EARTH AND LIFE SCIENCE SECOND QUARTER

MODULE 1: ORIGIN OF LIFE

Life is believed to have existed on earth for billions of years now. Scientists do not
know exactly when life began on Earth. However, they can trace how life developed
and evolved using some pieces of evidence. There are many theories about the origin
of life. Some believed that living organisms were put to Earth by some divine forces.
Others say that life did not originate from Earth, but from other planets.

►Learning Objectives ►Essential Questions

At the end of this module, you will be To greatly understand the lesson, you will
expected to: answer the following essential questions
a. Explain the evolving concept of throughout the discussions:
life based on emerging pieces of 1. What are the different milestones in
evidence the history of life on Earth?
b. Create a timeline for the history 2. What are the different evidences that
of life on Earth support the theories and hypotheses
for the origin of life?

LESSON 1. EARLY FORMS OF LIFE

The first form of life was believed to have appeared some 3.5 billion years ago. The
first evidence of life is found in microfossils. Microfossils are fossils that contain the
remains of tiny plants and animals. They are very small and can be measured in
millimeters, and some could only be identified under a microscope.
Some of the remains of organisms do not have a nucleus so they were called
prokaryotes. They are known to be the earliest forms of life. They have survived the
extreme conditions of the early environment. They started to make their own food by
utilizing the energy from the sun and the carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. These are
the photosynthetic organisms. The process of photosynthesis produced more
oxygen that changed the Earth’s early atmosphere. This change in the atmosphere
allowed oxygen-breathing organisms to exist. The cyanobacteria are the first
photosynthetic organisms to form. Their microfossils are among the easiest to
recognize. Their morphology remained the same and they left chemical fossils in the
form of broken products from pigments.
The first microfossil that showed remains of organisms with differences in structure
from the simplest form of life was seen in rocks about 1.5 billion years old. They are
larger than bacteria and have internal membranes and thicker wall. These findings
marked the beginning of eukaryotic organisms on Earth.

How did multicellular organisms evolve?

Multicellular organisms are believed to have evolved from unicellular eukaryotes.
Some single eukaryotic cells, like unicellular algae, formed multicellular aggregates
through association with other cell producing colonies. From colonial aggregates, the
organisms evolved to form multicellular organisms through cell specialization.
Protozoans, sponges, and fungi came into being.
The first fossilized animals which were discovered 580 million years ago were soft-
bodied. The continuous process of cell specialization brought the emergence of
complex and diverse plants and animals, including human beings. Evidence from
fossil layers proved that different forms of life were present and have evolved through
time. According to Charles Darwin, organisms change over time as a result of
adaptation to their environment in order to survive.

LESSON 2. CLASSICAL EXPERIMENTS SUPPORTING THE DISCOVERY OF

FIRST LIFE FORMS

1. Primordial Soup Theory. About 4.6 billion years ago, the Earth began to exist.
The existence of life, as believed by many scientists, started from the moment the
Earth’s environment became stable to support life. Several theories were proposed
to explain life’s origin. One of these theories is the Primordial Soup Theory proposed
by Alexander Oparin and John Haldane. According to this theory, life started in a
primordial soup of organic molecules. Chemicals from the atmosphere and some
form of energy from lightning combined to make amino acids, which are the building
blocks of protein. Several scientists conducted different experiments that modeled
conditions which may have enabled the first life forms to evolve. Among these
experiments are the Electrical Discharge Experiment, Thermal Synthesis, and The
Protocell Experiment.

2. Electrical Discharge Experiment. Stanley Miller and Harold Urey verified the
primordial soup theory by stimulating the formation of organic molecules on the early
Earth. They confined methane, ammonia, water, and hydrogen in a closed system
and applied continuous electrical sparks to trigger the formation of the building blocks
of life. After a day, they observed a change of color in the solution. After a week, the
solution was tested, and they found out that several amino acids were produced. The
purpose of this experiment was not to try and produce amino acids, rather, its purpose
was to explore the conditions of the early Earth and what the naturally occurring
results would be.

3. Thermal Synthesis. Sidney Fox demonstrated in his experiment the origin of life
using a specific mixture of pure, dry amino acids. In his experiment, after heating the
mixture, an aqueous solution was formed and cooled into microscopic globules
called protenoid microspheres. The globules looked like coccoid bacteria and
seemed to be budding, which is a form of reproduction in some microorganisms. He
claimed that the protenoid microspheres constituted protocells – almost true cells
and multiplied through division like true cells. He believed that these cells were the
link between the primordial environment and the true living cells.

4. The Protocell Experiment. Jack Szostak contemplated on how early life forms
formed in a primordial chemical environment. He then thought that the simplest
possible living cells or protocells just required two components to be formed:
a nucleic acid genome to transmit the genetic information and a lipid sac which
encapsulated the genome and let itself grow and divide. Szostak built lipid sacs made
in fatty acids and a replicase – an RNA molecule that catalyzes its own replication,
in the test tube. He found out that lipid sacs with more RNA grew faster. He suggested
that such test tube evolution was possible. The results suggested.

Learning Task 1: Timeline for Life’s Origin and Evolution

Arrange the following milestones in the history of life, based on the most widely
accepted hypotheses. Create a visual overview and add details of evidences for each
event. These details may also be used for your Performance Task no. 1.
Building blocks form
Domains diverge
Endomembrane system and nucleus evolve
Modern life
Origin of cells
Origin of chloroplasts
Origin of mitochondria
Origins of fungi, animals and plants
Photosynthesis and aerobic respiration evolve

Performance Task 1: Argumentative Essay

\Write an argumentative essay citing evidences supporting for a theory of the origin
of life that you greatly accept. This theory may also be not mentioned in this lesson.
Remember that there are a lot of theories and hypotheses for the origin of life. An
argumentative essay is a type of essay that explores a topic, gather, produce and
evaluate your evidences, and establish your main idea in a brief way. Writing an
argumentative essay is somehow an application of scientific method, but instead of
experimenting, you will verify your information by reading and researching.
MODULE 2: UNFYING THEMES IN STUDY OF LIFE

In the theories on the origin of life on Earth, there are unifying themes that deepen our
scientific understanding of life. These themes show the connections among living
organisms and how they interact with one another and with their environment.

►Learning Objectives ►Essential Questions

At the end of this module, you will be To greatly understand the lesson, you will
expected to: answer the following essential questions
a. Describe how unifying themes in throughout the discussions:
the study of life show the 1. How to use the unifying themes in
connections among living things studying life?
and how they interact with each 2. What is the significance of
other and with their environment. understanding the different hierarchy
of life?

LESSON 1. UNIFYING THEMES IN STUDY OF LIFE

1. Systems Biology. The hierarchy of life unfolds as follows: biosphere > ecosystem
> community > population > organism > organ system > organ > tissue > cell >
organelle > molecule > atom. With each step upward from atoms, new properties
emerge as a result of interactions among components at the lower levels. In an
approach called reductionism, complex systems are broken down to simpler
components that are more manageable to study. In systems biology, scientists
attempt to model the dynamic behavior of whole biological systems based on a study
of the interactions among the system’s parts.

