Module for General Biology (Bio 111)

MODULE OVERVIEW
Module Objectives
At the end of the course, the students will be able to:
 Explain the scope of biology and molecular basis of life
 Describe life activities from the cellular point of view
 Manipulate basic biological tool, record data and draw conclusions
 Develop scientific attitude, skill and conduct biological experiments using
scientific procedures
 Outline basic processes of energy transduction and synthesis of intermediate or
final products in living cells
 Understand the basic concepts of genetics and inheritance
 Understand the concepts of infection and immunity
 Classify organisms based on their cellular organization and complexity
 Explain components, processes and interrelationships within a given ecosystem
 Know the general features of invertebrate and vertebrate animals

 Appreciate the practical uses of biological knowledge and its application in the

wider society

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 Chapter One
1. Introduction
Dear learner! Welcome to this module which deals about the course, General Biology
(Bio111). This module chapter is primarily intended for natural science students to familiarize
with basic concepts of biological science, the nature and origin of life, scientific methods and the
subject matter of biology. I hope you will find it interesting!

Learning Objectives: After completing this chapter you will be expected to:
 define the term biology
 explain scientific methods
 know the origin and the nature of life

1.1. The meaning and scope of biology

Self-test:
1. Do you know the meaning and the scope of Biology? Discuss it
2. Explain the origin and the nature of life
3.What are the branches of biology?

Biological Sciences is the study of life and living organisms. It is also called as
“Biology”.
The Greek word “bio‟ means life and “logos‟ means study of. In the late 1700s Pierre-
Antoine de Monet and Jean-Baptiste de Lamarck coined the term biology. Earlier study of
living things was restricted to the pure Science like Botany and Zoology that together
comprise the Biology. But as the time passed new branches evolved. New technologies
developed in pure subjects as well as in applied fields, which gave rise to a very broad concept
of science called Biological Sciences. Biological Sciences is an extensive study covering the
minute workings of chemical substances inside living cells to the broad scale concepts of
ecosystems and global environmental changes.
It is also concerned with the physical characteristics and behaviors of organisms living
today and long ago. How they came into existence and what relation they possess with each
other and their environments? Intimate study of details of the human brain, the composition of
our genes, and even the functioning of our reproductive system are dealt in Biological
sciences.
Therefore, Biology is the science of Living Things. That is why Biology is sometimes known
as Life Science.
The life sciences can be defined as “a systematic study of living beings or study of
nature”. Teaching of life Science basically deals with providing information about the latest
developments in the field of Biological sciences all over the world.

1.2. The origin and nature of life

Self-test: -
1. Explain the origin and the nature of life
2. What are the Scientific Methods?
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 One of the biggest and most important of emergent phenomena is that of the origin or
emergence of life. The mystery of life's origin is still a big debating issue in science. The
question “what is life?” is so hard to answer; we really want to know much more than what it
is, we want to know why it is, “we are really asking, in physical terms, why a specific material
system is an organism and not something else”. To answer this why question we need to
understand how life might have originated. There are a number of theories about the origin of
life. The next few sections give emphasis on these different theories about the origin of life.

The evolution of life on earth has involved the following sequence of events. The first
living things to appear were the simplest creatures, single-celled organisms. From these came
more complex, multi-cellular organisms. Becoming more complex meant more than just an
increase in cell number but more cells showed cellular specialization, where certain cells
within the multi-cellular organism carried out specific tasks. Millions, even billions of years of
changes of organisms led to the living things we now call plants and animals.

Since this basic sequence of events is in accord with that agreed upon by most
geologists, paleontologists, biologists, and even theologians, one might conclude that Moses,
Aristotle, and Darwin were all keen observers and naturalists who were able to logically
assess the most probable creation story. Scientists generally concur that the time from the
formation of our solar system until now has been on the order of some 4.5 billion years. Those
who believe the world as we know it was created in six days are often called creationists.
Their method of inquiry is based on the belief that the Bible is to be accepted as a completely
accurate accounting of all about which it speaks. Scientists, on the other hand, utilize what
they call the scientific method, which allows them to test hypotheses and theories and to
develop concepts and ideas.

Summary of Theories on Origin of life

Several attempts have been made from time to time to explain the origin of life on earth. As a
result, there are several theories which offer their own explanation on the possible mechanism
of origin of life. Following are some of them:

1. Theory of Special Creation: according to this theory, all the different forms of life that
occur today on planet earth have been created by God, the almighty.

Theory of Spontaneous Generation: this theory assumed that living organisms could arise
suddenly and spontaneously from any kind of non-living matter. One of the firm believers in
spontaneous generation was Aristotle, the Greek philosopher (384-322 BC).

2.Theory of Catastrophism: It is simply a modification of the theory of Special Creation. It

states that there have been several creations of life by God, each preceded by a catastrophe
resulting from some kind of geological disturbance. According to this theory, since each
catastrophe completely destroyed the existing life, each new creation consisted of life form
different from that of previous ones.

3. Cosmogonic Theory (Theory of Panspermia): according to this theory, life has reached
this planet Earth from other heavenly bodies such as meteorites, in the form of highly

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resistance spores of some organisms. This idea was proposed by Richter in 1865 and
supported by Arrhenius (1908) and other contemporary scientists. The theory did not gain any
support. This theory lacks evidence; hence it was discarded.

4. Theory of Chemical Evolution: this theory is also known as Materialistic Theory or

Physio-chemical Theory. According this theory, Origin of life on earth is the result of a slow
and gradual process of chemical evolution that probably occurred about 3.8 billion years ago.
This theory was proposed independently by two scientists - A.I.Oparin, a Russian scientist in
1923 and J.B.S Haldane, an English scientist, in 1928.

Nature and characteristics of life

Life is defined as a "condition" that distinguishes animals and plants from inorganic materials
and dead organisms.
 Life is comprised of processes and is a maintained state.
 The most sophisticated form of life is man as a result of this we focus upon the nature
of the life and death of man.
Man demonstrates three lives or aspects of life: Life of the body (physical), life of the mind
and life of the spirit.
 Physical life is basic existence
 Mind contributes effectiveness and scope
 Spiritual entity contributes maximum living.
Physiology: The existence of life physical is demonstrated by the presence of functions.

Living tissues and organisms exhibit:

Irritability: the ability to be excited or detect stimuli and to respond thereto
Growth and reproduction: this consists of the power of multiplication and duplication,
regeneration and differentiation
Adaptability: permitting both change and maintenance of balances (homeostasis) Finally
and most characteristic of all is Metabolism: the transformation of energy and the use of
materials. These properties, however, can be retained for a while by tissues after death of
the organism so there is another mystery of life which we understand only in part.
Excretion: excretion and osmoregulation regulation are two important homeostatic
processes occurring in living cells, helping them to maintain a constant internal
environment, or steady state. Excretion is the removal from the cell of waste products of
metabolism. In plant cells the major excretory products are oxygen from photosynthesis
and carbon dioxide from cell respiration.

1.3. Scientific methods

Self-test:-
1. Write dawn the main steps of the scientific methods in sequence?
2. You observe that a room appears dark, and you wonder why the room is dark? In an
attempt to find explanations to this curiosity, what are the possible hypotheses that
come in your mind to discover the truth?

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 3. What are the major common properties of living things?

The scientific method is a process for experimentation that is used to explore

observations and answer questions. It is an empirical method of acquiring knowledge. It is
also the technique used in the construction and testing of a scientific hypothesis.
The scientific method has five basic steps, plus one feedback step:
 Make an observation.
 Ask a question.
 Form a hypothesis, or testable explanation.
 Make a prediction based on the hypothesis.
 Test the prediction.
 Iterate: use the results to make new hypotheses or predictions.

Observation - Quantitative and qualitative measurements of the world.

Inference - Deriving new knowledge based upon old knowledge.
Hypotheses –A suggested explanation.
Rejected Hypothesis - An explanation that has been ruled out through experimentation.
Accepted Hypothesis - An explanation that has not been ruled out through excessive
experimentation and makes verifiable predictions that are true.
Experiment - A test that is used to rule out a hypothesis or validate something already known.

Scientific Method - The process of scientific investigation.

Theory - A widely accepted hypothesis that stands the test of time. Often tested, and usually
never rejected.
The scientific method is based primarily on the testing of hypotheses by experimentation. This
involves a control, or subject that does not undergo the process in question. A scientist will
also seek to limit variables to one or another very small number, single or minimum number
of variables. The procedure is to form a hypothesis or prediction about what you believe or
expect to see and then do everything you can to violate that, or falsify the hypotheses.
Although this may seem unintuitive, the process serves to establish more firmly what is and
what is not true.
Summary of the scientific method
Step 1: Observe behavior or other phenomena
Step 2: Form a tentative answer or explanation (a hypothesis (guess a reason)
Step 3: Use your hypothesis to generate a testable prediction
Step 4: Make systematic, planned observations (data collection)
Step 5: Results and Discussion, Use the observations to evaluate (support, refute, or
refine) the original hypothesis
Step 6: Conclusion
Step 7: Recommendation

Chapter review questions

1. List dawn all the steps used in scientific methods
2. Propose a hypothesis in an attempt to find explanations for this curiosity
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3. Explain the differences between control and variable group
4. List down the characteristics common to all living things
5. What is a controlled experiment? Why is it essential to have a control group in
scientific experiment?

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 Chapter Two
2. Biological Molecules
Biological molecules are often referred to as the molecules of life (bio-molecules) that are
basically found in a living cell and categorized as organic and inorganic molecules in general.
Each member of the groups is vital for every single organism on Earth. The organic
biomolecules are proteins, carbohydrates, lipids and nucleic acids. Without any of these four

molecules, a cell and organism would not be able to live. They are important either
structurally or functionally for cells and, in most cases, they are important in both ways. the
most commonly known inorganic molecules are water and minerals, which are still important
for the normal functioning of the cell.

Learning Objectives: After completing this chapter you will be expected to:
 define the term biomolecules
 describe list of organic and inorganic molecules and their biological importance
 identify the basic structures of biomolecules
 explain the precursors of each macromolecule with their respective polymerization
process
 state the physical and chemical nature of water and their relevance to the existence
of life

2.1. Carbohydrates
Self-test:
1. What are the elemental compositions of carbohydrates?
2. Why cells rely on carbohydrates as a major source of energy compared to other
biomolecules?
3. What are the additional importance's of carbohydrates besides their role as energy source?

A carbohydrate molecule is made of atoms of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. They are an
important source of energy and they also provide structural support for cells and help with
communication between cells (cell-cell recognition). They are found in the form of either a
sugar or many sugars linked together, called saccharides. Based on the number sugar units
they contain, they are categorized into three, as follows.
 A single sugar molecule containing carbohydrate is known as a monosaccharide,
while two and many having are regarded as disaccharides and polysaccharides,
respectively.
 Each of the sugar molecules are bonded together through the glyosidic linkage/s. The
three different types of carbohydrates are all important for different reasons
 Carbohydrates are polyhydroxy aldehydes or ketones, or substances that yield these
compounds on hydrolysis. Example: Glucose is aldehyde and fructose is Ketone.
Monosaccharides - simple sugars with multiple OH groups. Based on number of
carbons (3, 4, 5, 6), a monosaccharide is a triose, tetrose, pentose or hexose.
Disaccharides - 2 monosaccharides covalently linked

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 Oligosaccharides - a few monosaccharides covalently linked.
Polysaccharides - polymers consisting of chains of monosaccharide or disaccharide

Fig: 2.1. Structure of monosaccharides (glucose and fructose)

6CH2OH 6CH2OH

5 O 5 O
H H H H
H H
1 4 1
4 OH H OH H

OH O OH
3 2 3 2

H OH maltose H OH

Fig: 2.2. Structure of maltose (disaccharides)

Monosaccharides
Monosaccharides containing the aldehyde group are classified as aldoses, and those with a
ketone group are classified as ketoses. Aldoses are reducing sugars; ketoses are non-reducing
sugars. This is important in understanding the reaction of sugars with Benedict's reagent.
However, in water pentose’s and hexoses exist mainly in the cyclic form, and it is in this form
that they combine to form larger saccharide molecules.

Glucose
Glucose is the most important carbohydrate fuel in human cells. Its concentration in the blood
is about 1 gdm-3. The small size and solubility in water of glucose molecules allows them to
pass through the cell membrane into the cell. Energy is released when the molecules are
metabolized.
Two glucose molecules react to form the disaccharide maltose. Starch and cellulose are
polysaccharides made up of glucose units.

Galactose
Galactose molecules look very similar to glucose molecules. They can also exist in α and β
forms. Galactose reacts with glucose to make the disaccharide lactose. However, glucose and
galactose cannot be easily converted into one another. Galactose cannot play the same part in
respiration as glucose. This comparison of glucose and galactose shows why the precise
arrangement of atoms in a molecule (shown by the displayed formula) is so important.
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Fructose
Fructose, glucose and galactose are all hexoses. However, whereas glucose and galactose are
aldoses (reducing sugars), fructose is a ketose (a non-reducing sugar). It also has a five-atom
ring rather than a six-atom ring. Fructose reacts with glucose to make the disaccharide
sucrose.

Ribose and deoxyribose

Ribose and deoxyribose are pentose’s. The ribose unit forms part of a nucleotide of RNA.
The deoxyribose unit forms part of the nucleotide of DNA.

Disaccharides
Monosaccharides are rare in nature. Most sugars found in nature are disaccharides. These form
when two monosaccharides react. Disaccharides are soluble in water, but they are too big to
pass through the cell membrane by diffusion. They are broken down in the small intestine
during digestion to give the smaller monosaccharides that pass into the blood and through cell
membranes into cells.

This is a hydrolysis reaction and is the reverse of a condensation reaction and it releases
energy.

A condensation reaction takes place by releasing water. This process requires energy. A
glyosidic bond forms and holds the two monosaccharide units together. The three most
important disaccharides are sucrose, lactose and maltose. They are formed from a forms of
the appropriate monosaccharides. Sucrose is a non-reducing sugar. Lactose and maltose are
reducing sugars.

Monosaccharides are used very quickly by cells. However, a cell may not need all the energy
immediately and it may need to store it. Monosaccharides are converted into disaccharides in
the cell by condensation reactions. Further condensation reactions result in the formation of
polysaccharides. These are giant molecules which, importantly, are too big to escape from the
cell. These are broken down by hydrolysis into monosaccharides when energy is needed by
the cell.

Polysaccharides
Monosaccharides can undergo a series of condensation reactions, adding one unit after another
to the chain until very large molecules (polysaccharides) are formed. This is called
condensation polymerization, and the building blocks are called monomers. The properties
of a polysaccharide molecule depend on:

• Its length (though they are usually very long)

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 • The extent of any branching (addition of units to the side of the chain rather than one
of its ends)
• Any folding which results in a more compact molecule
• Whether the chain is 'straight' or 'coiled'
Starch
Starch is often produced in plants as a way of storing energy. It exists in two forms: amylose
and amylopectin. Both are made from α-glucose. Amylose is an unbranched polymer of
αglucose. The molecules coil into a helical structure. It forms a colloidal suspension in hot
water. Amylopectin is a branched polymer of α-glucose. It is completely insoluble in water.

Glycogen
Glycogen is amylopectin with very short distances between the branching side-chains. Starch
from plants is hydrolyzed in the body to produce glucose. Glucose passes into the cell and is
used in metabolism. Inside the cell, glucose can be polymerized to make glycogen which acts
as a carbohydrate energy store.

Cellulose
Cellulose is a third polymer made from glucose. But this time it's made from β-glucose
molecules and the polymer molecules are 'straight'. Cellulose serves a very different purpose
in nature to starch and glycogen. It makes up the cell walls in plant cells. These are much
tougher than cell membranes. This toughness is due to the arrangement of glucose units in the
polymer chain and the hydrogen-bonding between neighboring chains. Cellulose is not
hydrolyzed easily and, therefore, cannot be digested so it is not a source of energy for humans.
The stomachs of Herbivores contain a specific enzyme called cellulose which enables them to
digest cellulose.

Summary of carbohydrates
•
The most abundant organic molecules in nature
•
Are polyhydroxy aldehydes or ketones, or substances that yield these compounds on
hydrolysis
• Provide a significant fraction of the energy in the diet of most organisms
• Important source of energy for cells
• Can act as a storage form of energy
• Can be structural components of many organisms
• Can be cell-membrane components mediating intercellular communication
• Can be cell-surface antigens
• Can be part of the body’s extracellular ground substance
• Can be associated with proteins and lipids
• Part of RNA, DNA, and several coenzymes (NAD+, NADP+, FAD, CoA)

2.2. Lipids
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Self-Test:
1. What are lipids?
2. What is the difference between saturated and unsaturated?
3. What are the physiological and structural roles of lipids for life forms?

Lipids are a highly variable group of molecules that include fats, oils, waxes and some
steroids. They are esters of fatty acids and alcohol (glycerol or chains of alcohols). Fatty acids
are made mostly from chains of carbon and hydrogen and they bond to a range of other types
of atoms to form many different lipids. The primary function of lipids is to store energy.

