
latitudes because the atmosphere over the tropics tends to be warmer over a much greater altitude.

25.6. Hazards Posed by Thunderstorms

• Under the right conditions, rainfall from thunderstorms causes flash flooding (cloudburst).
352

• Lightning is responsible for many fires around the world each year and causes fatalities.
Page

• Hail damages crops, vehicle windshields, and windows, and kills livestock caught out in the open.
26. Tropical Cyclones

• Tropical cyclones are rapidly rotating violent storms that originate over tropical oceans in late summers.
They are characterised by:
 a closed low-pressure centre with steep pressure gradients, which is responsible for the wind
speeds (category 1 cyclones have a barometric pressure of greater than 980 millibars; category 5 cy-
clones can have central barometric pressure of less than 920 millibars),

354
Page
Stage 3: Tropical Storm (63 Kmph < Maximum Sustained Wind Speed < 119 Kmph)

• Tropical depression develops into a tropical storm when the cyclonic circulation becomes more organised
with maximum sustained winds at or above 63 kmph but below 119 kmph. At this point, the distinctive
cyclonic shape starts to develop, although an eye is not usually present.

Stage 4: Tropical Cyclone (Maximum Sustained Wind Speed > 119 Kmph)
• As the tropical storm intensifies and acquires a maximum sustained wind speed of 119 kmph it develops
into a tropical cyclone. A cyclone of this intensity (> 119 kmph) tends to develop an eye, an area of
relative calm (lowest surface atmospheric pressure in a tropical cyclone) at the centre of circulation.

363
Page
• Medicanes typically form in the fall or winter months and occur once or twice a year. Their cores are
relatively colder than the cores of tropical cyclones.

Regional Names For Tropical Cyclones


Term
Regions
Indian Ocean Cyclones
Atlantic Hurricanes
Western Pacific Typhoons
Western Australia Willy-willies

[UPSC Prelims 1995] Willy Willy is:


a) a type of tree grown in temperate regions
b) a wind that blows in a desert
c) a tropical cyclone of the north-west Aus-
tralia
d) a kind of common fish found near Lacca-
dives Islands

26.4. Path of Tropical Cyclones

• Coriolis force, easterly & westerly winds, & upper westerly trough influence the path of tropical cy-
clones. They generally follow a parabolic path with the parabolic axis being parallel to the isobars.
370
Page
27. Jet streams

Jet streams are

 circumpolar (circle around the earth with poles as their centres),


 narrow, concentrated bands of (the air in the stream is directed towards the axis of the stream
making it very narrow ― 50-150 km across),
 upper tropospheric,
 westerly,
383

 geostrophic streams,
 flowing at high velocity,
Page
Polar Front Jet (PFJ)
• The strongest jet streams are the polar jets, and subtropical jets are somewhat weaker. It has a more
variable position than the sub-tropical jet. In summer, its position shifts towards the poles and in winter
towards the equator. The jet is strong and continuous in winter.
• The polar front jet is closely related to the polar front (frontogenesis process in mid-latitudes; discussed in
the next chapter). It greatly influences the climates of regions lying close to 60° latitude. It determines the
path and speed and intensity of temperate cyclones.

27.3. Temporary Jet Streams

• Other than polar jet and subtropical jet, there are temporary jet streams which appear only in a particular
season. They are few. Important ones are the Somali Jet and The Tropical (African) Easterly Jet. They
are major high-velocity winds in the lower troposphere, and hence they are called low-level jets (LLJs).

388
Page
28. Temperate Cyclones

• Cyclonic systems developing in the mid and high latitudes beyond the tropics (between 35° and 65°
latitudes) in both hemispheres are called temperate cyclones. They are also known as mid-latitude cy-
clones, extratropical cyclones, frontal cyclones or wave cyclones.
• Unlike the tropical cyclones (convective cyclogenesis) which have a thermal origin, the temperate
cyclones (frontal cyclogenesis) have a dynamic origin (complex interaction of air masses under the
influence of Coriolis force).
• To understand the mechanism of frontal cyclogenesis (origin and development of temperate cyclones) it
is important for us to understand the concepts of air masses and fronts.

28.1. Air Masses

• An air mass is a large body of air having little horizontal variation in temperature and moisture. Air
masses are an integral part of the planetary wind system and are associated with one or other wind belts.
They extend from surface to lower stratosphere and are across thousands of kilometres.