2. Ecology. Plants take up nutrients from the soil and chemicals from the air and use
energy from the sun. Interactions between plants and other organisms result in cycling
of chemical nutrients within an ecosystem. One harmful outcome of human
interactions with the environment has been global climate change, caused by burning
of fossil fuels and increasing atmospheric CO2. Ecology s the study of the
relationships between living organisms, including humans, and their physical
environment; it seeks to understand the vital connections between plants and animals
and the world around them.

3. Bioenergetics. Life requires energy transfer and transformation Energy flows

through an ecosystem. All organisms must perform work, which requires energy.
Energy from sunlight is converted to chemical energy by producers, which is then
passed on to consumers. Bioenergetics is the study of energy in living things. It
includes how energy is transformed (changed from one form into another) through
two major processes: cellular respiration and photosynthesis.

4. Forms and Functions Structure and function are correlated at all levels of
biological organization. The form of a biological structure suits its function and vice
versa. The function of an organism or a part of an organism greatly depends on its
form and structure. It is related to how it works. An example of this is the webbed foot
of a duck, which helps the duck swim and search for their food under water. Other
birds have different structures of the feet used for perching and grasping food.
Morphology is the field in Biology which deals with the study of body structure while
Physiology deals with the study of body functions.

5. Cell, the basic unit of life. The cell is an organism’s basic unit of structure and
function. The cell is the lowest level of organization that can perform all activities
required for life. Cells are either prokaryotic or eukaryotic. Eukaryotic cells contain
membrane-enclosed organelles, including a DNA-containing nucleus. Prokaryotic
cells lack such organelles.

6. Genes, the basic unit of heredity. The continuity of life is based on heritable
information in the form of DNA. Genetic information is encoded in the nucleotide
sequences of DNA. It is DNA that transmits heritable information from parents to
offspring. DNA sequences program a cell’s protein production by being transcribed
into RNA and then translated into specific proteins, a process called gene
expression. Gene expression also results in RNAs that are not translated into protein
but serve other important functions. Genomics is the large-scale analysis of the DNA
sequences within a species as well as the comparison of sequences between species.
7. Homeostasis. It is the ability of the organism to regulate its internal condition.
Feedback mechanisms regulate biological systems. In negative feedback,
accumulation of an end-product slows the process that makes that product. In
positive feedback, the end-product stimulates the production of more product. This
is best explained in the regulation of blood-glucose level. Feedback is a type of
regulation common to life at all levels, from molecules to ecosystems.

8. Evolution. Evolution accounts for the unity and diversity of life and for the match
of organisms to their environments. In a world that is continually changing, life itself
evolves. It is the change in the physical and heritable traits of organisms over
successive generations. Organisms change over time to acclimate to their
environment in order to survive. If they fail to adapt to the changes, they usually
become extinct. The Baiji white dolphin, for example, became extinct due to
diminished food supply and in addition to that, the pollution caused by human
activities. One contemporary example of adaptation is the Aedes aegypti or the
mosquito famous for carrying dengue that caused major outbreaks nationwide. Their
eggs were able to survive with scarce or no rainwater which is essential to their life
cycle. Evolution takes time, usually decades. However, there are times when change
happens very rapidly. One example is the blue moon butterfly that managed to
undergo a mutation which allows the males to survive an infection by a parasite.

Learning Task 2: Studying Life

What theme or themes are exemplified in each of the following scenario? Justify your
answers in 1-5 sentences.
(a) the sharp spines of a porcupine
(b) the cloning of a plant from a single cell
(c) a hummingbird using sugar to power its flight

Performance Task 2: Biological Hierarchy

Draw a biological hierarchy using any of the following as the ecosystem. Include all
levels in the hierarchy up to the lowest level, atom. Beneath your drawing, write an
essay of 5-10 sentences explaining the significance of understanding each level.
• Coral reefs
• Ocean
• Desert
• Rainforest
MODULE 3: PERPETUATION OF LIFE

There are some unusual styles of reproduction in the Kingdom Animalia. Animals can
reproduce either sexually or asexually. Do you know that it is the male seahorse that
becomes pregnant and gives birth to its young? In coral reef fishes called wrasses, if
the male seahorse dies, the female becomes a male. Find out other interesting facts
about animal reproduction.

►Learning Objectives ►Essential Questions

At the end of this module, you will be To greatly understand the lesson, you will
expected to: answer the following essential questions
c. Describe the different ways of throughout the discussions:
how representative animals 3. What are the advantages and
reproduce; and disadvantages of different forms of
d. identify the different forms of animal reproduction?
asexual and sexual reproduction
in animals

LESSON 1. ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN ANIMALS

Asexual reproduction in animals is a type of reproduction that does not need two
parents to produce an offspring. It ensures that the offspring carry the same genetic
information as their parent.
a. Fission - a type of asexual reproduction wherein two individuals will form as the
parent divides in half. Binary fission involves two individuals formed from a
single parent. Multiple fission results into several offspring that are formed from
a single parent. Coral polyps reproduce asexually by fission, where an organism
splits into two separate organisms. For example, species of turbellarian
flatworms commonly called the planarians, such as Dugesia dorotocephala can
separate their bodies into head and tail regions and then regenerate the missing
half in each of the two new organisms.
b. Fragmentation - a type of reproduction that involves the breaking of body parts
into fragments, followed by regeneration, and regrowth of lost parts. Each
broken piece grows into a new whole individual. Reproduction through
fragmentation is observed in sponges, some cnidarians, turbellarians,
echinoderms, and annelids. In some sea stars, a new individual can be
regenerated from a broken arm and a piece of the central disc.
c. Budding - a type of reproduction that happens when an outgrowth, called a
bud, grows and develops from the parent animal. This bud eventually separates
to become a new individual or remains attached in the form of a colony. Budding
occurs commonly in some invertebrate animals such as hydras and corals. In
hydras, a bud forms that develops into an adult and breaks away from the main
body.
d. Parthenogenesis - is the reproduction of offspring without fertilization. The
unfertilized egg develops into an adult animal. The resulting offspring can be
either haploid or diploid. Some vertebrate animals—such as certain reptiles,
amphibians, and fish—also reproduce through parthenogenesis.
 Parthenogenesis has been observed in species in which the sexes were
separated in terrestrial or marine zoos. Two female Komodo dragons, a
hammerhead shark, and a blacktop shark have produced parthenogenic young
when the females have been isolated from males. It is possible that the asexual
reproduction observed occurred in response to unusual circumstances and
would normally not occur.