A lipid called a triglyceride is a fat if it is solid at room temperature and an oil if it is liquid at
room temperature. In addition, triglycerides are stored in the fat cells, also called adipocytes or
leptocytes, and are responsible in storing fats and lipids which will facilitate energy store in
animal’s body. Fat cells are categorized in white fat cells and brown fat cells. The different is
made from their ways of storing lipids. White fat cells store one large lipid drop while brown
fat cells store smaller and multiple droplets of lipids spreading in the whole body of the cell.
Various types of lipids occur in the human body, namely 1) triacylglycerol, 2) cholesterol, and
3) polar lipids, which include phospholipids, glycolipids and sphingolipids. Plant leaves are
coated with lipids called waxes to prevent water loss, and the honeycomb in a beehive is made
of beeswax.
The basic structure of a lipid includes fatty acid tails as shown in Figure 2.3. Each tail is a
chain of carbon atoms bonded to hydrogen and other carbon atoms by single or double bonds.
Lipids that have tail chains with only single bonds between the carbon atoms are called
saturated fats because no more hydrogens can bond to the tail. Lipids that have at least one
double bond between carbon atoms in the tail chain can accommodate at least one more
hydrogen and are called unsaturated fats. Fats with more than one double bond in the tail are
called polyunsaturated fats.

Properties of lipids
• Insoluble in water
• Longer chains
 More hydrophobic, less soluble • Double bonds increase solubility
• Melting points:
 Depend on chain length and saturation
 Double bonds lead acyl chain disorder and low melting temperatures 
Unsaturated fatty acids are solid at room temperature.

Importance of lipids
 As the main component of cell membranes (phospholipids)
 Insulation of heat and water,
 Storing energy, protection and cellular communication.

Activity
1. What are the elemental compositions of lipids?
2. Why lipids act as major source of energy?
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3. What are the major classes of lipids?
4. Jot down the importance of cholesterol?

2.3. Proteins
Self-Test:
1. Comment on the following statements (answer by saying true or false for each statement
and then elaborate)
a) all proteins are enzymes
b) enzymes initiate a chemical reaction
c) chemical reactions cannot take place in the body without enzymes
2. What are the elemental composition of proteins?
3. What are the physiological and structural roles of proteins?
4.Compare protein with nucleic acid
5. How is the primary structure of a protein determined?

A protein is a compound made of small carbon compounds called amino acids. Amino acids
are small compounds that are made of carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, hydrogen, and sometimes
sulfur. All amino acids share the same general structure.

Amino acids have a central carbon atom like the one shown in Fig. 2.3. Recall that carbon can
form four covalent bonds. One of those bonds is with hydrogen. The other three bonds are
with an amino group (–NH2), a carboxyl group (–COOH), and a variable group (–R). The
variable group makes each amino acid different. There are 20 different variable groups, and
proteins are made of different combinations of all 20 different amino acids. Several covalent
bonds called peptide bonds join amino acids together to form proteins, which is also shown in
Fig. 2.3. A peptide forms between the amino group of one amino acid and the carboxyl group
of another.

Fig: 2.3. Basic structure of amino acid

Based on the variable groups contained in the different amino acids, proteins can have up to
four levels of structure. The number of amino acids in a chain and the order in which the
amino acids are joined define the protein’s primary structure. After an amino acid chain is
formed, it folds into a unique three-dimensional shape, which is the protein’s secondary
structure. A protein might contain many helices, pleats, and folds. The tertiary structure of
many proteins is globular, such as the hemoglobin protein, but some proteins form long fibers.
Some proteins form a fourth level of structure by combining with other proteins.

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 Fig: 2.4. Peptide bond

Proteins make up about 15 percent of your total body mass and are involved in nearly every
function of your body. For example, your muscles, skin, and hair all are made of proteins.
Your cells contain about 10,000 different proteins that provide structural support, transport
substances inside the cell and between cells, communicate signals within the cell and between
cells, speed up chemical reactions, and control cell growth.

2.4. Nucleic acids

Self-Test:
1. What is the role of nucleic acid?
2. What are the molecular composition of nucleotides?
3. Describe briefly the differences between DNA & RNA?

Nucleic acids are complex macromolecules that store and transmit genetic information.
Nucleic acids are made of smaller repeating subunits called nucleotides. Nucleotides are
composed of carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, phosphorus, and hydrogen atoms arranged as shown in
Fig. 2.5. There are six major nucleotides, all of which have three units a phosphate, a
nitrogenous base, and a ribose sugar.

Fig: 2.5. Basic structure of nucleotide

There are two types of nucleic acids in living organisms: deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and
ribonucleic acid (RNA). In nucleic acids such as DNA and RNA, the sugar of one nucleotide
bonds to the phosphate of another nucleotide. There are five different bases found in
nucleotide subunits that make up DNA and RNA, Adenine, Cytosine, Guanine, Thymine and
Uracil. Each of these nitrogenous base that sticks out from the chain is available for hydrogen
bonding with other bases in other nucleic acids.

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Fig: 2.6. Nitrogenous bases

A nucleotide with three phosphate groups is adenosine triphosphate (ATP). ATP is a

storehouse of chemical energy that can be used by cells in a variety of reactions. It releases
energy when the bond between the second and third phosphate group is broken.

2.5. Vitamins
Self-Test:
1. What are vitamins?
2. What are the roles of vitamins in maintaining homeostasis.?
3. What are the water soluble and fat soluble vitamins?

Vitamins are organic compounds that are needed in small amounts for metabolic activities.
Many vitamins help enzymes function well. Vitamin D is made by cells in your skin. Some B
vitamins and vitamin K are produced by bacteria living in the large intestine. Sufficient
quantities of most vitamins cannot be made by the body, but a well-balanced diet can provide
the vitamins that are needed. Some vitamins that are fat-soluble can be stored in small
quantities in the liver and fatty tissues of the body. Other vitamins are water-soluble and
cannot be stored in the body. Foods providing an adequate level of these vitamins should be
included in a person’s diet on a regular basis.

2.6 Water
Self-Test:
What are the physical and chemical properties of water, and their roles in maintaining
homeostasis.?

Water molecules are formed by covalent bonds that link two hydrogen (H) atoms to one oxygen
(O) atom, and each water molecule has the same structure. It is one of the most plentiful and
essential of compounds, which is a tasteless and odorless, existing in gaseous, liquid, and solid
states. It has the important ability to dissolve and as a media for transportation of many other
substances. In reality, the versatility of water as a solvent is essential to living organisms, as well.

Water molecules have an unequal distribution of charges and are called polar molecules, meaning
that they have oppositely charged regions.

Activity (Think Scientifically)

1.What would have happened to the living things if the color of water was black or red?
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2.Even if water exists on other planets but it couldn't support life but what is the mystery
behind this for the existence of life on earth?

2.7. Minerals
Self-Test:
1. What are minerals?
2. What are the roles of minerals in maintaining homeostasis.?

Minerals are inorganic compounds used by the body as building material, and they are
involved with metabolic functions. For example, the mineral iron is needed to make
hemoglobin and it binds to hemoglobin in red blood cells and is delivered to body cells as
blood circulates in the body. Calcium, and other minerals, is an important component of bones
and is involved with muscle and nerve functions and they serve as cofactors for enzymes.
Magnesium is an important component of the green pigment, chlorophyll, involved in
photosynthesis.

Activity
1. Explain why raw edible oil is added on dishes of raw vegetables before consumption?

Summary of unit two

 Carbon compounds are the basic building blocks of living organisms.
 Biological macromolecules are formed by joining of small carbon compounds into
polymers.
 There are four types of biological macromolecules; carbohydrates, proteins, lipids and
nucleic acids
 Monosaccharides undergo condensation to form disaccharides and poly saccharides
through the glyosidic linkages
 Peptide bonds join amino acids in proteins.
 Lipids are esters of fatty acids and alcohols  Chains of nucleotides form nucleic
acids.

Chapter Review Questions

1. Explain if an unknown substance found on a meteorite is determined to contain no
trace of carbon, can scientists conclude that there is life at the meteorite's origin?
2. List and compare the four types of biological macromolecules.
3. Identify the components of carbohydrates and proteins.
4. Discuss the importance of amino acid order to a protein’s function.
5. Given the large number of proteins in the body, explain why the shape of an enzyme is
important to its function.
6. Compare and contrast the functions of carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic
acids.
7. State why the polarity of water molecules makes water a good solvent.
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 8. Given the large number of proteins in the body, explain why the shape of an enzyme is
important to its function?

Chapter Three

3. The cellular basis of life (4hrs)

Self-Test:
1. State the cellular basis of life and cell theory
2. Identify the different types of organelles, their structure and functions
3.Why is homogenization important in cell study?

In the late 1600‟s, an English scientist named Robert Hook was the first to observe plant cells
with a crude microscope. Then, almost a century and a half later, in the 1830‟s two German
scientists proposed that all living things are composed of cells (their names were Mathias
Schleiden and Theodore Schwann). A German pathologist, Rudolph Virchow extended this
idea by contending that cells arise only from other cells.

3.1. The cell theory

A cell is the basic structural and functional unit of living organisms. The activity of an
organism depends on both the individual and the collective activities of its cells. According to
the principle of complementarity of structure and function, the biochemical activities of cells
are dictated by their shapes or forms, and by the relative number of their specific sub-cellular
structures. All cells arise from pre-existing cells (continuity of life from one generation to
another has a cellular basis).
A typical eukaryotic cell has 3 major parts:
 The plasma membrane: the outer boundary of the cell.
 The cytoplasm: the intracellular fluid packed with organelles, small structures that
perform specific cell functions.
 The nucleus: an organelle that controls cellular activities. Typically, the
nucleus resides near the cell’s center.

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 Fig: 3.1. Animal cell

3.2. Cell organelles

An organelle is a specialized subunit within a cell that has a specific function. In
eukaryotes an organelle is a membrane bound structure found within a cell. Just like cells have
membranes to hold everything in, these mini-organs are also bound in a double layer of
phospholipids to insulate their little compartments within the larger cells. Prokaryotes are cells
that do not have membrane bound organelles. You can think of organelles as smaller rooms
within the factory, with specialized conditions to help these rooms carry out their specific task
(like a break room stocked with goodies or a research room with cool gadgets and a special air
filter). These organelles are found in the cytoplasm, a viscous liquid found within the cell
membrane that houses the organelles and is the location of most of the action happening in a
cell.

There are two kinds of cell organelles on the basis membrane covering, membranous
and non-membranous organelles. Endoplasmic reticulum (Rough and Smooth), Golgi bodies,
mitochondria, chloroplasts, nucleus, lysosomes, peroxisomes and vacuoles are membranous
whereas, non-membrane bound cell organelles are ribosomes (70S and 80S), centrosomes,
cilia and flagella, microtubules, basal bodies and microfilaments.
3.3. Structure and function of organelles
The nucleus: This is distinctly oval or spherically shaped largest central structure surrounded
by a double-layered membrane. In the nucleus, DNA directs protein synthesis and serves as a
genetic blueprint during cell replication. DNA gives codes, or “instruction” for directing
synthesis of specific structure and enzymes proteins within the cell. By monitoring these
protein synthesis activity, the nucleus indirectly governs most cellular activities and serves as
the cell’s master. Three types of RNA are involved in protein synthesis. At first, DNA‟s
genetic code for a particular protein is transcribed into a messenger-RNA, which leaves
nucleus through the nuclear pores of the nuclear membrane. And, within the cytoplasm,
mRNA delivers the coded message to the ribosomal RNA, which "reads" message/code and

17
translates it into the appropriate amino acids sequence for the designated protein being
synthesized. Finally, transfer-RNA transfers the appropriate amino acids within the cytoplasm
to their designated site in the protein under production. During cell replication, DNA ensures
the continuing of the identical types of cell line within the body. Furthermore, in the gametes,
the DNA blueprint serves to pass the genetic characteristics to future generation.
Generally, the nucleus may be:
• roundede.g. in hepatocytes.
• indented (segmented)e.g. in neutrophils.
• binucleatede.g. in parietal cells, cardiac muscle cells.
• multinucleatede.g. in osteoclasts, skeletal muscle cells.
• very large (many DNA)e.g. in megakaryocytes.
• absente.g. in mature erythrocytes, blood platelets.
The nucleus is surrounded by a nuclear envelope and contains chromatin and one or more
nucleoli.

The Nuclear envelope

 surrounds nuclear material
 consists of outer and inner membrane
 perforated at intervals by nuclear pores
 through this pores most ions and water soluble molecules to transfer b/n nucleus and
cytoplasm.
Chromatin: The term chromatin means "colored material" and refers to the fact that this
material is easily stained for viewing with microscope, and it is composed mainly of coils
DNA bound to basic protein called his tones. The DNA is so long that it has to be packed in
an organization manner or it would get entangled like unraveled ball of string.

Nucleoli: The nuclei of most cells contain one or more lightly stained structures called
nucleoli that actively engage in synthesizing of ribosomes. The nucleolus, unlike most of the
organelles, does not have a limiting membrane. Instead, it is simply a structure that contains
large amounts of RNA and protein of the type found in ribosomes. The nucleolus becomes
considerably enlarged when a cell is actively synthesizing proteins. The genes of five separate
chromosome pairs synthesize the ribosomal RNA and then store it in the nucleolus.

The Cytoplasm: The cytosol is the material of cell interior not occupied by the nucleus,
containing a number of distinct, highly organized membrane-enclosed structures- the
organelles- dispersed within a complex jelly – like marrow called the „cytosol‟. All cells
contain six main types of organelles- the endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi complex, lysosomes,
peroxisomes, mitochondria, and vacuoles. They are similar in all cells, but with some
variations depending on the cell specialization. Each organelle is a separate compartment,
containing different chemically setting for fulfilling a partial or cellular function. These
organelles occupy about half of the total cell the remaining part of the cytoplasm is cytosol.

18
 Fig:3.2. Endoplasmic reticulum

Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)

The endoplasmic reticulum is a fluid-filled membrane system extensively present
throughout the cytosol. The ER is one continuous organelle with many communicating
channels. The two different types are smooth endoplasmic reticulum and the rough ER. The
smooth ER is a meshwork of interconnected tubules, whereas the rough ER projects outwards
from the reticulum as stacks of flattened sacs. Though different in structure and function, they
are continuous with each other.

Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum: The outer surface of the rough ER contains dark particles
called ribosomes, which are ribosomal RNA protein complexes that produce protein under the
direction of nuclear DNA. Messenger-RNA carries the genetic message from the nucleus to
the ribosomes “workshop” where proteins are synthesized. Some ribosomes are “free”
dispersed throughout the cytosol. The rough ER in association with ribosomes produces and
releases a variety of proteins, into the fluid-filled space enclosed by the membrane. Some
proteins for export as secretory products (hormones or enzymes). Other proteins are
transported to sites within the cell for use in the construction of new plasma membrane or new
organelle membrane. Cellular membrane contains predominantly fats and proteins. ER
membrane also contains enzymes required for the synthesis of almost all the lipids needed for
the production of new membranes. These lipids enter the ER lumen along with the proteins.
This structure is well developed in cells producing digestive enzymes or in rapidly growing
cells. Each ribosome is involved in producing only one type of protein. The free ribosomes
synthesize enzyme protein that are used intra-cellular within the cytosol.

Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum: Since it does not have ribosomes, it looks „smooth‟ and
does not produce proteins. It serves a variety of other functions that differ in cell types. In
most cells, the smooth ER is sparse and serves in packaging and discharging site for protein
molecules that are to be transported from the ER. All new proteins and fats pass from ER

19
gathered in the smooth ER. Portions of the smooth ER then “bud off/pinch off”, giving rise to
„transport vesicles‟, they contain the new molecule wrapped in a membrane derived from the
smooth ER membrane. Transport vesicles move to the Golgi complex for further processing
of their cargo. Some specialized cells have an extensive smooth ER, which has additional
functions as follows:
 The smooth ER is well developed in cells specialized in lipid metabolism- cells that
synthesize steroid hormones. The membrane wall of the smooth ER contains enzymes
for synthesis of lipids. This is an additional site for synthesis in addition for ER to
keep pace with demands for hormone secretion.

 In liver cells, the smooth ER contains enzymes involved in detoxifying harmful

endogenous substances produced within the body by metabolism or exogenous
substances entering the body from outside as drugs or other foreign compounds. The
detoxifying enzymes alter toxic substances so that they could be easily eliminated in
the urine. But unfortunately, in some instances the same enzyme transforms otherwise
harmless substance into carcinogens that play a role in cancer development.

 The smooth ER has a special role in skeletal muscle cells. They have an elaborate
network of smooth ER, which stores ionic calcium and plays a crucial role in the
process of muscle contraction.

Fig:3.3. Golgi apparatus

The Golgi Complex: The Golgi complex is elaborately associated with the ER and contains
sets of flattened, curved, membrane- enclosed sacs, or cisternae, stacked in layers. Number of
stacks vary in cells; cells specialized for protein secretion have hundreds of stacks, whereas
some have only one. The majority of newly formed molecules budding off from the smooth
ER enter a Golgi complex stacks. It performs the following important functions.
1. Processing the raw material into finished products. In the Golgi complex, the “raw”
protein from the ER are modified into their final state mainly by adjustment made in
the sugar attached to the protein. This is a very elaborate, precisely programmed
activity, specific for each final product.

20
 2. Sorting and directing finished product to their final destination. According to their
function and destination, different types of products are segregated by the Golgi
complex, i.e., molecules that are destined for secretion to the exterior, molecules that
will eventually become part of the plasma membrane, and the molecules that will
become incorporated into other organelles.
3. The smooth ER of the liver and kidney cells are responsible for the detoxification and
inactivation of drugs. Enzymes within the smooth ER can inactivate or destroy a
variety of chemicals including alcohol, pesticides, and carcinogens.
4. In skeletal muscle cells, a modified form of smooth ER stores Ca2+ to be released for
muscle contraction.