Source Regions
• When a large parcel of the air remains over a homogenous area for a sufficiently long time, it acquires
the characteristics of the area. The homogenous regions can be the vast ocean surface or vast plains and
plateaus. These homogenous surfaces, over which air masses form, are called the source regions. The
395

main source regions are the high-pressure belts in the subtropics (giving rise to tropical air masses)
and around the poles (the source for polar air masses).
Page
• Occlusion is a process by which the cold front of a rotating low-pressure system catches up with the
warm front so that the warm air between them is forced upwards. Such a front is formed when a cold
air mass overtakes a warm air mass and goes underneath it.
• Frontolysis begins when the warm sector diminishes, and the cold air mass completely replaces the warm
sector on the ground. Thus, a long occluded front is formed which could be a warm front type or cold
front type occlusion.

Weather Along an Occluded Front


• Weather along an occluded front is complex — a mixture of cold front type and warm front type
weather. The formation of mid-latitude cyclones involves the formation of an occluded front.

Clouds Along an Occluded Front


• A combination of the cold front and warm front clouds are formed on the opposite side of the occlusion.

Stationary Front • Tie – no clear winner

Cold Front • Cold air mass is the clear winner. It completely overrides the warm air mass.

Warm Front • The warm air mass picks up a fight but fails to beat the cold air mass.

Occluded Front • Cold front + warm front  Double victory for the cold air mass
403

Cold Front, Warm Front and Occluded front are examples of Temperature Inversion.
Page
29. El Nino, La Nina & El Nino Modoki

411
Page
30. Climatic Regions

30.1. Koppen’s Scheme of Classification of Climate


• The most widely used classification of climate is the empirical climate classification scheme developed by
V. Koppen. Koppen identified a close relationship between the distribution of vegetation and climate.
He selected certain values of temperature and precipitation and related them to the distribution of
vegetation and used these values for classifying the climates.
 Empirical: verifiable by observation or experience rather than theory or pure logic. E.g. a stone falls to the
ground when dropped — logic; dropping a stone to confirm if it falls to the ground — empirical.

Climatic Groups According to Koppen


• Koppen recognized five major climatic groups; four of them are based on temperature and one on pre-
cipitation. The capital letters: A, C, D and E delineate humid climates and B dry climates.

The average temperature of the coldest month is 18 °C or higher


A
C The average temperature of the coldest month of the (Mid-latitude) climate is higher than minus 3 °C
but below 18 °C (-3 °C to 18 °C)
D The average temperature of the coldest month is minus 3 °C or below (-3 °C or below)
E The average temperature for all months is below 10 °C
B Potential evaporation exceeds precipitation
420
Page
• Grasslands and deserts are classified under B – dry climate.
• Grasslands include:
1. subtropical savanna grasslands (BSh) and
2. temperate steppe grasslands (BSk).
• Deserts are regions where evaporation exceeds precipitation. There are mainly two types:
1. hot deserts like Saharan (BWh) and
2. temperate deserts like the Gobi Desert (BWk).

Hot Desert Climate (BWh: B – Dry, W – Desert, h – low latitude)

440
Page
31. Ocean Relief

• Ocean relief is largely due to tectonic, volcanic, erosional and depositional processes and their interac-
tions. The ocean relief features are divided into major and minor relief features.
• Ocean relief controls the motion of seawater. The oceanic movement in the form of currents, in turn,
causes many variations in both oceans and the atmosphere. The bottom relief of oceans also influences
navigation and fishing.

31.1. Major Ocean Relief Features

The four major ocean relief features are:

1. the continental shelf,


2. the continental slope,
3. the continental rise,
4. the deep sea plain or the abyssal plain.

Continental Shelf
• Continental Shelf is the gently sloping (gradient of 1° or less) seaward extension of a continental plate.
The shelf typically ends at a very steep slope, called the shelf break.
• Continental Shelves cover 7.5% of the total area of the oceans. Shallow seas and gulfs are found along
them.
Examples of continental shelves: Continental Shelf of South-East Asia (Sunda Plate), Grand Banks around
479


Newfoundland, Submerged region between Australia and New Guinea, etc.
Page
• Seamount is a mountain with pointed summits, rising from the seafloor that does not reach the surface
of the ocean. Seamounts are volcanic in origin. These can be 3,000-4,500 m tall. The Emperor seamount,
an extension of the Hawaiian Islands in the Pacific Ocean, is a good example. Guyots are flat-topped
mountains (seamounts). Seamounts and guyots are very common in the Pacific Ocean.