LESSON 2. SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN ANIMALS

Sexual reproduction involves male and female parents to produce offspring through
the fusion of gametes (sperm and egg cells) generated by meiosis. Since sexual
reproduction needs two parents to produce an offspring, the combination of the genes
from both parents increases the chances of species variation.
1. Gametogenesis - is the process of forming male and female gametes with a
haploid number of chromosomes (n) from diploid cells (2n) of the cells present
in the gonads of the organisms. In animals and humans, male gametogenesis
is referred to as spermatogenesis. In females, the process of oogenesis pertains
to the formation of the ova or egg cells through meiosis in the gonads known as
ovaries.
2. Sex determination is determined genetically by the combination of X and Y
chromosomes for mammals, some insects and plants. Z and W chromosomes
sets determines the sex for birds, fish, crustaceans, insects (such as butterflies
and moths), and reptiles. Individuals of some species change their sex during
their lives, switching from one to the other. If the individual is female first, it is
termed protogyny or “first female,” if it is male first, it is termed protandry or
“first male.” Oysters are born male, grow, and become female and lay eggs. The
wrasses, a family of reef fishes, are all sequential hermaphrodites. Some of
these species live in closely coordinated schools with a dominant male and
many smaller females. If the male dies, a female increases in size, changes
sex, and becomes the new dominant male.
a. Hermaphroditism occurs in animals in which one individual has both
male and female reproductive systems. Invertebrates such as
earthworms, slugs, tapeworms, and snails are often hermaphroditic.
Hermaphrodites may self-fertilize, but typically they will mate with
another of their species, fertilizing each other and both producing
offspring. Self-fertilization is more common in animals that have limited
mobility or are not motile, such as barnacles and clams. Many species
have specific mechanisms in place to prevent self-fertilization, because it
is an extreme form of inbreeding and usually produces less fit offspring.
3. Fertilization - is the union of gametes that lead to the development of a new
individual.
a. In external fertilization, the union of egg and sperm occurs outside the
female reproductive tract. This is common among aquatic animals
especially in most species of bony fish and amphibians. Figure 7 on the
left shows the sexual reproduction in toads, the male grasps the female
from behind and externally fertilizes the eggs as they are deposited.
 b. In internal fertilization, the union of egg and sperm occurs within the
female reproductive tract. In this type of reproduction, the male parent
releases the sperm cells into the reproductive tract of the female parent.
Animals that undergo internal fertilization produce offspring in any of the following
ways:
a. In oviparity, the eggs are fertilized internally, but they would complete
their development outside the mother’s body.
b. In ovoviviparity, the eggs are fertilized internally, and they complete their
development within the mother.
c. In viviparity, the eggs are fertilized internally. The embryos receive
nourishment directly from the mother’s blood through the placenta rather
than from the yolk.

Learning Task 3.1: Reproductive Strategy

Create a Venn Diagram showing some of the characteristics common among

organisms that use sexual reproduction, organisms that use asexual reproduction,
and organisms that use both. Explain the advantage and disadvantages of both forms
of reproduction in 5-10 sentences as a conclusion.

Learning Task 3.2: Assessment

Read and analyze the following statements. Write the chosen letter on a separate
sheet of paper.
1. The asexual reproduction where the organism splits into two separate
organisms like in bacteria.
A. budding
B. binary fission
C. fragmentation
D. parthenogenesis
2. Flat worms (planarians) divides into two, leaving one piece headless and
the other tailless each piece grows the missing body parts.
A. budding
B. binary fission
A. fragmentation
B. parthenogenesis
3. A new individual grows on the body of its parent like hydra and yeast.
A. budding
B. binary fission
A. fragmentation
B. parthenogenesis
4. Reproduction in animals that involves production of new living organism
by combining two gametes from different organisms, one male producing
motile gamete that must fuse with the egg cell from female organism.
A. sexual
B. asexual
C. both a and b
 D. none of a and b
5. This is when an organism possesses two reproductive systems and are
referred to as monoecious.
A. budding
B. hermaphroditism
C. transverse fusion
D. transverse fission
6. Sperm cell and egg cell are used in sexual reproduction among animals.
This refers to the collective term for sperm and egg cells.
A. gametes
B. body cells
C. both a and b
D. none of a and b
7. Hermaphroditism is also termed as _____________.
A. monoecious
B. dioecious
C. both a and b
D. none of a and b
8. Choose the statement that is TRUE about asexual reproduction in
animals.
A. Utilize gametes of the body.
B. Variety of genetic make-up is produced.
C. Involves more amount of time in the process.
D. Produce offspring which are identical with the parents.
9. It is the term called for an organism that shifts from female to male like
reel fish.
A. protandrous
B. protogynous
C. both a and b
D. none of a and b
10. Giraffe and lion are examples of
A. oviparous
B. viviparous
C. both a and b
D. none of a and b
11. Salmon and other bony fish are examples of
A. oviparous
B. viviparous
C. both a and b
D. none of a and b
12. This refers to the mechanism of asexual reproduction in which female
offspring develops from unfertilized eggs
A. budding
B. fragmentation
C. parthenogenesis
D. transverse fission
 13. It involves direct reproduction in which each portion regenerates missing
parts to become a complete new animal depending on the axis of separation
A. budding
B. fragmentation
C. parthenogenesis
D. transverse fission

For numbers 14-15, refer to the following choices below.

A. Statement I is correct.
B. Statement II is correct.
C. Statement I and II are both correct.
D. Statement I and II are both incorrect.

14. I. The male clown fish attracts the female clown fish through courting
such as pulling and biting of fins.
II. The biggest clownfish will always become female.

15. I. Sexual reproduction involves the union of gametes and it does not change
the number of chromosomes present.
II. Asexual reproduction involves the union of gametes and it does
not change the number of chromosomes present.

Performance Task 3: The Incredibles Album

Create an Album (pictures or drawn) of 10 different animals representing unique way

of reproduction. Put each pictures or drawings in a ¼ size bond paper and staple /
bind it together. Include a short description for each. Make your album creative and
neat as you can.
MODULE 4: GENETIC ENGINEERING

In your previous Science subject, you have learned that natural, organisms inherit
traits from their parents. However, as the advancement of biotechnology progresses,
scientists have made new discoveries and innovation as regards genetics. Today,
through genetic engineering, organisms can artificially acquire new traits from a
different organism other than their parents.

►Learning Objectives ►Essential Questions

At the end of this module, you will be To greatly understand the lesson, you will
expected to: answer the following essential questions
b. Describe the process of genetic throughout the discussions:
engineering 3. What are the current uses of
c. Evaluate the benefits and risks genetically modified organisms?
of using GMOs

LESSON 1. INTRODUCTION TO GENETIC ENGIEERING

It is the process of modifying genes in a living organism to produce genetically

modified organisms (GMOs) also known as transgenic organisms. This method is
more rapid and specific than the traditional plant breeding because a gene coding a
specific trait is transferred to an organism. Genetic engineering has its root way back
in the 12 000 BC where humans first tried agriculture breeding and domesticated
livestock. In early 1972, genetic engineering as the direct transfer of external DNA
from an organism to another was first performed by Herbert Boyer and Stanley
Cohen. In 1974, the first genetically modified mouse was created by Rudolf
Jaenisch. The first commercialization of transgenic products or genetically modified
organisms was done in 1976. One example is the artificial production of insulin
from bacteria through insertion on genes in bacteria that allowed it to produce insulin.
The first plant to be commercialize was the virus resistant tobacco in China and
followed by the tomato. Other products like rice, corn, and other livestock were also
released as approved by the food and drug authority.

LESSON 2. THE PROCESS OF GENETIC ENGINEERING

The most common method for producing GM animals is to inject the foreign gene into
fertilized eggs through a process known as ‘microinjection’.