Fig: 3.4. Structure of endoplasmic reticulum and its relation with the Golgi apparatus
and the nucleus.

Lysosomes: Lysosomes serve as the intracellular “digestive system”. Lysosomes are

membrane-enclosed sacs containing powerful hydrolytic enzymes capable of digesting and
removing unwanted cellular debris and foreign materials such as bacteria that have been
internalized within the cell. Lysosomes vary in size and shape, and about 300μm in a cell.
Surrounding membrane confines these enzymes, preventing from destroying the cell that
houses them. Extrinsic material to be attacked by lysosomal enzymes is brought into the
interior of the cell through the process of endocytosis. If the fluid is internalized by
endocytosis, the process is called pinocytosis. Endocytosis is also accomplished by
phagocytosis.

In pinocytosis, ECF and a large molecule such as protein is engulfed. A specific

molecule may bind to surface receptor, triggering pinocytosis- receptor-mediated endocytosis.
Dynamin, a molecule forms rings wrapping around, severing the vesicle from the surface
membrane in pinocytosis.
In phagocytosis, large multimolecular particles are internalized by endocytosis; this is
achieved by only a few specialized cells- white blood cells that play an important role in the

21
body’s defense mechanism. When a leukocyte encounters large multimolecular particle, such
as bacteria or tissue debris, it extends projection (pseudopodia) that completely surround or
engulf the particle, forming an internalized vesicle that traps the large multimolecular particle
within it.

A lysosome fuses with the membrane of the internalized vesicle and releases its
contents of hydrolytic enzymes into the vesicle. These enzymes safely attack the microbes or
other trapped material within the enclosed confines of the
vesicle without damaging the remainder of the cell.

Lysosomes can take up old organelles such as mitochondria and break down into their
component molecules. Those molecules that can be released are reabsorbed into the cytosol,
and the rest are dumped out of the cell. The process by which worn-out organelles are digested
is called autophagy a human liver cell recycles about half its content every week. In the
inherited condition known as lysosomal storage disease (Tay-Sachs disease) lysosomes are
not effective because they lack specific enzymes. As a result, harmful waste products
accumulate disrupting the normal function of cells, often with fatal results

Peroxisome: Peroxisome Is membrane-enclosed sacs containing oxidative enzymes and

catalase that detoxify various wastes. Oxidative enzymes need oxygen to remove hydrogen
from specific substance/molecule; such reactions are important in detoxifying various waste
products within the cell or foreign compounds that have entered in, such as ethanol consumed
in alcoholic drinks (in liver and kidneys). The major product generated is hydrogen peroxide;
hydrogen peroxide itself is a powerful oxidant. It also contains catalase, and antioxidant
enzyme decomposing hydrogen peroxide into harmless water and oxygen. This reaction is an
important safety reaction that destroys deadly hydrogen peroxide, at the site of production,
thereby preventing possible devastating escape into the cytosol. It is shorter and smoother than
lysosome and several hundred may present in one cell.

Proximal disorders disrupt the normal processing of lipids and can severely disrupt the
normal function of the nervous system by altering the structure of the nerve cell membrane
Mitochondria

Mitochondria are the “power houses” of a cell; they extract energy from nutrients in
food and transform it into usable form to energize cell activity. Their number varies depending
on the energy needs of each particular cell types. A single cell may have few hundreds or
thousands. Mitochondria are rod or oval shaped about the size of a bacterium. Each is
enclosed by a double membrane - a smooth outer that surrounds the mitochondria, and an
inner membrane that forms a series of enfolding or shelves called cristae, which project into
an inner cavity filled with a jelly-like matrix (See figure 3.5). These cristae contain proteins
that convert much of the energy in food into a usable form (the electron transport protein). The
enfolding increase the surface area available for keeping these important proteins.

22
 The matrix contains a mixture of hundreds of different dissolved enzymes (Citric acid
cycle enzymes) that are important in preparing nutrient molecules for the final extraction of
usable energy by the cristae proteins.

Carbon-hydrogen bonds in ingested food are the source of energy stored in the
chemical forms. Body cell can extract energy from food nutrients and convert it into energy
form that they can use. The high energy phosphate bonds of ATP contain adenosine with 3
phosphate groups. When high energy phosphate bond is split, a substantial amount of energy
is released.
ATP is the universal energy carrier the common energy “currency” of the body. Cells can
“cash in” ATP to pay the energy “price” for running the cellular machine. To get immediate
usable energy cells can split terminal phosphate bond of ATP, which yields ADP with
phosphate group attached - plus inorganic phosphate (Pi) plus energy. (See figure 3below).

Fig. 3.5. Mitochondrial structure

Mitochondria are unusual organelles in two ways:
• In the matrix they have their own unique DNA called mitochondrial DNA.
• Mitochondria have the ability to replicate themselves even when the cell to which they
belong is not undergoing cell division.
Chloroplasts
Chloroplasts are useful organelles among plastids as they highly participate in the
process of photosynthesis which is a process by which plants synthesize their own food. They
are located in outer surface of the cell to receive enough light. Chloroplasts are green colored
due to the chlorophyll pigments found in its internal parts. Some of important characteristics
of plant is its ability to carry out photosynthesis as the way they use in making their own food
and pass through converting light energy in chemical energy.

23
 Fig: 3.6. Structure of plant cell

Vesicles are membrane bound sacs that are used to store or transport substances around the
cell. Lysosomes are actually Vesicles.

Vacuoles are essentially larger Vesicles, and they are formed by the joining together of many
Vesicles. They are membrane bound organelles that have no specific shape and contain water
with a number of different compounds within it. Their function varies greatly depending on
the type of cell they are part of. In plant cells they are important in maintaining Turgor
Pressure.

Cytoskeleton
The cytoskeleton is a complex protein network that act as the “bone and muscle” of
the cell. This necessary intracellular scaffolding supports and organizes cellular components
arrangements and to control their movements; this provides distinct shape, size to the cell.

This network has at least four distinct elements: Microtubules, Microfilaments,

Intermediate filaments and Micro tubular lattice

The different parts of the cytoskeleton are structures linked and functionally
coordinated to provide integration of the cell. The microtubule is the largest of the group;
slender, long, hollow tubes composed of a globular protein molecule (6 nm diameter) tubulin.
They provide asymmetrical shape to the cell, such as a neuron with cell body and long axon.
They coordinate numerous complex cell movements in transport of secretory vesicles from
region to region of the cell, movements of cilia and flagella, distribution of chromosomes
during cell division, microfilaments are important to cellular contractile system and as
mechanical stiffeners. The microfilaments are the smallest of the cytoskeleton composed of
protein molecule actin having a globular shape similar to tubulin. Generally, cytoskeletons
determine/ provide the:

 shape of a cell
 structural support

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  organizing its contents
 substances movement through cell (cilia, flagella and intracytoplasmic vesicles), and
contribute to movements of the cell as a whole.
Plasma/cell membrane
The plasma membrane is extremely thin layer of lipids and proteins forming outermost
boundary of living cell and enclosing the intracellular fluid (ICF). It serves as a mechanical
barrier that traps needed molecules within the cell; plasma membrane plays an active role in
determining the composition of cell by selective permeability of substances to pass between
the cell and its ECF environment. There are some differences in the composition of plasma
membrane between cell types, which permits the cell to interact in different ways with
essentially the same extracellular fluid (ECF) environment. The plasma membrane is a fluid
lipid bilayer embedded with proteins. It appears as “prelaminar’ layer structure having two
dark layers separated by a light middle layer as a result of specific arrangement of the
molecules.

Fig: 3.7. Structure of cell membrane

All plasma membrane is made up of lipids and proteins plus small amount of
carbohydrates. Phospholipids are most abundant with a lesser amount of cholesterol.
Phospholipids have a polar charged head having a negatively charged phosphate group and
two non-polar (electrically neutral) fatty acid tails. The polar end is hydrophilic (water loving)
because it can interact with water molecule, which is also polar; the non-polar end is
hydrophobic (water fearing) and will not mix with water. Such two-sided molecule self
assembles into a lipid bilayer, a double layer of lipid molecules when in contact with water.
The hydrophobic tails bury themselves in the center away from the water, while the
hydrophilic heads line up on both sides in contact with water. The water surface of the layer is
exposed to ECF, whereas the inner layer is in contact with the intracellular fluid (ICF). The
lipid is fluid in nature, with consistency like liquid cooking oil. Cholesterol provides to the
fluidity as well as the stability; cholesterol lies in between the phosphate molecules,
preventing the fatty acid chain from packing together and crystallizing that could decrease
fluidity of the membrane. Cholesterol also exerts a regulatory role on some of the membrane
proteins. For fluidity of the membrane, it gives flexibility to the cell to change its shape;

25
transport process is also dependent on the fluidity of the lipid bilayer. The membrane proteins
are either attached to or inserted within the lipid bilayer; some extending through the entire
membrane thickness; they have polar region at both ends joined by a non-polar central
portion. Other proteins are on either the outside or inner surface, anchored by interactions with
proteins that spans the membrane or by attachment to the lipid bilayer. On account of
membrane fluidity, many proteins float freely, although the mobility of protein that have
special function in a particular area of the membrane is restricted - this gives ever changing
mosaic pattern of the protein embedded in the lipid layer. Only the outer surface of the plasma
membrane contains a small amount of carbohydrate. Short-chain carbohydrates are bound
primarily to membrane proteins and to a lesser extent to lipids, forming glycoproteins and
glycolipids.
The plasma membrane is actually asymmetrical; the two surfaces are not the same;
carbohydrate is only on the outer surface; different amount of different proteins is on the outer
and inner surfaces and even the lipid structures of the outer and inner half is not the same. The
plasma membrane is highly complex, dynamic, regional differentiated structure. The lipid
layer forms the primary barrier to diffusion, whereas proteins perform most of the specific
membrane functions.

Lipid bilayer forms the basic structure of the membrane, is a barrier to passage of water
soluble substances between the ICF and ECF; and is responsible for the fluidity of the
membrane.

Membrane proteins are variety of different proteins within the plasma membrane; have the
following special functions: 1. Some form water-filled passage ways or channels, across the
lipid bilayer; such channels allow ions to pass through without coming in direct contact with
lipid interior. The channels are highly selective; they can selectively attract or repel particular
ions. This selectively attracts or repels particular ions. This selectivity is to specific charged
amino acids group. Number and kind of channels vary in cells. Channels open and close in
response to a controlling mechanism. 2. Other proteins serve as carrier molecule that transport
specific molecule that cannot cross on their own. They differ in cells, e.g., thyroid epithelial
cell possesses carriers for iodine. 3. Many proteins on the outer surface serve as „receptor
sites‟ that recognize and bind with specific molecules in the cell environment. This binding
triggers a series of membrane and intracellular events that alter the activity of the target cell.
In this way hormones influence specific cell, even though every cell is exposed to the same
chemical messenger via its widespread distribution by the blood 4. Another group of proteins
act as membrane-bound enzymes that control specific chemical reactions on either side of the
plasma membrane e.g., outer layer of the plasma membrane of skeletal muscle contains
enzyme Ache-esterase that destroys the chemical messenger that triggers contraction. 5. Some
proteins are arranged as filaments network/meshwork on the inner side and are secured to
certain internal protein elements of the cytoskeleton. They maintain cell shape. 6. Other
proteins function as cell adhesion molecules (CAMs). These molecules protrude from the
membrane surface that grip each other and grip the connective tissue fibers that interlace

26
between cells. 7. Some proteins, especially in conjunction with carbohydrate are important in
the cell’s ability to recognize „self‟ and in cell-to-cell interactions.

Fig: 3.8. Membrane protein

Membrane Carbohydrate: Short-chain carbohydrate on the outer membrane surface serves

as self-identity marker enabling cells to identify and interact with each other in the following
ways:
• Recognition of “self” and cell-to-cell interactions. Cells recognize each other and form
tissues; complex carbohydrates act as a “trademark” of a particular cell type, for
recognition.
• Carbohydrate-containing surface markers are important in growth. Cells do not
overgrow their own territory. Abnormal surface markers present in tumor cells, and
abnormality may underline uncontrolled growth.
• Some CAMS have carbohydrate, on the outermost tip where they participate in cell
adhesion activity.
Functions of biological membranes
The phospholipid bilayers provide the basic structure of the membrane and they also restrict
entry and exit of polar molecules and ion. The other molecules in the membrane have a variety
of function:

• Channel protein and carrier protein: these proteins are involved in the selective
transport of polar molecule and ion across the membrane
• Enzymes: membrane proteins sometimes act as enzymes, for example, the microvilli
on epithelial cells lining some part of the gut contain digestive enzymes in their cell
surface membrane
• Receptor molecules: proteins have very specific shapes and this makes them ideal as
receptor molecules for chemical signaling between cells.
o for example, hormones are chemical messengers, which circulate in the blood
but, only bind to specific target cells, which have the correct receptors sites.
Neurotransmitters, the chemicals that enable nerve impulse from one nerve cell
to the next, also fit into specific receptor proteins in nerve cells.

27
 • Antigens: these act as cell identity markers or ''name tag''. They are glycoproteins that
is proteins with branching carbohydrates side chains like antennae. There is an
enormous number of possible shapes to these side chains, so each type of cell can have
its own specific markers.

This enables cells to recognize other cells, and to behave in an organized way, for
example, during development of tissues and organs in multicellular organisms. It also
means that foreign antigens can be recognized and attacked by the immune system.
• Glycolipids- also have branching carbohydrate side chain and are involved in cell-cell
recognition. They may act as a receptor sites for chemical signals. With glycoproteins
they also involved in sticking the correct cell together in tissues. E.g. sperm
recognition of ova
• Energy Transfer in photosynthesis and respiration proteins take part in the energy
transfer systems that exist in the membranes of chloroplast and mitochondria
respectively.
• Cholesterol: acts like a plug, reducing even further the escape or entry of polar
molecules through the membrane.

3.4. Cellular diversity

Self-Test
1. What dictates the diversity of cells?
2. Why cells are diverse in their shape, size and structure?

Cells are found in different organisms, and are very diverse in their size, shape and their
internal structure and this also applies to cells found in the same organism. This diversity is
influenced by their roles and function within organism’s body.

3.4.1. Cell Shape

Cells have different shapes due to appropriate function. It is possible to find other cells which
are flat, most of these cells are body cells and their function is protecting and covering body
surface. Nerve cells have long extensions. Skin cells have a shape which is flat. Egg cells have
shape which is like sphere, and some bacteria are rod in shape. Some plant cells are
rectangular.

28
 Fig: 3.9. Various types of animal cells (shape)

3.4.2 Cell Size

Some cell can be seen without using magnification instruments as they are enough to be seen
by the naked eye.
Example, egg of birds/reptiles and a neuron cell of giraffe, which is 2 meters in length.
3.5. Transport across the cell membranes

Self-Test
1. What dictates the diversity of cells?
2. How is osmotic condition of the body kept constant?
3. List dawn the major transport mechanisms that occur in organisms?

The plasma membrane is selectively permeable. Lipid-soluble substances and small ions can
passively diffuse through the plasma membrane down their electro-chemical gradients.
Highly lipid-soluble particles are able to dissolve in the lipid bilayer and pass through the
membrane. Uncharged/non-polar molecules oxygen, carbon dioxide and fatty acids are highly
lipid-soluble and readily permeate the membrane. Charged particle sodium/potassium ions and
polar molecules such as glucose and proteins have low lipid solubility, but are very soluble in
water. For water-soluble ions of less than 0.8 nm diameter, protein channels serve as an
alternate route for passage. Ions for which specific channels are available can permeate the
plasma membrane. Particles with low lipid-permeability and too large for channels, cannot
permeate the membrane on their own. The phospholipid bilayer is a good barrier around cells,
especially to water soluble molecules. However, for the cell to survive some materials need to
be able to enter and leave the cell. There are 4 basic mechanisms:
1. Diffusion and facilitated diffusion
2. osmosis

29
 3. active transport
4. bulk transport
Two forces are involved in facilitating movement across the plasma membrane:
1. Forces that do not require the cell to expend energy for movement – passive force
2. Forces requiring energy (as ATP) to be expended to transport across the membrane - active
force Diffusion
Diffusion is the net movement of molecules (or ions) from a region of their high concentration
to a region of their lower concentration. The molecules move down a concentration gradient.
Molecules have kinetic energy, which makes them move about randomly. All molecules in
liquid and gases are in continuous random motion in any direction as they have more room to
move before colliding with another. As a result of this haphazard movement, the molecules
frequently collide bouncing off each other in different directions.

The greater the concentration, the greater the likelihood of collision. Such a difference in
concentration in molecules between two adjacent areas is chemical /concentration gradient.
The net movement of the molecule by diffusion will be from the higher area of concentration
to the area of lower concentration.

Certain additional factors that influence the rate of net diffusion across a membrane are:

1. permeability of the membrane

2. surface area of the membrane
3. molecular weight of the substance (lighter one diffuses rapidly)
4. distance through which diffusion must take place
N.B: - Increasing all the factors increases rate of net diffusion, except distance - thickness, that
if increased, decreases the rate of diffusion; and molecular weight if increased, decreases rate
of diffusion.

Fig: 3.10. Diffusion of liquid

As a result of diffusion molecules reach an equilibrium where they are evenly spread out. This
is when there is no net movement of molecules from either side.

Movement along electrical gradient

Movement of charged particles is also affected by their electrical gradient. If a relative

difference in charges exist between two adjacent areas, the cations tend to move towards more
negatively charged area, whereas the anions tend to move toward the more positively charged
areas. The simultaneous existence of an electrical and concentration (chemical) gradient for a
particular ion is referred to as an electro-chemical gradient.