Submarine Canyons
 Canyon: a deep gorge, especially one with a river flowing through it.
 Gorge: a steep, narrow valley or ravine.
 Valley: a low area between hills or mountains typically with a river or stream flowing through it.
• Submarine canyons are deep valleys often extending from the mouths of the rivers to the abyssal plains.
They are formed due to erosion by sediments brought down by rivers that cut across continental shelves,
slopes & rises. The sediments are deposited on the abyssal plains.
• Submarine canyons can be far higher in scale compared to those that occur on land. Broadly, there are
three types:
1. Small gorges which begin at the edge of the continental shelf and extend down the slope to very great
depths, e.g., Oceanographer Canyons near New England.
2. Those which begin at the mouth of a river and extend over the shelf, such as the Indus canyons.
3. Those which have a dendritic appearance and are deeply cut into the edge of the shelf and the slope,
like the canyons off the coast of southern California.
• The Hudson Canyon is the best-known canyon in the world. The largest canyons in the world occur in the
Bering Sea off Alaska.

Atoll
483
Page
32. Ocean Movements – Ocean Currents And Tides

• The movements that occur in oceans are categorised as waves, tides, and currents. Waves are formed
due to friction between wind and the surface water layer. The stronger the wind, the bigger the wave.
They die out quickly on reaching the shore or shallow waters. On the other hand, tsunamis, storm surges,
and tides are tidal waves (waves with large wavelengths) that last longer.
• Horizontal currents arise mainly due to friction between wind and water. Coriolis force and differences
in water level gradient also play a major role. Vertical currents arise mainly due to density differences
caused by temperature and salinity changes.

32.1. Ocean Currents

• Ocean currents are the most important ocean movements because of their influence on the climatology
of various regions. They represent a regular volume of water in a definite path and direction.

Forces That Influence Ocean Currents

UPSC Mains 2015: Explain the factors responsible for the origin of ocean currents. How do
they influence regional climates, fishing, and navigation? (Mains 2015)
• Ocean currents are influenced by two types of forces namely:
1. primary forces that initiate the movement of water;
2. secondary forces that influence the currents to flow.
486

• The primary forces that influence the currents are:


 Heating by solar energy;
Page
32.2. Tides

• The periodical rise and fall of the sea level, once or twice a day, mainly due to the attraction of the
sun and the moon, is called a tide. The study of tides is very complex, spatially and temporally, as it has
500

great variations in frequency, magnitude and height.


• The moon’s gravitational pull to a great extent and to a lesser extent the sun’s, are the major causes
Page

for the occurrence of tides. Another factor is the centrifugal force (which arises due to the rotation of
33. Ocean Temperature And Salinity

33.1. Ocean Temperature


• The study of the temperature of the oceans is important for determining the
1. movement of large volumes of water (vertical and horizontal ocean currents),
2. type and distribution of marine organisms at various depths of oceans,
3. climate of coastal lands, etc.

Source Of Heat In Oceans


1. The sun’s insolation is the principal source of energy.
2. Heat from the earth’s interior (negligible compared to the heat received from the sun): the ocean
water at great depths is heated by volcanism at the mid-oceanic ridges. Some amount of heat is received
from the earth’s interior since the oceanic crust is thin and transfers some heat from the mantle. The
convectional oceanic circulations circulate this heat to the layers above.
3. The heat produced due to friction (negligible): caused by the surface wind and the tidal currents.

Loss of Ocean Heat


1. Back radiation (heat budget) or long wave terrestrial radiation from the seawater.
2. Exchange of heat between the sea and the atmosphere.
3. Evaporation: Heat is lost in the form of latent heat of evaporation (the atmosphere gains this heat in
the form of latent heat of condensation).

How Do Deep Water Marine Organisms Survive In Spite Of The Absence Of Sunlight?
• Photic zone (the zone that receives sunlight) is only about a few hundred meters. It depends on a lot of
factors like turbidity, the presence of algae etc. There are not enough primary producers below the photic
zone to the ocean bottom.
• At the sea bottom, there are bacteria that make use of heat supplied by the earth’s interior to prepare
food. So, they are the primary producers at the depths. Other organisms feed on these primary producers
and subsequent secondary producers. So, the heat from the earth supports wide-ranging deep water ma-
rine organisms.

Factors Affecting Temperature Distribution of Oceans


• Insolation: The average daily duration of insolation and its intensity.
• Heat loss: The loss of energy by reflection, scattering, evaporation and radiation.
• Albedo: The albedo of the sea (depending on the angle of sun rays).
511
Page

You might also like