For mammals, the injected eggs are placed into a ‘foster’ mother where they develop
to term. If the foreign gene has been successfully incorporated into the egg’s original
DNA, the resultant offspring will carry the extra, foreign DNA. When this GM animal
mates and produces offspring, the foreign gene is inherited in the same way as normal
DNA. In this way, scientists can breed a line of GM animals that carries the extra DNA.

The first GM animal, a GM mouse, was made in the early 1980s and this technology
has been successfully applied to other animals such as cattle, pigs, sheep, poultry,
fish, as well as the insects such as the fruit fly (Drosophila melanogaster). However,
GM mice are still most common - they make up 98% of all GM animals.

LESSON 3. USES of GMOs

a. Medical Applications. Animal models of human diseases Currently, this is the

main medical application for GM animals. Animals may be genetically
engineered to develop human diseases. For example, mice with cystic fibrosis
or human cancers have been produced. By studying such animal models,
scientists may gain new understandings and insights, leading to the discovery
of new treatments and new drugs.
b. Determine gene function. Humans and certain animals such as the mice share
a high degree of genetic similarity. Thus, the study of genes in GM animals may
reveal how similar genes in humans work. Such use of GM animals is likely to
increase significantly, because by modifying a gene, its various roles in different
functional systems of the body can be identified.
c. Pharming for production of therapeutic proteins. Farm animals can be
genetically modified to produce large quantities of useful substances for treating
human patients. They become, in effect, walking pharmacies. For example,
animals such as cows and goats can be genetically engineered to secrete
medically valuable proteins into their milk.
 d. Xenotransplants (transplantation from another species into humans) Scientists
have developed "Knockout pigs" by removing the specific gene that causes pig
organs to be rejected by a human body. This opens the possibility of farming
pigs for their organs in very much the same way that they are now farmed for
pork. This can potentially alleviate the shortage of organs for organ transplants.
e. Agriculture. Currently, more than thirty-five varieties of GM food fishes have
been developed around the world. Some of these GM food fishes have been
developed to grow faster, resist disease, and tolerate different temperatures. At
least one company, Aqua Bounty Farms, is currently requesting approval from
the U.S. Food and Drug Administration to market its GM salmon for food. Aqua
Bounty Farms' GM salmons can grow to more than three times larger than
normal salmons within the first year of growth. Besides improving fish farm
productivity, scientists have also engineered tilapia which can produce human
blood clotting factors. There is potential that we can harvest these clotting
factors for the treatment of human blood disorders

Learning Task 4.1: Pros and Cons

Make a list of advantages and disadvantages of genetic engineering in a table.

Advantages Disadvantages

Performance Task 4.2: Awareness Campaign

Make a creative output showing what you have learned about Genetic engineering.
This may be an infographic or a video (vlog) of yourself explaining to somebody. The
purpose of this activity is to share what you have learned about this technology in the
field of Biology and make them appreciate understanding life science.

RUBRICS Above Expectation Meets Expectation Below expectation

KNOWLEDGE Response provided an Response provided an Response do not
in-depth knowledge of in-depth knowledge of provide an in-depth
the question given. the question given. knowledge of the
Show an understanding Show little question given. Show
of the lesson. Examples understanding of the an understanding of the
were given to explain the lesson. Examples lesson. Examples were
concept. were given to explain not given to explain the
the concept. concept.
CLARITY The thoughts were The thoughts were The thoughts were
clearly expressed, and slightly expressed, and unexpressed and there
the organization of the the organization of the is no organization of the
words were exemplified. words were words in the sentence.
exemplified.
CREATIVITY Demonstrate creativity, Demonstrate creativity Creativity, uniqueness
uniqueness and but with slight and inventiveness is
inventiveness. inventiveness or not evident.
uniqueness.
MODULE 5: ANIMAL SURVIVAL

Animals vary in form and function. From a sponge to a worm to a goat, an organism
has a distinct body plan that limits its size and shape. Animals’ bodies are also
designed to interact with their environments, whether in the deep sea, a rainforest
canopy, or the desert. Therefore, a large amount of information about the structure of
an organism's body (anatomy) and the function of its cells, tissues and organs
(physiology) can be learned by studying that organism's environment.

►Learning Objectives ►Essential Questions

At the end of this module, you will be To greatly understand the lesson, you will
expected to: answer the following essential questions
e. Describe the general and unique throughout the discussions:
characteristics of the different 4. How did the different structures and
organ systems in representative functions of various animal
animals representatives allowed them to
f. Analyze and appreciate the survive?
functional relationships of the
different organ systems in
ensuring animal survival

LESSON 1. NUTRITION

Animal nutrition is the process of taking in, taking apart and taking up the nutrients
from a food source.
Food processing has four main stages:
1. Ingestion is the process of taking in food substances. In other animals, with
complete digestive system, where entrance and exit of food and wastes are
different, there are different mechanisms of ingestion depending on their
evolutionary adaptation to their food.
- Filter feeding- uses adaptation in feeding food particles from the
environment, which is usually aquatic. Examples of these are clams,
mussels, whales, etc.
- Substrate feeding- animals live in or on their food source. Examples of this
are the leaf miner, maggots and other parasites.
- Fluid feeding- animals suck nutrient-rich fluid from a host or a source. They
have different adaptations in order to get food such as the proboscis of
mosquitoes, the long tongue of nectar-feeding bats and long beaks of
hummingbirds.
- Bulk feeding- animals, such as us humans, take in large particle sized food.
Different animals have acquired different adaptations such as tentacles,
claws, venomous fangs, large mandible and teeth which aids in killing prey
or tearing off pieces of meat or vegetation
2. Digestion is the process of breaking-down the food (manually or chemically)
that involves intracellular, extracellular process or both.
 o Intracellular – common in unicellular organisms and animals under Phylum
Porifera that do not have digestive tract. It takes place within the cytoplasm
of the organism and food items are brought into the cell for digestion.
o Extracellular – common for animals with complete digestive system and has
specialized organs. Animals feed by secreting enzymes through the cell
membrane onto the food.
o Ruminants – animals that have stomachs with different compartments
like cattle, sheep and goats.
o Monogastric – animals with relatively small, simple, one compartment
stomachs containing limited microorganisms like pigs, chicken, and
humans.
o Both – common among flatworms and cnidarians where food is first digested
extracellularly then endocytosed and intracellularly digested.
3. Absorption - allows the animals to acquire the necessary energy, organic
molecules and essential nutrients from the digested food.
4. Elimination – the process of removal of undigested food.

LESSON 2. CIRCULATION AND GAS EXCHANGE

Gas exchange is very important among animals, as they require oxygen in the
production of higher amount of energy compared to process of energy production
without oxygen. Air as a respiratory medium. Hence, as air is lighter and has more
oxygen content compared to the same volume of water, ventilation is not much of a
problem of terrestrial organisms.
• The tracheal system of insects- The tracheal system of insects has a branched
network of tracheal tube which responds to the problem of decreased surface
area in the respiratory structure. The tracheal system opens externally through
the side of the insect through a structure called a spiracle. Air enters and exit
through the spiracles. As the respiratory system of insects are independent from
their circulatory system, gases are directly exchanged through tracheoles which
have extensions that are directly connected to the cells.
• Air sacs act like aspirator which takes in and push out air out of the body of the
insects.
• The mammalian respiratory system- Compared to insects, mammals and
other organisms have respiratory system that work together with their circulatory
system. Gases are transported via the bloodstream and are exchanged via
diffusion.
• Terrestrial ventilation - The alternating process of inhalation and exhalation.
There are two mechanisms of breathing, one is positive breathing and the other
is negative breathing. In positive breathing air is pushed into the lungs, such as
in frogs.