30
 Fig: 3.11. Concentration difference (A) and diffusion (B)

Fig:3.12. Diffusion of lipid molecules

Carrier- Mediated Transport
All carrier proteins span the thickness of the plasma membrane and are able to undergo
reversible changes in shape so that specific binding site can alternately be exposed at either
side of the membrane. As the molecule to be transported attaches to a binding site on the
carrier on one side of the membrane, it triggers a change in the carrier shape that causes the
same site to be exposed to the other side of the membrane. Their having movement in this
way, the bound molecule detaches from the carrier. This transport displays three
characteristics:
1. Specificity: each cell possesses protein specified to transport a specific substance or
few closely-related chemical compounds amino acid cannot bind to glucose carrier,
but similar amino acids may use the same carrier. Type of carriers vary in cells. A
number of inherited disorders involve defects in transport system for a particular
substance.
2. Saturation: in a given time only a limited amount of a substance can be transported
via a carrier; limited number of carrier site are available within a particular plasma
membrane for a specific molecule. This limit is known as transport maximum (Tm).
The substance’s rate of transport across the membrane are directly related to its
concentration. When the Tm is reached, the carrier is saturated, and the rate of
transport is maximum. Further increase in the substance concentration is not
accompanied by corresponding increase in the rate of transport. Saturation of carrier is
a critical rate-limiting factor to the transport of selected substances across the plasma

31
 membrane in kidney and the intestine. There is a mechanism to increase the number of
carriers in the plasma membrane.
3. Competition: Several closely related compounds may compete for ride across the
plasma membrane on the same carrier.
Facilitated Diffusion
Facilitated diffusion uses a carrier protein to facilitate the transfer of a particular
substance across the membrane ''downhill'' from higher to lower concentration. This process is
passive and does not require energy because movement occurs naturally down a concentration
gradient. Active transport, on the other hand, requires the carrier to expend energy to transfer
its passenger ''uphill'' against a concentration gradient from an area of lower concentration to
an area of higher concentration. Active transport requires protein carrier to transfer a specific
substance across the membrane, transporting against concentration gradient. Carrier
phosphorylation increases the affinity for its passenger. The carrier has ATPase activity
splitting high-energy phosphate from an ATP to yield ADP plus a free Pi. This phosphate
group gets bound to the carrier.

Phosphorylation and binding of particle on the low concentration side induces a

conformational change in the carrier protein so that passenger is now exposed to the high
concentration side of the membrane. This change in carrier shape is accompanied by
dephosphorylating. Removal of phosphate reduces the affinity of the binding site for the
passenger, so the passenger is released on the high concentration side. The carrier then returns
to the original conformation. This active transport mechanism is often called „pumps‟,
analogous to lift water by pump that need energy to lift water against the downward pull of
gravity; Hydrogen-pump, Na-KATPase pump (Na-K-Pump).

Osmosis
Osmosis is the net diffusion of water down its own concentration gradient. Water can
readily permeate the plasma membrane. The driving force for diffusion of water is its
concentration gradient from area of higher water concentration (low solute) to the area of
lower water (high solute) concentration. This net diffusion of water is known as osmosis.
Special mechanisms are used to transport selected molecules unable to cross the plasma
membrane on their own.

32
 Fig:3.13. diffusion of water molecules

Fig. 3.14. diffusion of water molecules

Active transport
Active transport is energy consuming transport of molecules or ions across a
membrane against its natural tendency to diffuse in the opposite direction. The movement of
molecules in active transport is in one direction only; unlike diffusion that is reversible the
energy is supplied by the broke down of ATP, which energy carrier is made in respiration

The major ions within the cells and their surrounding are sodium (Na+), potassium
(K+) and chloride (Cl-). In recent years it has been shown that the cell surface
membrane of most cell have sodium pump is coupled with a potassium pump that
actively moves potassium ion from outside to inside the cell. The combined pump is
called the sodium pump (Na+-K- pump).

33
The pump is a carrier protein that spans across the membrane from one side to the other. The
transfer of sodium and potassium across the membrane is brought about by the changes in the
shape of the protein. Note that for every 2K+ions taken into the cell, 3Na+ ions are removed.

Thus a potential difference is built up across the membrane, with the inner side of the
cell being negative. This tends to restrict the entry of negatively charged ions (anions)
such as chloride and favoring diffusion of cations into the cell. This explains why
chloride concentration inside red cell is less than the outside despite the fact that
chloride ions can diffuse in and out by facilitated diffusion

Fig: 3.15. Sodium-potassium pump

Similarly, positively charged ions(cations) tend to be attracted in to cell. Thus both

concentration and charge are important in deciding the direction in which ions cross the
membrane. The pump is essential in controlling the osmotic balance in animal cells
(osmoregulation). If the pump is inhibited, the cell swells and bursts because of the building
up of Na+, which results in excess water entering in to the cell by osmosis. The pump is also
important in maintaining electrical activity in nerve and muscle cells and in driving active
transport of some other substances such as sugar and amino acids. In addition, high
concentration of potassium is needed inside cells for protein synthesis, glycolysis,
photosynthesis and other vital processes.

Na+-K+-pump plays three important roles

1. It establishes sodium and potassium concentration gradients across the plasma
membrane of all cells; these gradients are important in the nerve and muscle to generate
electrical signals.

2. It helps regulate cell volume by controlling the concentration of solutes inside the cell
and thus minimizing osmotic effects that would induce swelling or shrinking of the cell.
3. The energy used to run the pump also indirectly serves as the energy source for the
cotransport of glucose and amino acids across the membrane (intestine and kidney cell).

Table 3.1 How molecules cross cell membrane

34
 Exocytosis and Endocytosis

Vesicular Transport The special cell membrane transport system selectively transports ions
and small polar molecules. But large polar molecules and even multimolecular material may
leave or enter the cell, such as hormone secretion or ingestion of invading microbe by
leukocytes. These materials cannot cross the plasma membrane but are to be transferred
between the ICF and ECF not by usual crossing but by wrapped in membrane. This process of
transport into or out of the cell in a membrane-enclosed vesicle is - vesicular transport.
Transport into the cell is termed endocytosis, whereas transport out of the cell is called
exocytosis. In endocytosis, the transported material is wrapped in a piece of the plasma
membrane, thus gaining entrance to the interior of the cell. Endocytosis of fluid is called
pinocytosis cell (drinking), whereas endocytosis of large multimolecular particle is known as
phagocytosis (cell eating).

Endocytosis and exocytosis are active processes involving the bulk transport of materials
through membranes, either in to cells (endocytosis)or out of cells (exocytosis).
Endocytosis occurs by an in folding or extension of cell surface membrane to form a vesicle or
vacuole. It is of two types.
Phagocytosis (cell eating) material taken up is in solid form. Cells specializing in the
processes are called phagocytes and are said to be phagocytic. The sac formed during the
uptake is called a phagocytic vacuole.
Pinocytosis (cell drink) material taken up is in liquid form. Vesicles formed are extremely
small, in which case the process is known as micropinocytosis and the vesicles as
micropinocytic vesicles. Pinocytosis is used by the human egg cell to take up nutrients from
the surrounding follicle cells.

35
 Fig: 3.16. Exocytosis

Exocytosis. is the reverse process of endocytosis? Waste materials such as solid and
undigested remains from phagocytic vacuoles may be removed from cells or useful materials
may be secreted. Secretion of enzymes from the pancreas is achieved in this way. Plant cells
use exocytosis to export the materials needed to form cell wall.

Activity
1. What is autophagy?
2. Describe the change in domination of types of plastids when a banana fruit gets ripened.
3. Describe the different sizes and shapes of cells? Why are so varied?
4. Compare and contrast respiration and biosynthesis.
5. write down roles of different components of cell membrane
6. How is osmotic condition of the body kept constant?
7. Which of the means of transport of materials in cells are active and which are passive?
What is the difference?
8. Differentiate endocytosis from exocytosis?
9. Explain the development of cell theory
10. What are the factors affecting the rate of diffusion?

Chapter Four

36
 Cellular Metabolism and Metabolic Disorders

4.1. Cellular metabolism

Self-Test
1. Where do cells obtain energy and why do they need it?
2. How cells gain energy?
3. What is metabolism and metabolic pathway?

Living cells are in a constant activity. Macromolecules are assembled and broken down,
substances are transported across cell membranes, and genetic instructions are transmitted. All
of these cellular activities require energy.

Living organisms are unique in that they can extract energy from their environments and use it
to carry out activities such as movement, growth and development, and reproduction. But the
basic question is how living organisms or, their cells extract energy from their environments,
and how cells use this energy to synthesize and assemble the components from which the cells
are made. The answers to these questions lie in the enzyme-mediated chemical reactions that
take place in living matter (metabolism). Hundreds of coordinated, multistep reactions, fueled
by energy obtained from nutrients and/or solar energy, ultimately convert readily available
materials into the molecules required for growth and maintenance.

Metabolism is thus the sum of chemical reactions that takes place within each cell of a living
organism and that provides energy for vital processes and synthesizing of new organic
materials. Broadly, these reactions can be divided into catabolic reactions that convert
nutrients to energy and anabolic reactions that lead to the synthesis of larger biomolecules.

In metabolism, a series of chemical reactions in which the product of one reaction is the
substrate for the next reaction is called a metabolic pathway. Catabolic pathways release
energy by breaking down larger molecules into smaller molecules. Anabolic pathways use the
energy released by catabolic pathways to build larger molecules from smaller molecules,
insuring the continual flow of energy within an organism. The reactants and products of these
chemical reactions are metabolites. The major classes of metabolites include proteins,
carbohydrates, nucleotides, lipids, coenzymes, and cofactors. These classes of compounds
encompass an enormous diversity of molecular structures, physicochemical properties,
functions, and abundances. Due to the analytical challenges posed by this diversity, most
studies require division into subsets of metabolites. The most common criteria for this
distinction rely on the hydrophilic (polar) and hydrophobic (nonpolar) nature of metabolites.
Polar metabolites are soluble in aqueous solutions and include most sugars, purines and
pyrimidines, nucleotides and nucleosides, acyl carnitines, organic acids, hydrophilic acids,
amino acids, and phosphorylated compounds. These metabolites include most of the reactants
and products involved in cellular respiration (e.g., glycolysis, the TCA cycle, or in other
pathways) and in the production of building blocks for synthesis of large biopolymers such as
DNA, RNA, proteins, and oligosaccharides. The nonpolar or hydrophobic metabolites are

37
commonly lipids. These metabolites function in energy storage, membrane structure, and
signal transduction.

At the cellular level of organization, the main chemical processes of all living matter are
similar, if not identical. This is true for animals, plants, fungi, or bacteria; where variations
occur (such as, the secretion of antibodies by some molds), the variant processes are but
variations on common themes. Thus, all living matter is made up of large molecules called
proteins, which provide support and coordinated movement, as well as storage and transport
of small molecules, and, as catalysts, enable chemical reactions to take place rapidly and
specifically under mild temperature, relatively low concentration, and neutral conditions (i.e.,
neither acidic nor basic).

The chemical reactions that take place in living cells are similar as well. Green plants use the
energy of sunlight to convert water (H2O) and carbon dioxide (CO2) to carbohydrates (sugars
and starches), other organic (carbon-containing) compounds, and molecular oxygen (O2). The
process of photosynthesis requires energy, in the form of sunlight, to split one water molecule
into one-half of an oxygen molecule (O2; the oxidizing agent) and two hydrogen atoms (H;
the reducing agent), each of which dissociates to one hydrogen ion (H+) and one electron.
Through a series of oxidation-reduction reactions, electrons (denoted e−) are transferred from
a donating molecule (oxidation), in this case water, to an accepting molecule (reduction) by a
series of chemical reactions; this “reducing power” may be coupled ultimately to the reduction
of carbon dioxide to the level of carbohydrate. In effect, carbon dioxide accepts and bonds
with hydrogen, forming carbohydrates (Cn [H2O] n). Living organisms that require oxygen
reverse this process: they consume carbohydrates and other organic materials, using oxygen
synthesized by plants to form water, carbon dioxide, and energy. The process that removes
hydrogen atoms (containing electrons) from the carbohydrates and passes them to the oxygen
is an energy-yielding series of reactions. In plants, all but two of the steps in the process that
converts carbon dioxide to carbohydrates are the same as those steps that synthesize sugars
from simpler starting materials in animals, fungi, and bacteria. Similarly, the series of
reactions that take a given starting material and synthesize certain molecules will be used in
other synthetic pathways are similar, or identical, among all cell types. For instance, from a
metabolic point of view, the cellular processes that take place in a lion are only marginally
different from those that take place in a dandelion.

4.2. Enzymes and their role in metabolism

Most chemical reactions within cells do not occur spontaneously. Instead, they need a
catalyst to get them started.

Why do you think this is so?

In many cases, heat may be a catalyst, but this is inefficient because heat cannot be
applied to molecules in a controlled fashion. Thus, most chemical reactions require
biological catalyst called enzymes.

38
 What are enzymes and why they are needed?
Enzymes are protein catalysts that speed biochemical reactions by facilitating the molecular
rearrangements that support cell function. Enzymes speed up (catalyze) chemical reactions; in
some cases, enzymes can make a chemical reaction millions of times faster than it would have
been without it. Almost all metabolic processes in the cell need enzyme catalysis in order to
occur at rates fast enough to sustain life.
Enzymes bind with particular reactants until the chemical reaction occurs, then free
themselves. Thus, at any given time, the numerous pathways involved in building up and
breaking down cellular components must be monitored and balanced in a coordinated fashion.
To achieve this goal, cells organize reactions into various enzyme-powered pathways.

How do enzymes speed up chemical reactions?

Enzymes speed up reactions by lowering activation energy. Many enzymes change shape
when substrates bind. This is termed "induced fit", meaning that the precise orientation of the
enzyme required for catalytic activity can be induced by the binding of the substrate.

What is activation energy?

4.2.1 Chemical nature and classification of enzymes
All known enzymes are proteins with the exception of recently discovered RNA enzymes.
Some enzymes may additionally contain a non-protein group. Enzymes are high molecular
weight compounds made up principally of chains of amino acids linked together by peptide
bonds.

Many enzymes require the presence of other compounds (cofactors) before their catalytic
activity can be exerted. This entire active complex is referred to as the holoenzyme; i.e., Apo
enzyme (protein portion) plus the cofactor (coenzyme, prosthetic group or metal-ion
activator). Thus, on the basis of differences in chemical nature, the enzymes may be described
as follows:

 Simple enzymes: Simple enzymes are made up of only protein (polypeptide). They
contain no chemical groups other than amino acid residues. Digestive enzymes such as
pepsin, and trypsin are of this nature.

 Conjugate Enzymes: It is an enzyme which is formed of two parts – a protein part

called Apo enzyme (e.g., flavoprotein) and a non-protein part named cofactor. The
complete conjugate enzyme, consisting of an Apo enzyme and a cofactor, is called
holoenzyme. There can be an enzymatic activity only when both components
(Apo enzyme and cofactor) are present together. The cofactor is sometimes a simple divalent
metallic ion (e.g. Ca, Mg, Zn, Co, etc.), and sometimes a non-protein organic compound.
However, some enzymes require both kinds of cofactors. If the cofactor is firmly bound to the
Apo enzyme, it is called prosthetic group. For example, cytochromes are the enzymes that
possess porphyrins as their prosthetic groups. If, instead of being more or less permanently
bound to the Apo enzyme the cofactor attaches itself to the Apo enzyme only at the time of
reaction, it is called a coenzyme.
39
  Metalloid-enzymes: The metal cofactors involved in enzyme reactions are
monovalent (K+) and divalent cations (Mg++, MN++ and Cu++). These may be loosely
held by the enzyme, or as in some cases, go into the composition of the molecule
itself. If the metal forms part of the molecule, as iron of hemoglobin or cytochrome is,
the enzymes are called metallo-enzymes.

 Isozymes (Isozymes): At one time it was believed that an organism has only a single
enzyme for a given step of a metabolic reaction. It was later discovered that a substrate
may be acted upon by a number of variants of an enzyme producing the same product.

Classes of enzymes based on the substrate they act up on

Enzymes can be classified based on different criteria of which classification based on the
substrate they acted up on is the most common (Table 4.1).

Table 4.1. Major classes of Enzymes

4.2.2 Mechanisms of enzyme action

Mechanisms of enzyme catalysis vary, but are all similar in principle to other types of
chemical catalysis in that the crucial factor is a reduction of energy barrier(s) separating the
reactants from the products. The reduction of activation energy increases the fraction of
reactant molecules that can overcome this barrier and form the product. An important
principle is that since they only reduce energy barriers between products and reactants,
enzymes always catalyze reactions in both directions, and cannot drive a reaction forward or
affect the equilibrium position.

An enzyme attracts substrates to its active site, catalyzes the chemical reaction by which
products are formed, and then allows the products to dissociate (separate from the enzyme
surface). The combination formed by an enzyme and its substrates is called the enzyme–
substrate complex. The substrates are attracted to the active site by electrostatic and
hydrophobic forces, which are called noncovalent bonds because they are physical
attractions and not chemical bonds.

Do you recall enzyme models? Discuss on it in detail.

4.2.3 Factors affecting enzymatic activities

40
The activity of an enzyme is affected by its environmental conditions such as temperature and
pH. Changing these alter the rate of reaction caused by the enzyme. In nature, organisms
adjust the conditions of their enzymes to produce an optimum rate of reaction, where
necessary, or they may have enzymes which are adapted to function well in extreme
conditions where they live.