There are different ways in which animals transport substances across their body. In
animals with closed circulatory system, the circulatory fluid does not go out of the
vessel. Exchange occurs through diffusion via thinner vessels called capillaries across
the interstitial fluid. Different animals have adapted different mechanisms for transport
such as in fishes where a single circulation is enough. Compared to cnidarians, the
gastrovascular cavity of flatworms has extensions in order to reach areas of the body
far from the axis. Without these extensions of the gastrovascular cavity, diffusion
might not be enough in the transport of substances.
For vertebrate animals, the main components of the circulatory system are the heart,
arteries, capillaries, and veins. The circulatory system delivers food and oxygen to the
cells of the body and eliminates waste products. It contains blood, which consists of
red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets. Red blood cells carry oxygen while
white blood cells help the body fight disease. Amphibian double circulation differs from
mammalian, crocodilian and avian as blood is mixed. The presence of one ventricle
does not prevent the mixing of blood, unlike in the four-chambered heart of a mammal,
crocodilian and an avian where the ventricle is divided into two. Mixing of blood does
not have major implication on amphibians as:
- they have low metabolic rate, thus, less need for energy;
- they could respire through their skin, thus not needing to fully oxygenate the
blood through the lungs.

LESSON 3. HOMEOSTASIS AND WASTE REMOVAL

In order to remove wastes, animals have the excretory system, which enables it to
remove excess salt or water in the body. Waste removal follows the following
processes, 1.) filtration, 2.) reabsorption, 3.) secretion, and 4.) excretion Organisms
have different wastes in the form of nitrogenous wastes which they need to excrete.
Different organisms have different excretory system, such as the protonephridia of
flatworms, metanephridia of annelids, Malpighian tubules of insects and the nephrons
of humans and mammals.

LESSON 4. IMMUNE SYSTEM

The immune system is a complex network of cells and protein that defends the body
against infection. It defends the internal environment from invading microorganisms
and viruses, as well as cancerous cell growth. The immune system provides cells that
aid in protection of the body from disease via antigen/antibody response. A variety of
general responses are also part of this system.
LESSON 5. ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

Hormones are substances which can cause a reaction to a cell, in Greek it literally
means to excite. It is secreted into extracellular fluid such in blood or lymph and
transported to target cells to elicit a specific response, which can be rapid or slow.
The growth and development of the body are examples of slow and long-term effect
of a hormone while circadian rhythm which is responsible for the sleep and-wake
cycles respond to a more rapid response to a hormone. In an endocrine pathway, the
reaction involves an endocrine cell, which releases the hormone to the bloodstream
or the lymphatic system, which can attach to receptors of a target cell.

LESSON 6. NERVOUS SYSTEM

The nervous system has evolved in increasing complexity throughout the different
groups of animals. Connections among the neurons has increased, as seen in the
development of the nervous system from a simple nerve net to a system with ganglia
(group of neuron) to encephalize organisms where concentration of neurons are
centered in a head. The image shows the changes in the nervous system of
organisms:

All animals have a true nervous system except sea sponges. Cnidarians, such as
jellyfish, lack a true brain but have a system of separate but connected neurons called
a nerve net. Echinoderms, such as sea stars, have neurons that are bundled into
fibers called nerves. Flatworms of the phylum Platyhelminthes have both a Central
nervous system (CNS) made up of a small brain and two nerve cords, and
Peripheral nervous system (PNS) containing a system of nerves that extend
throughout the body. The insect nervous system is more complex but also
decentralized, with a brain, ventral nerve cord, and ganglia (clusters of connected
neurons). These ganglia can control movements and behaviors without input from the
brain. Cephalopods, such as octopi, may have the most complicated of invertebrate
nervous systems, with neurons that are organized in specialized lobes and eyes that
are structurally like vertebrate species.

Compared to invertebrates, vertebrate nervous systems are more complex,

centralized, and specialized. While there is great diversity among different vertebrate
nervous systems, they all share a basic structure: a CNS that contains a brain and
spinal cord and a PNS made up of peripheral sensory and motor nerves. The CNS is
composed of the brain and spinal cord, while, the PNS is composed of corresponding
structures outside of this two organs of the nervous system. The central nervous
system is responsible for data/information processing which is gathered by the
peripheral nervous system. Upon processing, the CNS transmit the message again
to the PNS, which then convey the message for the appropriate response.
The nervous system is composed of circuits of nervous tissue and supporting cells.
The functional unit of the nervous system is the nerve, which is composed of neurons
that have extensions for transmission The extensions of neurons are called dendrites
and axons, wherein, axons transmit message away from the cell body of the neuron,
while, dendrites transmit messages towards the cell body of neurons. Supporting
cells called glia (glial cells), function in metabolic, structural, metabolic and other
activities of the neuron. The Schwann cells is an example of a glia, which surrounds
the axon of neurons for more efficient transmission of message.

LESSON 7. LOCOMOTION

The skeletal system provides rigid framework for locomotion or movement. It supports
and protects the body and body parts, produces blood cells, and stores minerals.
There are 2 types of skeleton:
- A clam’s shell is an example of an exoskeleton.
- The bones and cartilage in a human is an example of an endoskeleton. An
endoskeleton should not be misconceived to be only made up of bones, as even
in humans, our skeletons are made up of cartilage and bones, while, shark’s
endoskeleton is made up of cartilage.

We have different bones which our muscles can pull to create movement, and the
different types of joints are responsible for different movement that our body can
create. In vertebrate animals, the skeletal system consists of bones and cartilage that
give the body shape. It protects internal organs and provides support for the body.
Bone is the major component of the skeletal system, which consists partially of
calcium and phosphate. The material inside bone is bone marrow, which produces
blood cells. Cartilage provides support and serves as a cushioning effect for joints. It
provides support and protection, and attachment points for muscles.
The skeletal muscle is organized from its largest structure (the muscle tissue
itself) to its functional unit (the sarcomere) as a repeating longitudinal structure that is
bound together. The image is an illustration of the skeletal muscle and the
corresponding structures necessary for contraction. From the picture, the repeating
longitudinal structure is observed from the muscle, to a bundle of muscle fiber, a
muscle fiber (muscle cell), a myofibril and the sarcomere.

Contraction is possible because of the structural organization of protein molecules

that makes up the sarcomere. As seen from the image, arms of the thick filaments
move along the thin filaments, pulling both Z lines at the ends into the middle. When
contraction occurs, the sarcomere shortens, and this is reflected in the contraction of
a muscle. In terms of the molecular and physiological process of contraction, nerve
impulse transmission is needed to depolarize the cell membrane of the muscle to
stimulate contraction.

Learning Task 5.1: Animal Functions

Create a summary table for vertebrate and invertebrate animal physiology. Organize
all the animal functions you have learned by separating the vertebrate from
invertebrate animals. You may refer to the table below as your guide.

Animal Function Vertebrate Invertebrate

1. Nutrition

Learning Task 5.2: Animal Functions

1. What organ system are lungs, nose, and trachea part of?
A. Circulatory
B. Digestive
C. Muscular
D. Respiratory
2. Which system supports and protects the body while giving it shape and form?
A. Circulatory
B. Integumentary
C. Muscular
D. Respiratory
3. Where does most of the nutrient absorption take place during digestion?
A. Esophagus
B. Large intestine
C. Liver
D. Small intestine

4. What transport nutrients, gases, hormone, and wastes through the body?
A. Circulatory system
B. Digestive system
C. Muscular system
D. Respiratory system

5. What system filters out wastes, toxins and excess in the circulatory system?
A. Digestive system
B. Excretory system
C. Integumentary system
D. Respiratory system

6. Which body system is responsible for taking in oxygen and getting rid of carbon
dioxide?
A. Digestive system
B. Excretory system
C. Integumentary system
D. Respiratory system

7. Which of the following shows the correct order from smallest to largest?
A. cell- organ- tissue- system
B. cell- tissue-organ- system
C. system- tissue- cell- organ
D. tissue- organ- system- cell
8. What system allows motion in the body?
A. Circulatory system
B. Digestive system
C. Muscular system
D. Respiratory system

9. What system breaks food down into energy for the body?
A. Circulatory system
B. Digestive system
C. Muscular system
D. Respiratory system
 10. What system controls voluntary and involuntary life functions?
A. Circulatory system
B. Digestive system
C. Nervous system
D. Muscular system

11. What two organs make up the central nervous system?

A. brain and spinal cord
B. neurons and receptors
C. cerebrum and cerebellum
D. somatic nerves and autonomic nerves

12. The wall of the alveoli is what kind of tissue?

A. muscle tissue
B. nervous tissue
C. epithelial tissue
D. connective tissue

13. What is the relationship between tissues and organs?

A. organ develop into tissues
B. organs are made up of tissues
C. organs are endorsed by tissues
D. tissues contain one or more organ

14. Whichpair of organs includes only the endocrine glands?

A. Adrenal and ovary
B. Parathyroid and adrenal
C. Pancreas and parathyroid
D. Thymus and testes

15. Which of the following are proteins that fight off diseases?
A. antibodies
B. B- cells
C. antigens
D. memory cells

Performance Task 5
Choose 1 from any of the following tasks that interest you.
- Option A: Create a model of any animal organ system using recyclable or edible
materials.
- Option B: Write an essay of 500 words explaining how did the different
structures and functions of various animal representatives allowed them to
survive?
- Option C: Write an argumentative essay about organ-selling for income as
reported in the news.
- Option D: Draw a concept map showing how different organ systems work
together in ensuring animal survival.
MODULE 6: EVOLUTION

Charles Darwin formulated the theory of evolution by natural selection in his book “On
the Origin of Species” in 1859. According to Darwin, Theory of Evolution refers to
a change over time and the process by which modern organisms have descended
from ancient organisms.

►Learning Objectives
At the end of this module, you will be expected to:
a. Explain how populations of organisms have changed and continue to change
over time; and
b. Describe the evidences of evolution.

LESSON 1. MECHANISMS OF EVOLUTION

The basis for the modern theory of evolution was laid during 1700s and 1800s.
Charles Darwin sets sail on the H.M.S. Beagle, a voyage that would provide him with
vast amounts of evidence that led to his theory of evolution. Alfred Wallace writes
Darwin, speculating on evolution by natural selection, based on his studies of the
distribution of plants and animals. The French naturalist Jean-Baptiste Lamarck was
among the first scientists to recognize that living things have changed over time and
that all species were descended from other species. Other scientists who contributed
to evolutionary thought were Carolus Linnaeus who formalized the binomial
nomenclature and Thomas Malthus who believed that populations grow geometrically
while resources slowly decrease, leading to competition.
Populations evolve, but individual organisms do not. A population is an interbreeding
group of individuals of one species in a given geographic area at the same time. A
population evolves because the population contains the collection of genes called the
gene pool. As changes in the gene pool occur, a population evolves.
1. Mutation, a driving force of evolution, is a random change in an organism’s
genetic makeup, which influences the population’s gene pool. It is a change in
the nature of the DNA in one or more chromosomes. Mutations give rise to new
alleles; therefore, they are a source of genetic variation in a population.

Mutations may be harmful or benign, but they may also be beneficial. For
example, a mutation may permit organisms in a population to produce enzymes
that will allow them to use certain food materials. Over time, these types of
individuals survive, while those that don’t have the mutations are more likely to
perish. Therefore, natural selection tends to remove the less-fit individuals,
allowing more-fit individuals to survive and form a population.

2. Another mechanism of evolution may occur during the migration of individuals

from one group or location to another. When the migrating individuals interbreed
 with the new population, they contribute their genes to the gene pool of the local
population. This establishes gene flow in the population.

Gene flow occurs, for example, when wind carries seeds far beyond the bounds
of the parent plant population. As another example, animals may be driven off
from a herd. This forces them to migrate to a new population, thereby bringing
new genes to a gene pool. Gene flow tends to increase the similarity between
remaining populations of the same species because it makes gene pools more
similar to one another.

3. Another mechanism for evolution is genetic drift, which can occur when a small
group of individuals leaves a population and establishes a new one in a
geographically isolated region. For example, when a small population of fish is
placed in a lake, the fish population will evolve into one that is different from the
original. Fitness of a population is not considered in genetic drift, nor does
genetic drift occur in a very large population.

4. Another mechanism for evolution is natural selection, which occurs when

populations of organisms are subjected to the environment. The fittest creatures
are more likely to survive and pass their genes to their offspring, producing a
population that is better adapted to the environment. The genes of less-fit
individuals are less likely to be passed on to the next generation. The important
selective force in natural selection is the environment.

Environmental fitness may be expressed in several ways. For example, it may

involve an individual’s ability to avoid predators, it may imply a greater
resistance to disease, it may enhance ability to obtain food, or it may mean
resistance to drought. Fitness may also be measured as enhanced reproductive
ability, such as the ability to attract a mate. Better-adapted individuals produce
relatively more offspring and pass on their genes more successfully than less-
adapted individuals.
LESSON 2. EVIDENCES OF EVOLUTION

There are now numerous established pieces of evidence which support the theory of
evolution by natural selection. Something provides evidence for evolution when it
demonstrates a change in characteristics from an ancestral form.
1. Fossils provide solid evidence that organisms from the past are not the same
as those found today, and fossils show a progression of evolution. Scientists
determine the age of fossils and categorize them from all over the world to
determine when the organisms lived relative to each other. The resulting fossil
record tells the story of the past and shows the evolution of form over millions
of years. For example, scientists have recovered highly detailed records
showing the evolution of humans and horses.
2. Another type of evidence for evolution is the presence of structures in organisms
that share the same basic form. For example, the bones in the appendages of
a human, dog, bird, and whale all share the same overall construction resulting
from their origin in the appendages of a common ancestor. Over time, evolution
led to changes in the shapes and sizes of these bones in different species, but
they have maintained the same overall layout. Scientists call these synonymous
parts homologous structures.