Temperature
Increasing temperature increases the kinetic energy that molecules possess. In a fluid, this
means that there are more random collisions between molecules per unit time. Since enzymes
catalyze reactions by randomly colliding with substrate molecules, increasing temperature
increases the rate of reaction, forming more product.

However, increasing temperature also increases the vibrational energy that molecules have,
specifically (in this case enzyme molecules), which puts strain (damage) on the bonds that
hold them together. As temperature increases, more bonds, especially the weaker hydrogen
and ionic bonds, will break as a result of this strain. breaking bonds within the enzyme will
cause the active site to change shape. This change in shape means that the Active Site is less
complementary to the shape of the Substrate, so that it is less likely to catalyze the reaction.
Eventually, the enzyme will become denatured and will no longer function. The temperature
at which the maximum rate of reaction occurs is called the enzyme’s Optimum Temperature.
This is different for different enzymes.

Activity
1. Graphically, show the relationship between enzyme activity and temperature.
2. What is the optimum temperature for most enzymes in the human body?

pH - Acidity and Basicity pH is a measure of the hydrogen ion (H+) concentration, and
therefore a good indicator of the hydroxide ion (OH-) concentration. Lower pH values mean
higher H+ concentrations and lower OH- concentrations. H+ and OH- ions are charged and
therefore interfere with hydrogen and ionic bonds that hold together an enzyme, since they
will be attracted or repelled by the charges created by the bonds. This interference causes a
change in shape of the enzyme, and importantly, its active site.
Different enzymes have different optimum pH values. This is the pH value at which the bonds
within them are influenced by H+ and OH- ions in such a way that the shape of their active
site is the most complementary to the shape of their substrate. At the optimum pH, the rate of
reaction is at an optimum. Any change in pH above or below the optimum will quickly cause
a decrease in the rate of reaction, since more of the enzyme molecules will have active sites
whose shapes are not (or at least are less) complementary to the shape of their substrate.

Small changes in pH above or below the optimum do not cause a permanent change to the
enzyme, since the bonds can be reformed. However, extreme changes in pH can cause
enzymes to denature and permanently lose their function. Enzymes in different locations of
our body have different optimum pH values since their environmental conditions may be

41
different. For example, the enzyme pepsin functions best at around pH-2 and is found in the
stomach, which contains hydrochloric acid.

Because enzymes are sensitive to changes in acidity, most living systems are highly buffered;
i.e., they have mechanisms that enable them to maintain a constant acidity.

Activity
What do you know about a buffer and its importance in the body of organisms?

Substrate and enzyme concentration

Changing the enzyme and substrate concentrations affect the rate of reaction of an
enzymecatalysed reaction. Controlling these factors in a cell is one way that an organism
regulates its enzyme activity and so its metabolism. Changing the concentration of a substance
only affects the rate of reaction if it is the limiting factor. If it is the limiting factor, increasing
concentration will increase the rate of reaction up to a point, after which any increase will not
affect the rate of reaction. This is because it will no longer be the limiting factor and another
factor will be limiting the maximum rate of reaction. As a reaction proceeds, the rate of
reaction will decrease, since the substrate will get used up.

Substrate concentration
Increasing substrate concentration increases the rate of reaction. This is because more
substrate molecules will be colliding with enzyme molecules, so more product will be formed.
However, after a certain concentration, any increase will have no effect on the rate of reaction,
since substrate concentration will no longer be the limiting factor. The enzymes will
effectively become saturated, and will be working at their maximum possible rate.

Enzyme concentration
Increasing enzyme concentration will increase the rate of reaction, as more enzymes will be
colliding with substrate molecules. However, this too will only have an effect up to a certain
concentration, where the enzyme concentration is no longer the limiting factor.

Activity
Show graphically the relationships between enzyme activity and substrate concentration as well as
enzyme concentration

Enzyme inhibitors
Enzyme activity can be inhibited in various ways. Inhibition could be reversible or
irreversible.

Reversible inhibition
Competitive inhibition: occurs when molecules very similar to the substrate molecules bind
to the active site and prevent binding of the actual substrate. Penicillin, for example, is a
competitive inhibitor that blocks the active site of an enzyme that many bacteria use to
construct their cell walls.

Noncompetitive inhibition: occurs when an inhibitor binds to the enzyme at a location other
than the active site. In some cases of noncompetitive inhibition, the inhibitor is thought to bind

42
to the enzyme in such a way as to physically block the normal active site. In other instances,
the binding of the inhibitor is believed to change the shape of the enzyme molecule, thereby
deforming its active site and preventing it from reacting with its substrate. This latter type of
noncompetitive inhibition is called allosteric inhibition; the place where the inhibitor binds to
the enzyme is called the allosteric site. Frequently, an end-product of a metabolic pathway
serves as an allosteric inhibitor on an earlier enzyme of the pathway. This inhibition of an
enzyme by a product of its pathway is a form of negative feedback.

Activators: Allosteric control can involve stimulation of enzyme action as well as inhibition.
An activator molecule can be bound to an allosteric site and induce a reaction at the active site
by changing its shape to fit a substrate that could not induce the change by itself. Common
activators include hormones and the products of earlier enzymatic reactions. Allosteric
stimulation and inhibition allow production of energy and materials by the cell when they are
needed and inhibit production when the supply is adequate.

Irreversible inhibition
Irreversible inhibitors usually covalently modify an enzyme, and inhibition can therefore not
be reversed. Irreversible inhibitors often contain reactive functional groups. Irreversible
inhibition is different from reversible enzyme inactivation. Irreversible inhibitors are generally
specific for one class of enzyme and do not inactivate all proteins; they do not function by
destroying protein structure but by specifically altering the active site of their target

Activity
1.Describe other types of inhibition.
2.Relate the concept of irreversible enzyme inhibition to drug discovery and food poisoning.
3.Explain how painkillers like ibuprofen relieved you from pain.
4.What is the difference between endothermic and exothermic reaction?
5.What is meant by a catalyst?
6. Why are several enzymes needed in a typical metabolic path way?
7. Which of the three (coenzyme, cofactor, Apo enzyme) is a protein?
8.Descibe three factors that that influence enzymatic activity.

4.3 Bioenergetics and biosynthesis

4.3.1. Cellular respiration
Most living organisms obtain energy by breaking down organic molecules (catabolism) during
cellular respiration. The function of cellular respiration is to harvest electrons from carbon
compounds, such as glucose, and use that energy to make Adenosine Tri Phosphate (ATP).
ATP is used to provide immediate energy for cells to do work. This catabolic process can be
divided into 3 phases.

Phase I - Breakdown of large complex biomolecules like polysaccharides, proteins

and lipids into their respective building blocks (hydrolysis). The chemical reactions
occurring during this stage do not release much energy.

43
 Phase II - These building blocks are usually oxidized to a common intermediate,
acetyl - CoA. Additionally, pyruvate or other citric acid cycle intermediates may also
be formed (in glycolysis and other pathways).
Phase III – This consists of the citric acid cycle (i.e. oxidation of acetyl - CoA to CO2,
formation of NADH and FADH2) followed by electron transport and oxidative
phosphorylation. Energy released by electron transport to O2 is coupled to ATP
synthesis. This cycle is responsible for the release of much energy (TCA cycle and
ETC).

Cellular respiration occurs in two main parts: glycolysis and aerobic respiration. The first
stage, glycolysis, is an anaerobic process. Anaerobic metabolic processes do not require
oxygen. Aerobic respiration includes the Krebs cycle and electron transport chain and is an
aerobic process. Aerobic metabolic processes require oxygen.

4.3.1.1. Glycolysis: anaerobic respiration

Glucose is a key metabolite in metabolism. Various pathways that are concerned with the
utilization, storage, and regeneration of glucose exist. Glycogen is a polymeric storage form of
glucose in human and it is most abundant in the liver and in striated muscle, although some is
found in other tissues also. Glycogen is synthesized when glucose supply is high, and its
degradation helps to maintain the blood glucose level when we are fasting. When glycogen is
depleted, more glucose is synthesized from scratch in gluconeogenesis. This pathway’s most
important substrates are amino acids, which are obtained either from a protein-rich diet-for
example, during fasting on meat exclusively-or, during starvation, from breakdown of cellular
protein, mainly in skeletal muscle. Gluconeogenesis occurs in the liver and in the kidneys.

Self-test
1. Define terms (glycolysis and gluconeogenesis)
2. Why glucose is more preferred by cells for respiration than other carbohydrates/lipids?
3. How is anaerobic respiration differing from aerobic respiration?
4.What are the three basic metabolic stages in respiration?

The first step in the degradation of glucose is glycolysis, which breaks down glucose to
pyruvate. The main purpose of glycolysis is the generation of energy (ATP). A modest
amount of ATP is produced in glycolysis directly, but much more ATP is formed downstream
of glycolysis through the complete oxidation of pyruvate. Glycolysis is the most common
pathway for glucose degradation to pyruvate and is found in animals, plants and
microorganism. This pathway is used by anaerobic as well as aerobic organisms. The process
takes place in the cytoplasm of prokaryotes and eukaryotes and does not require oxygen.
Under aerobic conditions, most of the pyruvate formed in glycolysis undergoes complete
oxidative degradation to CO2 and H2O.

Pyruvate intended for complete degradation is transported to the mitochondria, where it is

decarboxylase to Acetyl-CoA by pyruvate dehydrogenase. Acetyl-CoA is completely
degraded in the citric acid cycle (or tricarboxylic acid cycle; TCA cycle for short). The “H2”

44
that is produced here is not gaseous but bound to co-substrates, as NADH and FADH2, which
is subsequently oxidized in the respiratory chain.

If glucose is available in excess of immediate needs and glycogen is already stocked up to capacity,
it will still be broken down by glycolysis and pyruvate dehydrogenase to acetyl-coA. However,
Acetyl-CoA will then not be oxidized, but it will instead be used for fatty acid synthesis; the fatty
acids are converted to triacylglycerol. Fatty acid synthesis occurs in the cytosol of cells in the liver
and fat tissue.

Activity
1. Which phases are regarded as the preparatory (or investment) phase? Why?
2. What is the purpose of each step?
3. What is the fate of pyruvate?

Glycolysis involves ten enzymatic reactions as described below.

The first five are preparatory phases or investment phase. Here, glucose is phosphorylated,
rearranged and phosphorylated again, with the two phosphate groups coming from ATP.

1. The phosphorylation of glucose at carbon-6 by hexokinase forming glucose 6phosphate

(G6P).
 This reaction consumes ATP, but it acts to keep the glucose concentration low,
promoting continuous transport of glucose into the cell through the plasma
membrane transporters. In addition, it blocks the glucose from leaking out – the
cell lacks transporters for G6P, and free diffusion out of the cell is prevented due to
the charged nature of G6P. Glucose may alternatively be formed from the
phosphorolysis or hydrolysis of intracellular starch or glycogen.
 In animals, an isozyme of hexokinase called glucosidase is also used in the liver,
has a much lower affinity for glucose, and differs in regulatory properties. The
different substrate affinity and alternate regulation of this enzyme are a reflection
of the role of the liver in maintaining blood sugar levels.
2. The conversion of glucose-6-phosphate(G6P) to fructose-6-phosphate(F6P) by
phosphohexose isomerase
 The change in structure is an isomerization, in which the G6P has been converted
to F6P. This reaction is freely reversible under normal cell conditions. However, it
is often driven forward because of a low concentration of F6P, which is constantly
consumed during the next step of glycolysis. Under conditions of high F6P
concentration, this reaction readily runs in reverse. This phenomenon can be
explained through Le Chatelier's Principle, ''Isomerization to a keto sugar is
necessary for carbanion (negative charge of carbon that is stable) stabilization in
the fourth reaction step (below)''.
3. The phosphorylation of fructose-6-phosphate to the 1,6-
bisphosphate by phosphofructokinase,

45
  The energy expenditure of another ATP in this step is justified in 2 ways: The
glycolytic process (up to this step) becomes irreversible, and the energy supplied
destabilizes the molecule. Because the reaction catalyzed by Phosphofructokinase
1 (PFK-1) is coupled to the hydrolysis of ATP (an energetically favorable step) it
is, in essence, irreversible, and a different pathway must be used to do the reverse
conversion during gluconeogenesis. This makes the reaction a key regulatory
point. This is also the rate-limiting step.
 The second phosphorylation event is necessary to allow the formation of two
charged groups (rather than only one) in the subsequent step of glycolysis,
ensuring the prevention of free diffusion of substrates out of the cell.
 The same reaction can also be catalyzed by pyrophosphate-dependent
phosphofructokinase (PFP or PPi-PFK), which is found in most plants, some
bacteria, archaea, and protests, but not in animals. This enzyme uses
pyrophosphate (PPi) as a phosphate donor instead of ATP. It is a reversible
reaction, increasing the flexibility of glycolytic metabolism.
4. The cleavage of fructose-1,6-bisphosphate by aldolase. This yields two different
products, dihydroxyacetone phosphate and glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate,
 Destabilizing the molecule in the previous reaction allows the hexose ring to be
split by aldolase into two triose sugars: dihydroxyacetone phosphate (a ketose),
and glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate (an aldose). There are two classes of aldolases:
class I aldolases, present in animals and plants, and class II aldolases, present in
fungi and bacteria; the two classes use different mechanisms in cleaving the ketose
ring.
 Electrons delocalized in the carbon-carbon bond cleavage associate with the
alcohol group. The resulting carbanion is stabilized by the structure of the
carbanion itself via resonance charge distribution and by the presence of a charged
ion prosthetic group.
5. The isomerization of dihydroxyacetone phosphate to a second molecule of
glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate by triose phosphate isomerase,
 Triose phosphate isomerase rapidly interconvert dihydroxyacetone phosphate with
glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate (GADP) that proceeds further into glycolysis. This is
advantageous, as it directs dihydroxyacetone phosphate down the same pathway as
glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate, simplifying regulation.

Remember!!
The rest five are pay-off phases which are characterized by a net gain of the energy-rich molecules
ATP and NADH. Since glucose leads to two triose sugars in the preparatory phase, each reaction
in the pay-off phase occurs twice per glucose molecule. This yields 2 NADH molecules and 4 ATP
molecules, leading to a net gain of 2 NADH molecules and 2 ATP molecules from the glycolytic
pathway per glucose. Along the way, the two molecules are rearranged into pyruvate.

6. The dehydrogenation and concomitant phosphorylation of glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate

to 1,3-bis-phosphoglycerate by glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase,

46
  The aldehyde groups of the triose sugars are oxidized, and inorganic phosphate is
added to them, forming 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate.
 The hydrogen is used to reduce two molecules of NADH, a hydrogen carrier, to
give NADH + H+ for each triose.
 Hydrogen atom balance and charge balance are both maintained because the
phosphate (Pi) group actually exists in the form of a hydrogen phosphate anion
(HPO42-), which dissociates to contribute the extra H ion and gives a net charge of -
3 on both sides.

Note that: Arsenate (AsO43−), an anion similar to inorganic phosphate may replace phosphate
as a substrate to form 1-arseno-3-phosphoglycerate. This, however, is unstable and readily
hydrolyzes to form 3-phosphoglycerate, the intermediate in the next step of the pathway. As a
consequence of bypassing this step, the molecule of ATP generated from 1-3
bisphosphoglycerate in the next reaction will not be made, even though the reaction proceeds.
As a result, arsenate is an uncoupler of glycolysis during Arsenic poisoning.

7. The transfer of the 1-phosphate group from 1,3-bis-phosphoglycerate to ADP by

phosphoglycerate kinase, which yields ATP and 3-phosphoglycerate.
 At this step, glycolysis has reached the break-even point: 2 molecules of ATP were
consumed, and 2 new molecules have now been synthesized. This step, one of the two
substrate-level phosphorylation steps, requires ADP; thus, when the cell has plenty of
ATP (and little ADP), this reaction does not occur. Because ATP decays relatively
quickly when it is not metabolized, this is an important regulatory point in the
glycolytic pathway.
 ADP actually exists as ADPMg−, and ATP as ATPMg2−, balancing the charges at -5
both sides.
8. The isomerization of 3-phosphoglycerate to 2-phosphoglycerate by phosphoglycerate
mutase(PGAM),

Note that: PGAM plays an important role in coordinating glycolysis and anabolic activity to
promote cancer cell proliferation. It is suggested that even under aerobic conditions cancer
cells can show a high rate of glycolysis and increased production of lactate, generating ATP
faster than normal cells. However, to obtain sufficient ATP and carbons to generate biomass
[nucleotides, amino acids, lipids and nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH)]
cancer cells must uptake more glucose than normal cells to meet the metabolic requirements
of rapid cell proliferation owing to the low efficiency of glycolysis.

9. The dehydration of 2-phosphoglycerate to phosphoenolpyruvate by enolase.

10. The transfer of the phosphate group from phosphoenolpyruvate to ADP by pyruvate
kinase, to yield a second molecule of ATP.
 A final substrate-level phosphorylation now forms a molecule of pyruvate and a
molecule of ATP by means of the enzyme pyruvate kinase. This serves as an
additional regulatory step, similar to the phosphoglycerate kinase step.

Most, but not all reactions in glycolysis are reversible; this can be
indicated as indicated in Fig by different arrows (.). Because it contains several irreversible
reactions, the pathway as a whole is also irreversible. However, alternate routes exist that

47
bypass the irreversible reactions and allow glucose to be synthesized from pyruvate.