Meanwhile, Analogous structures are features of different species that are

similar in function but not necessarily in structure and which do not derive
from a common ancestral feature (compare to homologous structures) and
which evolved in response to a similar environmental challenge.
 Some structures exist in organisms that have no apparent function at all, and
appear to be residual parts from a past common ancestor. These unused
structures without function are called vestigial structures. Some examples of
vestigial structures are wings on flightless birds, leaves on some cacti, and hind
leg bones in whales.
3. Another evidence of evolution is the convergence of form in organisms that
share similar environments. For example, species of unrelated animals, such as
the arctic fox and ptarmigan, living in the arctic region have been selected for
seasonal white phenotypes during winter to blend with the snow and ice. These
similarities occur not because of common ancestry, but because of similar
selection pressures—the benefits of not being seen by predators.
4. The geographic distribution of organisms on the planet follows patterns that are
best explained by evolution in conjunction with the movement of tectonic plates
over geological time. Broad groups that evolved before the breakup of the
supercontinent Pangaea (about 200 million years ago) are distributed
worldwide. Groups that evolved since the breakup appear uniquely in regions
of the planet, such as the unique flora and fauna of northern continents that
formed from the supercontinent Laurasia and of the southern continents that
formed from the supercontinent Gondwana. The presence of members of the
plant family Proteaceae in Australia, southern Africa, and South America is best
due to their appearance prior to the southern supercontinent Gondwana
breaking up.

The great diversification of marsupials in Australia and the absence of other

mammals reflect Australia’s long isolation. Australia has an abundance of
endemic species—species found nowhere else—which is typical of islands
whose isolation by expanses of water prevents species migration. Over time,
these species diverge evolutionarily into new species that look very different
from their ancestors that may exist on the mainland. The marsupials of Australia,
the finches on the Galápagos, and many species on the Hawaiian Islands are
all unique to their one point of origin, yet they display distant relationships to
ancestral species on mainlands.

5. Like anatomical structures, the structures of the molecules of life reflect descent
with modification. Evidence of a common ancestor for all of life is reflected in
the universality of DNA as the genetic material and in the near universality of
the genetic code and the machinery of DNA replication and expression.
Fundamental divisions in life between the three domains are reflected in major
structural differences in otherwise conservative structures such as the
components of ribosomes and the structures of membranes. In general, the
relatedness of groups of organisms is reflected in the similarity of their DNA
sequences—exactly the pattern that would be expected from descent and
diversification from a common ancestor.
 DNA sequences have also shed light on some of the mechanisms of evolution.
For example, it is clear that the evolution of new functions for proteins commonly
occurs after gene duplication events that allow the free modification of one copy
by mutation, selection, or drift (changes in a population’s gene pool resulting
from chance), while the other copy continues to produce a functional protein.

Learning Task 6.1

Identify the evidence shown by the picture and explain in 3-5 sentences how it
supports evolution.

1.

2.

3.
 Learning Task 6.2

1. What term refers to body parts of organisms that are similar in structure and
position. It may or may not serve the same function?
A.Analogous C. Vestigial
B.Homologous D. Embryology
2. Which of these is the study of gene structure and function?
A. Molecular biology C. Evolution
B. Biogeography D. Embryology
3. What term refers to body parts that perform a similar function but differ in
structure?
A. Analogous C. Vestigial
B. Homologous D. Embryology
4. What is the name for the science of the development of embryos from
fertilization to birth?
A. Molecular biology C. Evolution
B. Biogeography D. Embryology
5. Which of the following is not vestigial structure in human?
A. Wisdom tooth C. Coccyx
B. Appendix D. Large intestine
6. Which of the following best describe phylogeny?
A. the study of relationship among group of organisms and their
evolutionary development.
B. the study of geographical distribution of fossils and living organisms.
C. the study of gene structure and function
D. the study of the development of an organism from an embryo to its adult
form

Performance Task 6

Illustrate the evolution of phone. Describe each stage in 3-5 sentences and tell the
changes that occur in every phase. Write your answer on a sheet of paper.
MODULE 7: CLASSIFICATION OF ORGANISMS

In 1835, when Darwin visited the Galapagos Islands, evidence has been found to
indicate that living things have changed gradually during their natural history. The
study of fossils as well as biogeography, embryology, molecular evidence, and
comparative anatomy such as homologous structure, analogous structure and
vestigial structure provide evidence for evolution.

►Learning Objectives
At the end of this module, you will be expected to:
a. describe how the present system of classification of organisms is based on
evolutionary relationships ancestors to produce the organismal diversity
observed today;
b. interpret and explain the phylogenetic tree; and
c. explain the importance of phylogenetic tree to evolutionary relationship of
organisms.

The evolutionary history of a group of organisms is called phylogeny from the Greek
word phylon which means “tribe” and genesis which means “origin”. Biologists
traditionally represent the genealogy or an organism’s line of evolutionary
development in phylogenetic trees, which are diagrams that trace evolutionary
relationships and connections among organisms.

A phylogenetic tree can be read like a map of evolutionary history. Rooted

phylogenetic trees have single lineage at the base representing a common ancestor.

Structure of Rooted Phylogenetic tree

branch point the point where split occurs
lineage that evolved early from the root and remains
basal taxon
unbranched
sister taxa point of two lineages stem from the same branch
Polytomy branch with more than two lineages
Indicates that an ancestral lineage gave rise to all
Root
organisms on the tree
There are four groups of evolutionary tree namely monophyletic, paraphyletic, and
polyphyletic. Monophyletic group is also called clade, which shows one common
ancestor and the all the descendants share a common characteristic, including their
most recent ancestors. Paraphyletic group refers to a group of organisms with similar
characteristics and originated from one recent common ancestor, but shows different
characteristics from the other descendants of the recent ancestor. Polyphyletic group
includes organisms that originated from the same ancient ancestors but not related at
all in terms of their most recent ancestors. Soft polytomy indicates more than two
immediate descendants.

Learning Task 7.1

Study the phylogenetic tree then answer the questions below.

1. What do you call to the place where two branches split apart?
2. What does the branch point that connects chimpanzee, bonobo and human
represent?
3. What is that single branch point from which all branches originate?
4. What does the node closest to the root represent?
5. How important is phylogenetic tree?
 Learning Task 7.2

1. Lineages that evolved early from the root and remain unbranched
A. basal taxon
B. branch point
C. root
D. sister taxa

2. The point where split takes place

A. basal taxon
B. branch point
C. polytomy
D. sister taxa

3. Indicates that an ancestral lineage gave rise to all organisms on the tree
A. basal taxon
B. branch point
C. root
D. sister taxa

4. Monophyletic group is also called _________________.

A. clade
B. domain
C. genus
D. taxa

5. Branch with more than two lineages

A. basal taxon
B. branch point
C. polytomy
D. sister taxa

6. Point of two lineages stem from the same branch

A. basal taxon
B. branch point
C. root
D. sister taxa

7. Greek word phylon from the word phylogeny means

______________________.
A. ancestor
B. branch
C. origin
D. tribe
8. Greek word genesis from the word phylogeny means ____________________.
A. ancestor
B. branch
C. origin
D. tribe
9. Diagram that traces evolutionary relationships and connections among
organisms
A. evolution
B. family tree
C. lineages tree
D. phylogenetic tree

For numbers 10 -11. Analyze the structure of phylogenetic tree.