Biochemical logic for the presence of regulatory steps

The existence of more than one point of regulation indicates that intermediates between those
points enter and leave the glycolysis pathway by other processes. For example, in the first
regulated step, hexokinase converts glucose into glucose-6-phosphate. Instead of continuing
through the glycolysis pathway, this intermediate can be converted into glucose storage
molecules, such as glycogen or starch. The reverse reaction, breaking down, e.g., glycogen,
produces mainly glucose-6-phosphate; very little free glucose is formed in the reaction. The
glucose-6-phosphate so produced can enter glycolysis after the first control point.

In the second regulated step (the third step of glycolysis), phosphofructokinase converts
fructose-6-phosphate into fructose-1,6-bisphosphate, which then is converted into
glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate and dihydroxyacetone phosphate. The dihydroxyacetone
phosphate can be removed from glycolysis by conversion into glycerol-3-phosphate, which
can be used to form triglycerides. Conversely, triglycerides can be broken down into fatty
acids and glycerol; the latter, in turn, can be converted into dihydroxyacetone phosphate,
which can enter glycolysis after the second control point.

Fig: 4.1. Glycolysis steps

Activity
1. Relate regulation of the rate limiting enzymes to homeostasis and biosynthesis?
2. Name and describe diseases related to failure in one or more of the steps of glycolysis?
3. Write the overall reactions of glycolysis.
4. Which of the following are products of cellular respiration?
A. Glucose; B. Pyruvate; C. Carbon dioxide; D. Acetyl CoA E.all except A

4.3.1.2. TCA cycle and ETC: Aerobic respiration

48
One fate of pyruvate is that it enters to TCA cycle for complete oxidation. But there are
intermediate processes that convert pyruvate to an acetyl coA. The enzyme complex converts
pyruvate into Acetyl-CoA by the following chemical changes:
 Decarboxylation of pyruvate (loss of CO2)
 Formation of acetyl group
 Linkage of acetyl group to coenzyme A forming acetyl - CoA.
The Tricarboxylic Acid (TCA) Cycle (Phase III)
The TCA cycle also called Krebs or Citric acid cycle, is considered as central pathway of
aerobic metabolism, as it serves two purposes-bioenergetics and biosynthesis:

1. Bioenergetics - The cycle carries out complex degradation of acetyl group in acetyl -
CoA to CO2, resulting in release of energy (ATP or GTP) and reducing power (NADH
and FADH2).

 TCA oxidizes two-carbon units, producing two molecules of CO2, one molecule of
GP, and high-energy electrons in the form of NADH and FADH2.

Steps of the Krebs cycle

Prior to the Krebs cycle, pyruvate first reacts with coenzyme A (CoA) to form a 2-carbon
intermediate called acetyl CoA. At the same time, carbon dioxide is released and NAD is
converted to NADH. Acetyl CoA then moves to the mitochondrial matrix. The reaction results
in the production of two carbon dioxide molecules and two NADH.
 The Krebs cycle begins with acetyl CoA combining with a 4-carbon compound to
form a 6-carbon compound known as citric acid.
 Citric acid is then broken down in the next series of steps, releasing two molecules
of carbon dioxide and generating one ATP, three NADH, and one FADH. FAD is
another electron carrier similar to NADH and NADPH.
 Finally, acetyl CoA and citric acid are generated and the cycle continues.

49
 Fig: 4.2. The TCA cycle
Recall that two molecules of pyruvate are formed during glycolysis, resulting in two “turns” of
the Krebs cycle for each glucose molecule. The net yield from the Krebs cycle is six carbon
dioxide molecules, two ATP, eight NADH, and two FADH2. NADH and FADH2 move on to
play a significant role in the next stage of aerobic respiration.

2. Biosynthesis - It supplies precursors for several biosynthetic pathways of amino acids,

pyrimidines, purines etc.
 As already mentioned, the TCA cycle is also an important source of biosynthetic
precursors
 e.g. α-ketoglutarate and oxaloacetate are used for synthesis of a number of
amino acids like glutamic acid, aspartic acid etc.
 Succinyl - CoA is used to form porphyrin ring of cytochromes, chlorophyll
etc.
 Oxaloacetate can also be converted to phosphoenolpyruvate, which is a
precursor of glucose.
 Acetyl - CoA is the starting material for fatty acid biosynthesis.

4.3.1.3. Electron Transport Chain

In aerobic respiration, electron transport is the final step in the break-down of glucose. It also
is the point at which most of the ATP is produced. High-energy electrons and hydrogen ions
from NADH and FADH2 produced in the Krebs cycle are used to convert ADP to ATP.

50
 Fig:4.3. Electron Transport Chain
As shown in Fig 4.3., electrons move along the mitochondrial membrane from one protein to
another. As NADH and FADH2 electrons, the energy carriers are converted to NADH release
and FAD, and H ions are released into the mitochondrial matrix. The H ions are pumped into
the mitochondrial matrix across the inner mitochondrial membrane. H ions then diffuse down
their concentration gradient back across the membrane and into the matrix through ATP
synthase molecules in chemiosmosis. Electron transport and chemiosmosis in cellular
respiration are similar to these processes in photosynthesis. Oxygen is the final electron
acceptor in the electron transport system in cellular respiration. Protons and electrons are
transferred to oxygen to form water.
Activity
1.What is the overall chemical reaction of aerobic reparation?
2. How many ATP molecules are collected during electron transport chain and chemiosmosis from a
single glucose?

Biosynthesis
Biosynthesis is a multi-step, enzyme-catalyzed process where substrates are converted into
more complex products in living organisms. In biosynthesis, simple compounds are modified,
converted into other compounds, or joined together to form macromolecules. This process
often consists of metabolic pathways. Some of these biosynthetic pathways are located within
a single cellular organelle, while others involve enzymes that are located within multiple
cellular organelles. Examples of these biosynthetic pathways include the production of lipid
membrane components and nucleotides. Biosynthesis is usually synonymous with anabolism.

The prerequisite elements for biosynthesis include: precursor compounds, chemical energy
(e.g. ATP), and catalytic enzymes which may require coenzymes (e.g.NADH, NADPH).
These elements create monomers, the building blocks for macromolecules. Some important
biological macromolecules include: proteins, which are composed of amino acid monomers
joined via peptide bonds, and DNA molecules, which are composed of nucleotides joined via
phosphodiester bonds.

Requirements of Biosynthesis

51
Sometimes all that is required for biosynthesis is for two substances to physically join together
to make a new physical substance, which is called a macromolecule.
A very simplified equation for biosynthesis of one form of macromolecule: two substances
join together to form a new, more complex substance.

Photosynthesis
Self-test
1. Define photosynthesis.
2. What is an ultimate source of energy for all life forms?

Energy is transformed all around us every day. Batteries convert chemical energy into electric
energy, and radios convert electric energy into the energy carried by sound waves. Similarly,
some autotrophs convert light energy into chemical energy through photosynthesis.

The importance of photosynthesis

The processes of all organisms, from bacteria to humans require energy. To get this energy,
many organisms access stored energy by eating food. Carnivores eat other animals and
herbivores eat plants. But where does the stored energy in food originate? All of this energy
can be traced back to the process of photosynthesis and light energy from the sun.
Photosynthesis is essential to all life on earth. It is the only biological process that captures
energy from outer space (sunlight) and converts it into chemical energy in the form of
Glyceraldehyde3-phosphate (G3P), which in turn can be made into sugars and other organic
compounds such as proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids. Plants use these compounds in all of
their metabolic processes; plants do not need to consume other organisms for food because
they build all the molecules they need. Unlike plants, animals need to consume other
organisms to consume the molecules they need for their metabolic processes.

The process of photosynthesis

During photosynthesis, molecules in leaves capture sunlight and energize electrons, which are
then stored in the covalent bonds of carbohydrate molecules. That energy within those
covalent bonds will be released when they are broken during cell respiration. How long lasting
and stable are those covalent bonds? The energy extracted today by the burning of coal and
petroleum products represents sunlight energy captured and stored by photosynthesis almost
200 million years ago.

Plants, algae, and some bacteria such as cyanobacteria are the only organisms capable of
performing photosynthesis. Because they use light to manufacture their own food, they are
called photoautotrophs (“self-feeders using light”). Other organisms, such as animals, fungi,
and most other bacteria, are termed heterotrophs (“other feeders”) because they must rely on
the sugars produced by photosynthetic organisms for their energy needs. A third very
interesting group of bacteria synthesize sugars, not by using sunlight’s energy, but by
extracting energy from inorganic chemical compounds; hence, they are referred to as
chemoautotrophs.
The importance of photosynthesis is not just that it can capture sunlight’s energy. A lizard
sunning itself on a cold day can use the sun’s energy to warm up. Photosynthesis is vital
52
because it evolved as a way to store the energy in solar radiation (the’ ‘photo'' part) as high-
energy electrons in the carbon-carbon bonds of carbohydrate molecules (the ''synthesis'' part).
Those carbohydrates are the energy source that heterotrophs use to power the synthesis of
ATP via respiration. Therefore, photosynthesis powers 99 percent of Earth’s ecosystems.
When a top predator, such as a wolf, preys on a deer, the wolf is at the end of an energy path
that went from nuclear reactions on the surface of the sun, to light, to photosynthesis, to
vegetation, to deer, and finally to wolf.

Other variant of photosynthesis

Commonly known photosynthetic processes is the one known as oxygenic photosynthesis.
The other type is termed as an oxygenic photosynthesis. The general principles of an oxygenic
and oxygenic photosynthesis are very similar, but oxygenic photosynthesis is the most
common and is seen in plants, algae and cyanobacteria.

During oxygenic photosynthesis, light energy transfers electrons from water (H2O) to carbon
dioxide (CO2), to produce carbohydrates. In this transfer, the CO2 is "reduced," or receives
electrons, and the water becomes "oxidized," or loses electrons. Ultimately, oxygen is
produced along with carbohydrates.

On the other hand, an oxygenic photosynthesis uses electron donors other than water. The
process typically occurs in bacteria such as purple bacteria and green sulfur bacteria, which
are primarily found in various aquatic habitats.

An oxygenic photosynthesis does not produce oxygen. What is produced depends on the
electron donor. For example, many bacteria use the bad-eggs-smelling gas hydrogen sulfide,
producing solid sulfur as a byproduct.

Though both types of photosynthesis are complex, multistep affairs, the overall process can be
neatly summarized as a chemical equation.

Oxygenic photosynthesis is written as follows:

6CO2 + 12H2O + Light Energy → C6H12O6 + 6O2 + 6H2O

Similarly, the various an oxygenic photosynthesis reaction can be represented as a single

generalized formula:

CO2 + 2H2A + Light Energy → [CH2O] + 2A + H2O

The letter A in the equation is a variable and H2A represents the potential electron donor. For
example, a may represent sulfur in the electron donor hydrogen sulfide (H2S).

The photosynthetic apparatus

Self-test
1. What cellular components are essential to photosynthesis?
2. why plant leaves vary in color?
53
Plastids
Photosynthetic eukaryotic organisms contain organelles called plastids in their cytoplasm.
Plastids generally contain pigments or can store nutrients. Colorless and no pigmented
leucoplasts store fats and starch, while chloroplasts contain carotenoids and chloroplasts
contain chlorophyll.

Photosynthesis occurs in the chloroplasts; specifically, in the grana and stroma regions. The
grana are the innermost portion of the organelle; a collection of disc-shaped membranes,
stacked into columns like plates. The individual discs are called thylakoids. It is here that the
transfer of electrons takes place. The empty spaces between columns of grana constitute the
stroma.

Chloroplasts are similar to mitochondria, the energy centers of cells, in that they have their
own genome, or collection of genes, contained within circular DNA. These genes encode
proteins essential to the organelle and to photosynthesis. Like mitochondria, chloroplasts are
also thought to have originated from primitive bacterial cells through the process of
endosymbiosis.

Fig: 4.4. structure of chloroplast

Pigments
Pigments are molecules that bestow color on plants, algae and bacteria, but they are also
responsible for effectively trapping sunlight. Pigments of different colors absorb different
wavelengths of light. Below are the three main groups.

• Chlorophylls: These green-colored pigments are capable of trapping blue and red
light. Chlorophylls have three subtypes, dubbed chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b and
chlorophyll c. There is also a bacterial variant aptly named bacteriochlorophyll, which

54
 absorbs infrared light. This pigment is mainly seen in purple and green bacteria, which
perform an oxygenic photosynthesis.

Fig: 4.5. basic structure of major photosynthetic pigments

• Carotenoids: These red, orange or yellow-colored pigments absorb bluish-green light.

Examples of carotenoids are xanthophyll (yellow) and carotene (orange) from which
carrots get their color.
• Phycobilins: These red or blue pigments absorb wavelengths of light that are not as
well absorbed by chlorophylls and carotenoids. They are seen in cyanobacteria and red
algae.

Antennae
Pigment molecules are associated with proteins, which allow them the flexibility to move
toward light and toward one another. A large collection of 100 to 5,000 pigment molecules
constitutes antennae. These structures effectively capture light energy from the sun, in the
form of photons.
Ultimately, light energy must be transferred to a pigment-protein complex that can convert it
to chemical energy, in the form of electrons. In plants, for example, light energy is transferred
to chlorophyll pigments. The conversion to chemical energy is accomplished when a
chlorophyll pigment expels an electron, which can then move on to an appropriate recipient.

Reaction centers
The pigments and proteins, which convert light energy to chemical energy and begin the
process of electron transfer, are known as reaction centers.

The photosynthetic process

55
The reactions of plant photosynthesis are divided into those that require the presence of
sunlight and those that do not. Both types of reactions take place in chloroplasts: light
dependent reactions in the thylakoid and light-independent reactions in the stroma.

Light-dependent reactions (also called light reactions): When a photon of light hits the
reaction center, a pigment molecule such as chlorophyll releases an electron.

How does this generate energy?

The released electron manages to escape by traveling through an electron transport chain,
which generates the energy needed to produce ATP (adenosine triphosphate, a source of
chemical energy for cells) and NADPH. The "electron hole" in the original chlorophyll
pigment is filled by taking an electron from water. As a result, oxygen is released into the
atmosphere.

Light-independent reactions (also called dark reactions and known as the Calvin cycle):
Light reactions produce ATP and NADPH, which are the rich energy sources that drive dark
reactions.

Although NADPH and ATP provide cells with large amounts of energy, these molecules are
not stable enough to store chemical energy for long periods of time. Thus, there is a second
phase of photosynthesis called the Calvin cycle in which energy is stored in organic molecules
such as glucose.
Three chemical reaction steps make up the Calvin cycle: carbon fixation, reduction and
regeneration. These reactions use water and catalysts. The carbon atoms from carbon dioxide
are ''fixed,'' when they are built into organic molecules that ultimately form three-carbon
sugars. These sugars are then used to make glucose or are recycled to initiate the Calvin cycle
again.

 In the first step of the Calvin cycle called carbon fixation, six carbon dioxide (CO)
molecules combine with six 5-carbon compounds to form twelve 3-carbon
molecules called 3-phosphoglycerat (3-PGA). The joining of carbon dioxide with
other organic molecules is called carbon fixation.
 In the second step, the chemical energy stored in ATP and NADPH is transferred
to the 3-PGA molecules to form high-energy molecules called glyceraldehyde
3phosphates (G3P). ATP supplies the phosphate groups for forming G3P
molecules, while NADPH supplies hydrogen ions and electrons.
 In the third step, two G3P molecules leave the cycle to be used for the production
of glucose and other organic compounds. In the final step of the Calvin cycle, an
enzyme called rubisco converts the remaining ten G3P molecules into 5-carbon
molecules called ribulose 1,5-bisphosphates (RuBP). These molecules combine
with new carbon dioxide molecules to continue the cycle.

56
 Fig:4.6. Calvin cycle
Because rubisco converts inorganic carbon dioxide molecules into organic molecules that can
be used by the cell, it is considered one of the most important biological enzymes. Plants use
the sugars formed during the Calvin cycle both as a source of energy and as building blocks
for complex carbohydrates, including cellulose, which provides structural support for the
plant.

Alternative Pathways
The environment in which an organism lives can impact the organism’s ability to carry out
photosynthesis. Environments in which the amount of water or carbon dioxide available is
insufficient can decrease the ability of a photosynthetic organism to convert light energy into
chemical energy. For example, plants in hot, dry environments are subject to excessive water
loss that can lead to decreased photosynthesis. Many plants in extreme climates have altered
native photosynthesis pathways to maximize energy conversion.

C4 plants one adaptive pathway that helps plants maintain photosynthesis While minimizing
water loss is called the C4 pathway. The C4 pathway occurs in plants such as sugar cane and
corn. These plants are called C4 plants because they fix carbon dioxide into four-carbon
compounds instead of three-carbon molecules during the Calvin cycle. C4 plants also have
significant structural modifications in the arrangement of cells in the leaves. In general, C4
plants keep their stomata (plant cell pores) closed during hot days, while the four carbon
compounds are transferred to special cells where CO2 enters the Calvin cycle. This allows for
sufficient carbon dioxide uptake, while simultaneously minimizing water loss.

CAM plants Another adaptive pathway used by some plants to maximize photosynthetic
activity is called crassulacean acid metabolism (CAM photosynthesis). The CAM pathway
occurs in water conserving plants that live in deserts, salt marshes, and other environments
where access to water is limited. CAM plants, such as cacti, orchids, and the pineapple allow
carbon dioxide to enter The leaves only at night, when the atmosphere is cooler and more
humid. At night, these plants fix carbon dioxide into organic compounds. During the day,
carbon dioxide is released from these compounds and enters the Calvin cycle. This pathway
Also allows for sufficient carbon dioxide uptake, while minimizing water loss.

57
4.4. Metabolic disorders, diagnosis and treatments
Self-test
1. What are the risk factors for metabolic disorders?
2. How are metabolic disorders treated?
Metabolism is the breaking down of food to its simpler components: proteins, carbohydrates
(or sugars), and fats. Metabolic disorders occur when these normal processes become
disrupted. Disorders in metabolism can be inherited, in which case they are also known as
inborn errors of metabolism, or they may be acquired during your lifetime.

Inherited metabolic disorders

Inherited metabolic disorders are one cause of metabolic disorders, and occur when a
defective gene causes an enzyme deficiency. These diseases, of which there are many
subtypes, are known as inborn errors of metabolism. Metabolic diseases can also occur when
the liver or pancreas do not function properly.

There are numerous examples of inherited metabolic disorders, which can be classified based
on the type of food-related building block that they affect, including amino acids (the
building block for proteins), carbohydrates, and fatty acids (the building block for fats).
Inherited causes of metabolic disorders include:

• Carbohydrate disorders; examples include Diabetes insipidus, hereditary fructose

intolerance, galactosemia, pyruvate metabolism disorders, von Geek’s disease,
McArdle disease, Pomp`s disease, and Forbes‟ disease
• Fatty acid oxidation defects; examples include Gautier’s disease, Niemann-Pick
disease, Fabry`s disease, and medium-chain acyl-coenzyme A dehydrogenase
(MCAD) deficiency
• Amino acid disorders; examples include Tay-Sachs disease, phenylketonuria,
tyrosinemia, maple syrup urine disease, and homocystinuria
• Acid-base imbalance, Disorders of calcium metabolism, DNA repair-deficiency
disorders, Iron metabolism disorders, Mitochondrial diseases, Phosphorus metabolism
disorders, Malabsorption syndromes, Water-electrolyte imbalance are some of the
disorders associated with metabolism.
Other causes of metabolic disorders
Metabolic disorders can be due to other factors, such as a combination of inherited and
environmental factors. Some of the conditions that can cause metabolic disorders include:

• Alcohol abuse, Diabetes (chronic disease that affects your body’s ability to use sugar
for energy)
• Diuretic abuse, Gout (type of arthritis caused by a buildup of uric acid in the joints)
• Ingestion of poison or toxins, including excessive aspirin, bicarbonate, alkali, ethylene
glycol, or methanol
• Kidney failure, Pneumonia, respiratory failure, or collapsed lung

58
 • Sepsis (life-threatening bacterial blood infection)

Risk factors of metabolic disorders

A number of factors increase the risk of developing metabolic disorders. Not all people with
risk factors will get metabolic disorders. Risk factors for metabolic disorders include:
• Certain chronic medical conditions, such as lung or kidney disease (includes any type of
kidney problem, such as kidney stones, kidney failure and kidney anomalies) and
Diabetes (it is more likely to have metabolic syndrome if a person had diabetes during
pregnancy (gestational diabetes) or if he/she have a family history of type 2 diabetes.
• Family history of genetic metabolic disorder.
• Race and ethnicity: people with African, Hispanic, First Nations, Asian, and Pacific
Islander backgrounds are at higher risk than whites for type 2 diabetes.
• HIV/AIDS and other diseases; the risk of metabolic syndrome is higher if a person
ever had nonalcoholic fatty liver disease, polycystic ovary syndrome or sleep apnea
Age- the risk of metabolic syndrome increases with age.
• Obesity and lack of exercise: carrying too much weight, especially in your abdomen,
increases your risk of metabolic syndrome
• Hormone imbalance: a hormone disorder such as polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS),
a condition in which the female body produces too much of certain hormones, is
linked with metabolic syndrome.
• Insulin resistance: a situation in which a body cannot use insulin properly.
Diagnosis of metabolic disorders
Metabolic syndrome is more effectively diagnosed by testing different blood markers (specific
markers of insulin resistance), obesity (especially abdominal obesity), high blood pressure,
and lipid abnormalities. Specifically, metabolic syndrome is diagnosed if any three of the
following five markers are present:
• Elevated waist circumference: 40 inches or more for men; 35 inches or more for
women
• Elevated triglycerides: 150 mg/dL or higher
• Reduced high-density lipoprotein (HDL) levels (AKA ''good'' cholesterol): less than 40
mg/dL in men; less than 50 mg/dL in women
• Elevated blood pressure: 130/85 mm Hg or higher or are already taking blood pressure
medications
• Elevated fasting glucose: 100 mg/dL or higher or are already taking glucose-lowering
medications

Treatments
The treatment approach for metabolic disorders depends on the specific disorder. Inborn errors
of metabolism (inherited metabolic disorders) are often treated with nutritional counseling and
support, periodic assessment, physical therapy, and other supportive care options. Multiple
treatment options are available for inherited metabolic disorders and examples include: bone
marrow transplantation, enzyme replacement therapy in selected patients, gene therapy in
selected patients, medications to reduce symptoms, such as pain or low blood sugar, mineral
59
supplementation, nutritional counseling, surgery to relieve pain or symptoms, vitamin
supplementation and etc.

Acquired metabolic disorder treatment will include normalizing the metabolic balance by both
reversing the cause and administering medications.

Potential complications of metabolic disorders

Complications of untreated metabolic disorders can be serious, even life threatening in some
cases. The risk of serious complications can be minimized following the treatment plan
designed by health care professional. Complications of metabolic disorders include: organ
failure/dysfunction, seizures and tremors, and unconsciousness and coma.
Activity
1. What are the risk factors of metabolic disorders?

2. How are metabolic disorders treated?

3. Write down the common metabolic disorders and their symptoms.

Summary
Phenylketonuria is an example of an inherited metabolic disorder characterized by an
inability to break down one of the building blocks of protein, the amino acid
phenylalanine.
Type I diabetes, a disease in which the pancreas does not create enough insulin to
maintain balanced blood sugar levels, is a metabolic disorder of sugar metabolism.
An example of a metabolic disorder affecting fat metabolism is Gaucher’s disease,
which is characterized by a lack of the of the enzyme glucocerebrosidase.

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 Chapter Five
Genetics and Evolution

Self-test
1. Define terms (genetics and evolution)
2. What is the importance of studying genetics?
3. What is the inter-relationship between genetics and evolution?

Genetics forms one of the central pillars of biology and overlaps with many other areas, such
as agriculture, medicine, and biotechnology. Since the start of civilization, humankind has
recognized the influence of heredity and applied its principles to the improvement of
cultivated crops, domestic animals and industrial microbes. Most of the mechanisms of
heredity, however, remained a mystery until the 19th century, when genetics as a systematic
science began.

Genetics is a field of biology that studies how traits are passed from parents to their offspring.
The passing of traits from parents to offspring is known as heredity; therefore, genetics is the
study of heredity. The basic components of genetics are DNA, RNA, genes, chromosomes and
genetic inheritance. DNA molecules hold all the genetic information for almost all organisms.

61
It provides cells with the information they need to perform tasks that allow an organism to
grow, survive and reproduce. A gene is one particular section of a DNA molecule that tells a
cell to perform one specific task. Heredity is what makes offspring look like their parents.
During reproduction, DNA is replicated and passed from a parent to their offspring. This
inheritance of genetic material by offspring influences the appearance and behavior of the
offspring. The environment that an organism lives in can also influence how genes are
expressed.

Genes (and, thus, the traits they code for) are passed from parent to offspring. From generation
to generation, well-understood molecular mechanisms reshuffle, duplicate, and alter genes in a
way that produces genetic variation. This variation is the raw material for evolution.

Activities
1. Students take an inventory of their own easily-observable genetic traits and compare
those inventories with other students in groups.
2. Can you think of a trait you have inherited? How about a trait that you have acquired
by learning or tradition?
3. What inherited traits do you share in common with others? What traits are unique to
you?
4. Learn how common chronic diseases (such as heart disease) run in families and how
risk for developing these diseases is influenced by the combined action of several
genes.
5. Identical twins have exactly the same DNA, but they are not exactly alike. Each twin
has his or her own personality, talents, likes, and dislikes. There are even diseases that
appear in one twin but not in the other, including arthritis, diabetes, autism,
schizophrenia, cancer, and many others. What do you think is the reason?

5.1. Basic Principles of Mendelian genetics and patterns of inheritance

Self-test
1. Gregor Mendel's principles of inheritance form the cornerstone of modern genetics
and what are they?
2. What were the concepts not included in Mendelian genetics?
3. Where did our knowledge of dominance and recessively first come from?

It is wondering why you are the only one in your family with your grandfather's nose? The
way in which traits are passed from one generation to the next, and sometimes skip
generations was first explained by Gregor Mendel. By experimenting with pea plant breeding,
Mendel developed three principles of inheritance that described the transmission of genetic
traits, before anyone knew genes existed. Mendel's insight greatly expanded the understanding
of genetic inheritance, and led to the development of new experimental methods.
62
Traits are passed down in families in different patterns. Pedigrees can illustrate these patterns
by following the history of specific characteristics, or phenotypes, as they appear in a family.
For example, a family in which a grandmother (generation I) has passed down a characteristic
through the family tree. The inheritance pattern of this characteristic is considered dominant,

because it is observable in every generation. Thus, every individual who carries the genetic
code for this characteristic will show evidence of the characteristic. A characteristic may
disappear in one generation, only to reappear in a subsequent one. This pattern of inheritance,
in which the parents do not show the phenotype but some of the children do, is considered
recessive.

Mendelian inheritance is a type of biological inheritance that follows the principles originally
proposed by Gregor Mendel in 1865 and 1866. It was re-discovered in 1900 and popularized
by William Bateson. These principles were initially controversial and even rejected by some
scholars. When Mendel's theories were integrated with the Boveri–Sutton chromosome theory
of inheritance by Thomas Hunt Morgan in 1915, they became the core of classical genetics.
Ronald Fisher combined these ideas with the theory of natural selection in his 1930 book. The
genetic theory of natural selection, putting evolution onto a mathematical footing and forming
the basis for population genetics within the modern evolutionary synthesis.

Gregor Johann Mendel formulated his idea after conducting simple hybridization experiments
with pea plants (Pisum sativum) he had planted in the garden of his monastery. From these
experiments, he induced two generalizations which later became known as Mendel's
Principles of Heredity or Mendelian inheritance.
Activities
Why Mendel choose Pisum sativum for his experimentation?
Recall the basic experiments Mendel used to convey his principles of inheritance
What were the major conclusions of Mendel's experiment?
Mendel's results were largely ignored by the vast majority. Although they were not completely
unknown to biologists of the time, they were not seen as generally applicable, even by Mendel
himself, who thought they only applied to certain categories of species or traits. In 1900,
however, his work was "re-discovered" by some scientist. Regardless, the "rediscovery" made
Mendelism an important but controversial theory.

Mendel's findings allowed some scientists to predict the expression of traits on the basis of
mathematical probabilities. An important aspect of Mendel's success can be traced to his
decision to start his crosses only with plants he demonstrated were true-breeding. He only
measured discrete (binary) characteristics, such as color, shape, and position of the seeds,
rather than quantitatively variable characteristics. He expressed his results numerically and
subjected them to statistical analysis.

Mendel's conclusions
Five parts of Mendel's discoveries were an important divergence from the common theories at
the time and were the prerequisite for the establishment of his rules.
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 1. Characters are unitary. That is, they are discrete (purple vs. white, tall vs. dwarf).
2. Genetic characteristics have alternate forms, each inherited from one of two parents.
Today, we call these alleles.
3. One allele is dominant over the other. The phenotype reflects the dominant allele.
4. Gametes are created by random segregation. Heterozygotic individuals produce
gametes with an equal frequency of the two alleles.
5. Different traits have independent assortment. In modern terms, genes are unlinked

5.2. Molecular genetics and inheritance

5.2.1. DNA, Gene, Chromosomes and Cell division

DNA stands for deoxyribonucleic acid and it is the molecule that holds the genetic
information for a cell and an organism. DNA molecule contains a code that can be used by a
cell to express certain genes. Specific sections of a DNA molecule provide the information to
build specific proteins which can then be used by a cell to express the desired gene. DNA
comes in the form of a long, linear molecule referred to as a strand. Each strand of DNA is
bonded to a second strand of DNA to form a DNA double helix. In eukaryotic cells, DNA is
found in the nucleus as a tightly coiled double helix. DNA molecules are replicated during cell
division. When a cell divides, the two new cells contain all the same DNA that the original
cell had. In sexual reproduction with two parents, half of the DNA of the offspring is
provided by each of the parents. The genetic material of a child is made from 50% of their
mother’s DNA and 50% their father’s DNA. Structure of DNA and chromosome.

Chromosome is a thread- like structure that is made up of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) and
histone (a set of globular (30) proteins). While DNA is the molecule that stores genetic
information whereas histone is the core of a chromosome around which chromosome‟s DNA
wrapped is the loosely organized form of chromosome throughout the nucleus in loops when
the cell is not dividing is called Chromatin. Individual chromosomes are not easily
distinguished unless condensed. On the condensed organization of chromosome, genes are
inactive while uncondensed or loose organization allows the genes to be active. As a cell
prepares for cell division, the chromatin loops will have duplicated themselves and become
compacted or “condensed” to form a chromosome that is visible under light microscope.

DNA-is made up two strands of polynucleotides joined together and twisted into a double
helix and the strands are anti-parallel to each other. The basic unit of DNA strand is a
nucleotide (monomers of DNA). There are four types of nucleotides:
• Adenine (A) – containing nucleotide
• Guanine (G) – containing nucleotide
• Cytosine (C) - containing nucleotide
• Thymine (T) – containing nucleotide (in DNA, or Uracil (U) nucleotide in
RNA) All nucleotides have: a phosphate group, a pentose sugar (deoxyribose in DNA

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 and ribose sugar in RNA) and one of four nitrogen bases- adenine, cytosine guanine and
either thymine (DNA) or uracil (RNA).
Bonds between the sugar in one nucleotide and the phosphate group in the next hold the
nucleotides together. The base does not take in this linking of the nucleotides in a strand. That
is the reason why we say „sugar- phosphate‟ backbone. The nucleotides in one strand are
paired with the nucleotides in the other strand according to the base pairing- rule.

 Adenine – Thymine(uracil in RNA)

 Cytosine – Guanine
DNA is a very stable molecule at normal temperature. The hydrogen bonds hold the two
strands together in position through the bases. The stability of the DNA molecule is important
in ensuring the genetic code in the DNA molecule – does not become corrupted.

Fig:5.1. Structure of DNA

Activity
1. Recall structures and types of the four bases that make up nucleotide.
2. What types of bonds tie sugar to a phosphate group and the two Nitrogenous bases on each
strands?
3. Why the DNA strands run anti-parallel and exist as a double helix?

DNA replication and cell division

Self test
65
1. What is the basis of all methods of reproduction and passing on genetic information through
generations?
2. Recall the phases of eukaryotic cell division and describe briefly emphasizing on major
events
3. What are the biological purposes of cell division?

The ability of DNA to make copy of itself (DNA-replication) is the basis for reproduction and
inheritance. DNA molecule exists within chromosome (in the nucleus) and is surrounded by a
'soup' of free DNA nucleotides (which is to build new DNA molecules). DNA structure is
double helix and must replicate semi-conservatively. Each formed new DNA molecule
contains one strand from the original (old) DNA and one new strand DNA molecules. Both
new DNA molecules formed are identical to each other and to the original molecule. Several
Enzymes are involved in this process and the main stages are:
1. DNA helicase enzyme - break H-bonds to reveal two single strands and unwind (open)
the helix DNA
2. DNA polymerase follow the helicase enzyme along each single-stranded region, which
acts as a template for the synthesis of a new strand.
3. DNA polymerase assembles free DNA nucleotides into new strands alongside each of
the template strands. The base sequence in each of these new strands is complementary
to its template strand because of base- pairing rule, A-T, C-G.
4. Two-identical DNA molecules to each other and the original one is resulted. Each
contains one strand from the original (old) and one newly synthesized.

Fig:5.2.
Cell division
Cell division is the process by which a parent cell divides into two or more daughter cells.
Cell division usually occurs as part of a larger cell cycle. In eukaryotes, there are two distinct
types of cell division: a vegetative division, whereby each daughter cell is genetically identical
to the parent cell (mitosis), and a reproductive cell division, whereby the number of
chromosomes in the daughter cells is reduced by half to produce haploid gametes (meiosis).
Meiosis results in four haploid daughter cells by undergoing one round of DNA replication

66
followed by two divisions. Homologous chromosomes are separated in the first division, and
sister chromatids are separated in the second division. Both of these cell division cycles are
used in the process of sexual reproduction at some point in their life cycle. Both are believed
to be present in the last eukaryotic common ancestor.

Prokaryotes (bacteria) undergo a vegetative cell division known as binary fission, where their
genetic material is segregated equally into two daughter cells. While binary fission may be the
means of division by most prokaryotes, there are alternative manners of division, such as
budding, that have been observed. All cell divisions, regardless of organism, are preceded by a
single round of DNA replication.
For simple unicellular microorganisms such as amoeba, one cell division is equivalent to
reproduction, an entire new organism is created. On a larger scale, mitotic cell division can
create progeny from multicellular organisms, such as plants that grow from cuttings. Mitotic
cell division enables sexually reproducing organisms to develop from the one-celled zygote,
which itself was produced by meiotic cell division from gametes. After growth, cell division
by mitosis allows for continual construction and repair of the organism. The human body
experiences about 10 quadrillion cell divisions in a lifetime.