10. Letter K represents _______________?

A. branch point
B. node
C. sister taxa
D. root

11. D and E are _________________.

A. branch point
B. node
C. sister taxa
D. root

12. Group of organisms that share ancient ancestors but not most recent ancestors.
A. monophyletic
B. paraphyletic
C. polyphyletic
D. polytomy

13. Indicates more than two immediate descendants

A. monophyletic
B. paraphyletic
C. polyphyletic
D. polytomy
 14. Group of organisms with a most recent common ancestor, but not other
descendants of the recent ancestor
A. monophyletic
B. paraphyletic
C. polyphyletic
D. polytomy

15. Indicates recent common ancestor and all the descendants of the recent
common ancestor
A. monophyletic
B. paraphyletic
C. polyphyletic
D. polytomy

Performance Task 7

Look at the picture below. This illustrates Complete the phylogenetic tree. Choose
the corresponding organism from the word bank.

Alligator Beavers Dolphin

Tuna
Frog Gorilla
Tyrannosaurus
MODULE 8: BIOSPHERE

Every living thing relies upon one another and their environment. No living creature
could do things all alone without relying upon different living beings and its
environment. Interaction and interdependence are two important relationships in
nature. Ecology is the branch of biology that deals with the study of these relationships
of interaction and interdependence between living things and their environment. The
area wherein living things associate with each other and with their environment is
known as the ecosystem. Association among species help shape ecosystem.

►Learning Objectives
At the end of this module, you will be expected to:
a. categorize the different biotic potential and environmental resistance (e. g.
diseases, availability of food and predators) that affect population explosion
b. identify biotic factors and abiotic factors; and
c. categorize biotic potential and environmental resistance that affect population
growth.

The ecosystem comprises of all living and non-living things that interact with each
other in a given territory. Every living piece of an ecosystem, for example, animals,
plants, and other living being are called biotic factors. Living organisms interact in the
ecosystem to obtain food in order to survive. Their interactions can be used to classify
them as to producers, consumers and decomposers. The non-living parts of an
ecosystem are called abiotic factors. Living creatures in a biological system can't be
separated independently from the abiotic or non-living components in their natural
surroundings.

LESSON 1. BIOTIC POTENTIAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL RESISTANCE

Biotic potential and environmental resistance are the factors that influence the
population growth. Biotic potential is the rate at which life forms reproduce when they
have perfect conditions that would advance effective generation. It is likewise
characterized as capacity of a populace of a species to propagate under perfect
conditions, for example, adequate food and water supply, no diseases, suitable
habitat and no predators. The biotic potential among creatures’ changes from species
to species. The following factors determine biotic potential:
a. numbers of offspring per reproduction
b. chances of survival age of reproduction
c. age at which propagation starts
d. how frequently every individual replicate

LESSON 2. POPULATION DYNAMICS

Population is a group of the same species living and reproducing in an area. Because
organisms within a population reproduce at a certain rate, population is constantly
changing. Population dynamics refers to how the population constantly changes
over time. There are 2 types of population growth pattern.
 1. Exponential growth pattern (J-curve) happens when an environment has an
ideal condition or unlimited resources at certain period.
2. Logistic growth pattern (S-curve) happens when the environment condition
already has limiting factors affecting the population growth.

Population growth can be measured in terms of population size (number of

individuals) or population density (number of individuals per area/volume). There are
limiting factors that can affect population growth.

1. Density-dependent factors are factors affecting the population when

population density reaches certain levels. These are usually biological in nature.
a. predators
b. availability of resources resulting to competition
c. nutrient supply or food
d. disease
e. accumulation of wastes
2. Density-independent factors are factors affecting all the populations
regardless of its density. These are usually physical or chemical in nature.
a. phenomena like natural disasters,
b. abiotic factors such as temperature, CO2 or oxygen levels
c. weather conditions like floods and storms

Exponential growth pattern happens only when the population is in a condition where
resources are infinite or unlimited. When the population size continuously increased,
the resources will soon become limited and the growth rate will start to slow down.
This is the time that the logistic growth pattern will start to occur where population size
approaches the carrying capacity. It is the maximum population size that the
environment can support or sustain.

In our sample graph, we can notice that the population size started to slow down at a
certain year until it no longer increased. It has reached its maximum population size
that can be supported by the resources available in the environment. Can you label
the carrying capacity in our sample graph? What is the carrying capacity stated in our
example?
Environmental resistance refers to the factors that can limit the growth of a populace.
It includes predators, competitors, disease, lack of food and water and unsuitable
habitat.

The biotic potential and environmental resistance influence the carrying capacity
which is defined as the maximum number of individuals that an ecosystem can
support. Biotic and abiotic factors that prevent the persistent development of a
population like food, water and space are called limiting factors.

A limiting factor is anything that constrains a population's size and slows or stops it
from growing. Some examples of limiting factors are biotic, like food, mates, and
competition with other organisms for resources. Others are abiotic, like space,
temperature, altitude, and amount of sunlight available in an environment. Limiting
factors are usually expressed as a lack of a particular resource. For example, if there
are not enough prey animals in a forest to feed a large population of predators, then
food becomes a limiting factor. Likewise, if there is not enough space in a pond for a
large number of fish, then space becomes a limiting factor. There can be many
different limiting factors at work in a single habitat, and the same limiting factors can
affect the populations of both plant and animal species. Ultimately, limiting factors
determine a habitat's carrying capacity, which is the maximum size of the population
it can support.

Learning Task 8.1

Refer to this illustration in answering questions A, B and C.

A. What are the abiotic factors in the illustration?

B. What are the biotic factors in the illustration?
C. Identify the environmental resistance that may affect the population in the
ecosystem.
D. What is the effect environmental resistance on a population?
 Learning Task 8.2

Graph the Philippines’ population growth using the data below. Identify factors
affecting the population growth pattern and predict our future population in the next
10 years. Use the questions below to analyze your graph and make sure that you are
guided by our rubric.

Analysis Questions
1. What population growth pattern was shown in your presentation?
2. Given the limited resources in the environment, what are the possible reasons
for our population growth pattern?
3. What do you think will be our population in the next 10 years?
4. What do you think will be the impact of our population growth to the ecosystem?

Source: https://data.worldbank.org/

You plot your graph in a graphing paper or use a spreadsheet software like
Excel if it is available. You can seek help how to input your data and make your graph.
Write down your analysis beneath your graph.

Performance Task 8
The recent years had been a tough and difficult time for many countries around the
world. What environmental resistance affects the Philippines? What measures will
you do to protect the community?