The primary concern of cell division is the maintenance of the original cell's genome. Before
division can occur, the genomic information that is stored in chromosomes must be replicated,
and the duplicated genome must be separated cleanly between cells. A great deal of cellular
infrastructure is involved in keeping genomic information consistent between generations.

Fig: 5.3. Major types of cell division

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 Tips on cell division!!
Multicellular organisms replace worn-out cells through cell division. In some animals,
however, cell division eventually halts. In humans this occurs, on average, after 52
divisions, known as the Hayflick limit. The cell is then referred to as senescent. With each
division the cells telomeres, protective sequences of DNA on the end of a chromosome that
prevent degradation of the chromosomal DNA, shorten. This shortening has been
correlated to negative effects such as age related diseases and shortened lifespan in
humans. Cancer cells, on the other hand, are not thought to degrade in this way, if at all.
An enzyme complex called telomerase, present in large quantities in cancerous cells,
rebuilds the telomeres through synthesis of telomeric DNA repeats, allowing division to
continue indefinitely.

Protein synthesis
Self test
1. What is genetic code?
2. How information stored on DNA is utilized?

Code for protein synthesis is specified by DNA and has to be sent to ribosome. DNA is a huge
molecule and remains in nucleus to assemble amino acids in the correct sequence to form
protein.
Events during protein synthesis
i. Transcription – DNA code for protein is rewritten in a molecule of messenger RNA
(MRNA)
ii. MRNA travels from nucleus to ribosome
iii. Free amino acids are transported from cytoplasm to ribosome by transfer RNA (tRNA)
molecules
iv. Ribosome read mRNA code and assembles amino acids presented by tRNA into a
protein by a process = translation
Translation – is process in which mRNA code is converted into a sequence of amino
acids
DNA transcription mRNA translation tRNA /RNA synthesis protein/polypeptide/
Genetic code
The genetic code is held in the DNA molecule. It is because of the nucleotides sequence in the
DNA molecule made a gene that codes for protein to that each amino acid in the protein is
coded for by a triplet /sequence of three bases/. Hence, a gene is a sequence of base triplets in
the DNA molecule that carries a code for a protein.
1. Since there are 4 bases, there is 43 = 64 possible triplet codes /amino acids/ but only 20
amino acids are used to make all different proteins.
Activity
What is the purpose of the other 44 codes?
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 None of them is spare or redundant.
2. Only one strands of a DNA molecule carries the code for proteins (It is called sense
strand or coding stand) and the other strand is non-coding or antisense strand.
3. Most amino acids have more than one code, only methionine and tryptophan have one
code.
Arginine has six codes

4. Three triplets (TAA, TAG, and TGA) do not code for amino acids and they are called
stop codons. stop codes signify the end of the coding sequence
5. Degenerate code – the DNA code is non-overlapping codes i.e., each triplet is distinct
from all other triplets.
6. The genetic code is also a universal codei.e. the triplet code TAT in the DNA code for
amino acid tyrosine in human, redwood tree, bacterium or in any organism E.g. ACC –
threonine, GGG-glycine

Fig:5.6. Genetic code

N.B. It is not just the base that matter but the sequence, e.g.ATT codes of different amino acid
from TTA

The enzyme DNA-dependent RNA polymerase binds with a section of DNA next to the gene
to be transcribed. Transcription factors activate the enzyme. The enzymes “unwind” and
separate the strands of a DNA molecule. The polymerase assembles free RNA nucleotides on

69
the complementary strand (antisense strand). mRNA (transcribed RNA)leaves the DNA; the
strands of DNA rejoin & re-coil.

N.B. The mRNA molecule now contains the code for the protein that was held in the DNA of
the genes
Activity
1. How does transcription take place in eukaryotic cells?
2. How does translation take place?

Translation of mRNA code into a protein depends on the interaction within a ribosome
between mRNA and tRNA. All tRNA molecules have same basic structure. The ''cloverleaf''
configuration of the molecules has at one end a triplet of bases called anticodon. The
anticodon is a triplet on tRNA. The other end of tRNA molecule has an attachment site for the
aminoacid that is specified by the mRNA codon. Ribosomes are made from ribosomal RNA
and proteins organized into a large & small subunits. Within ribosome, there are three sites
called A, P and E sites.

Events during translation of proteins

The first two codons of the mRNA enter the ribosome and tRNA molecules (with amino acid
attached) that have complementary anticodons to the 1st two codons of the mRNA bind to
those codons. A peptide bond forms between amino acid carried by two tRNA molecules and
dipeptide is transferred to the tRNA in the A-site. The Ribosome moves along the mRNA by
one codon bringing the 3rd codon into the ribosome. At the same time the free tRNA exits the
ribosome from the E-site and tRNA with the dipeptide moves into the P-site. A tRNA with
complementary anticodon binds with the third codon and brings its amino acid into position
next to the 2nd. A peptide bond is formed between 2nd and 3rd amino acid. The whole process is
repeated until a ''stop'' codon is in position and translation is stopped.

Note: - TGA, TAA and TAG – are stop codons.

N.B. The translation of the mRNA code into a protein molecule requires energy that comes
from hydrolysis of GTP /guanoisne triphosphate/ not ATP

Self test
1. How is protein synthesis different in prokaryotic cells?
2. What are the fates of some of proteins-synthesized in our body?
Though it is similar to eukaryotes, there are some differences like: Prokaryotic cell have no
nucleus. Prokaryotic mRNA does not need post-transcriptional process because it only
contains exons (coding genes) not introns (non-coding genes). Transcription and translation
are coupled - mRNA translated at one end of ribosome while it is start transcribing from DNA
at other end.

Transamination: - is a process of amino group of an amino acid is removed and transferred to

a keto acid, then it becomes a different amino acid/keto acid
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 E.g. pyruvic acid (keto acid) → alanine (amino acid) - by transamination.

Note. Not all amino acids are produced by transamination only those we obtain from our food.
They are called essential amino acid.

Control of Gene expression

Self test
What controls gene expression? Switched on/off?

Genes are switched on by "transcription factors"- are proteins that bind to a regulatory
sequence of DNA near to the gene they influence. They operate in the following way: The
transcription factors bind to a promoter sequence of DNA near the gene to be activated. RNA
polymerase binds to the DNA/ transcription factor complex. The RNA polymerase activated
and moves away from the DNA along the gene. The RNA polymerase transcribes the
antisense strand of the DNA and the gene is now being expressed.

Like transcription factors that promote gene expression, there are factors to repress (switched
off) gene action. short interfering RNA (siRNA)

 are unusual-very short

 only 21-23 nucleotides
 double stranded
 They don‟t act on the gene itself, but interfere/silence the mRNA once it has been
transcribed from DNA.
 Is post transcriptional interference
If mRNA is prevented from translating its Codons into amino acid then the protein for which
the gene codes for cannot be built (silenced).

Mutations

Self-Test
1. What are mutations?
2. Is there a spontaneous change in the genetic material of an organism?
3. What causes mutation?
4. Is mutation useful, harmful or both? how?
Mutation is the alteration of the nucleotide sequence of the genome of an organism, virus, or
extrachromosomal DNA.
 Mutation could occur spontaneously (accidentally) during duplication.
 They are rare events.

 Each cell contains 6x109/billion/ base parts occurrence

 Each new cell has an average 120 mutations. But
 Most mutations detected & repaired
 95% of our DNA is non-coding, most mutation unlikely to affect
coding gens.  Rate of mutations can be increased by: -  Carcinogenic - chemical
in tobacco smoke
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  High energy radiation- ultraviolet radiation, x- ray
There are many different ways that DNA can be changed, resulting in different types of
mutilation as described below:

1. Point mutations- changes that involves a single base. There are several types of point
mutations, some of these are:
 Substitution- one base is replaced by other base  Addition-a base is
missed out during DNA replication.
 Deletions – an extra base is added.
2. Chromosomal Mutations- situation where part /segment/ of a chromosome sequence of
DNA is disturbed/ a chromosome is missed/added. Types of chromosomal mutations:
 Ploidy/polyploidy/-is a condition where an organism/ a cell has one complete set of
extra chromosomes/an exact multiple of a complete set.
 Variation in number of chromosomes sets (one set of chromosome). E.g –
Triploid, Tetraploid
 Aneuploidy – is a condition where an organism/a cell lost from or added to one or
more chromosomes to/the normal set of chromosome
 2 n+1 = trisomy/47 chromosomes, e.g. Down’s syndrome  2n-1 =
monosomics – turner syndrome/45chr.
 2n+1+1 = double trisomy
 2n-2 – nullisomic, organisms that loss one homologous chromosome.
Gidu syndrome = mental retardation – caused by part of deletion of chromosome
number 5 of man.

Consequence of gene-mutations
Mutations on body cell (non- sex cell) cannot be inherited but may result in one of the
following:
 harmless
 damage the cell
 kill the cell
 make cell cancerous- which might kill the person.

Mutations in different genes will obviously produce different effects but two types of gene are
important in regulating cell division and preventing the formation of a tumor.

a. Proto-oncogenes-when proto-oncogenes mutate, they often become active oncogenes

which stimulate cell to divide in an uncontrolled manner.
b. Tumor-suppressor genes- recognize this uncontrolled cell division and act to suppress cell
division.
 If these genes mutate and become inactive, a tumor will form as uncontrolled cell
division continues.
 Tumor-is a mass of cells created when cell replication gets out of control and cause
cancer.
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 Manipulation of DNA Genetic engineering
Self-test
1. What is genetic engineering?
2. What do you think of human cloning?

Genetic engineering is a process by which the genome of an organism is altered, usually by

having extra (foreign) gene from different organisms, and the organism is termed genetically
modified organism (GMO), transgenic organism or genetically engineered organism.

Genetic engineering is early done on Bactria, to produce useful products like:

• Insulin, antibiotics, washing enzyme
• Enzyme for food processing industry
• Human growth hormone
• Vaccines-Hepatitis B
• Bovine somatotropin, high yield milk and muscle development in cattle.
Plants are also genetically modified:
• To absorb more CO2 – global warming
• Disease (drought) resistant
• Improved yield
• To produce specific product E.g. golden rice produce beta-carotene (in vitamin 'A')
prevent night blindness.
Moreover, animals are genetically modified for the following purposes
• high yield of protein, high growth rate
• Specific products e.g. insulin,
• Detection of water pollution = goldfish glow in the dark b/c they have had
bioluminescent gene from jelly fish.
• Genetically modified salmon and Tilapia fish grow bigger and faster.
Some other potential application of genetic engineering is:
• Disease could be prevented by detecting defected genes.
• To treat infectious diseases by implanting antiviral proteins (antibodies).
• To produce plants and animals that have high growth rate and reduced
susceptibility to disease – reduce use of fertilizers and pesticides.
• Animals and plants can be 'tailor made' to show desirable characteristics
5.2.2. ABO blood groups and Rh Factors
Self-test
1. What is the basis of blood grouping?
2. What is the importance of blood group in bloodpregnancytransfusion,
forensic science and paternity check?
3. Why AB and O blood groups are said as the universal recipient and donor
respectively?
Early experiments with human blood transfusion often resulted in the death of the patient for
unknown reasons. In 1901, it was discovered that there were three blood types, A, B, and O,
and that mixing blood from different types caused an immune response that resulted in
clumping. Type AB is rare and was discovered later.

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 ABO Blood Type: An individual's red blood cells will contain proteins of type A, or B, or
both, or neither. The body produces antibodies that will attack any foreign type. Alleles of
types IA and IB are dominant over type I.

Table 5.1 Types of blood

Genotype Blood Type Antigens Antibodies Donate To Receive From
Ii Type O None Anti-A and Anti-B A, B, AB, O O
IA IA Type A A Anti-B A, AB A, O
IA i Type A A Anti-B A, AB A, O
IB IB Type B B Anti-A B, AB B, O
IB i Type B B Anti-A B, AB B, O
IA IB Type AB A and B None AB A, B, AB, O
Rh Factor (D antigen): The Rh factor, the second most important blood group system after
the ABO blood group system, was first discovered in Rhesus monkeys. The Rh factor is
inherited independently from the ABO blood type. Genotypes for the Rh factor are +/+, +/-,
and -/-. People who are +/+ or +/- possess the Rh(D) antigen and test as Rh positive. People
who are -/- do not posess the Rh(D) antigen and test as Rh negative.
Genotype Phenotype Blood Proteins Blood Antibodies Donate To Receive From
+/+ Rh+ Rh(D) proteins None Rh+ Rh+ or Rh-
+/- Rh+ Rh(D) proteins None Rh+ Rh+ or Rh-
-/- Rh- None Anti-Rh(D) Rh+ or Rh- Rh-
Rh Sensitization: One interesting medical scenario involves an Rh negative mother who
carries an Rh positive baby. The baby of an Rh positive father and an Rh negative mother can
be +/- or -/-.) If the baby is +/-, the first pregnancy causes Rh sensitization in the mother,
because she is exposed to foreign proteins and builds up antibodies against them. Future
pregnancies can be increasingly difficult, as the mother's antibodies attack the baby.

Activities
Table 1: The following tables give information on human blood types needed in problems below.
Alleles of types IA and IB are dominant over type i.
Genotype Blood Blood Blood
Type Proteins Antibodies
ii Type O None Anti-A and
Anti-B
IA IA Type A A Anti-B
IA i Type A A Anti-B
IB IB Type B B Anti-A
IB i Type B B Anti-A
IA IB Type AB A and B None

Genotype Phenotype Blood Blood

Proteins Antibodies
+/+ Rh+ Rh(D) None

74
 +/- Rh+ Rh(D) None
-/- Rh- None Anti-Rh(D)
A patient is rushed to the emergency room and has suffered severe blood loss. Type AB blood is in
short supply, but the nurse says "Don't worry, he's type AB positive. We can give him any kind of
blood." Explain. (Why is type AB called the universal recipient?)
On the battlefield, a medic is treating a soldier who has lost a great deal of blood. They are out of
blood typing supplies so the medic, who is Type O negative, simply donates his own blood to the
patient. Why could this work? (Why is Type O called the universal donor?)
There is a practical joker in the maternity ward who removed all the baby id bracelets. There are
three babies that cannot be easily distinguished and the parents want to be sure they get the right
ones back so the doctors do a blood test. A particular mom is homozygous type A and the dad is
type O. The babies have blood types AB, A, and O. Show your work below and indicate which
baby must be theirs.
MOM
IA IA
DAD i IAi IAi

i IAi IAi

The police have rounded up the usual suspects in the latest rash of bookstore robberies. The thief
got a nasty paper cut at the scene of the crime. The suspects are of blood types O, A, B and AB.
The blood at the crime scene contained i alleles. Which suspect therefore cannot have been
involved? Explain.
Suspect Blood Type Possible ii
1 O Genotype(s):
Suspect Blood Type Possible IAIA or IAi
2 A Genotype(s):
Suspect Blood Type Possible IBIB or IBi
3 B Genotype(s):
Suspect Blood Type Possible
IAIB
4 AB Genotype(s):
In a paternity case, a single mother claimed that a certain man was the father of her baby. The man
denied it, claiming that her current boyfriend was the father. The court ordered a blood test (much
cheaper than DNA testing) to see if he could be ruled out as the father. The mother was Type O and
the baby was Type O. The man was Type AB. Is it possible that he was the father? Why or why
not?
Why is it that a blood type test can only disprove but never prove paternity? Why are DNA tests
used to "prove" paternity instead?
(True Story) In Denmark, a husband and wife who had been unsuccessfully trying to have a baby
went to a fertility clinic. Sperm and eggs were collected from father and mother, and combined in a

75
 petri dish, creating several "test-tube babies". These babies were implanted in the mother and 9
months later she delivered twins, one with light skin and one with dark skin. Because this seemed
strange, a DNA test was conducted and it was found that both children were related to the mother,
but only the light skinned child was related to the father. How can this be explained?
Rh factors are proteins that were first discovered in the blood of Rhesus Monkeys, but humans have
them too. If you are Rh positive, it means that there are Rh type proteins in your blood. If you are
Rh negative, there are no Rh type proteins in your blood. Positive is dominant over negative, so
heterozygous individuals are Rh positive. Problems can arise when an Rh negative mother has a
child who is Rh positive. Why does the mother's body attack her own baby in this situation? Why
does the situation get worse for the second pregnancy?
The father of two children is type O+, and the mother is type A+. The children are O- and A+.
Given this information, what can you say about the genotypes of father and mother?

5.3. Introduction to Evolution

Self test
1.What are the main creationist view on the origin of life on Earth
2. Explain how Francisco Redi and Louis Pasteur disproved spontaneous generation
theory.
3. How evidences of evolutionist theory support the process of evolution?

Evolution is the gradual change of organisms on the earth over long periods, with new forms
replacing old ones. As evolution has progressed new species are arising, the biodiversity of
the planet increasing, larger and more complex organisms replaced the smaller and some
species has get extinct.

Evolution can also be the change in genetic composition of a population over successive
generations which may be caused by meiosis, hybridization, natural selection or mutation.
This leads to a sequence of events by which the population diverges from other populations of
the same species and may lead to the origin of a new species. Theories about the origin of life
on Earth. The theory of evolution describes how the various forms of life on earth (including
humans) emerged and developed. There are five main theories of the origin of life on Earth:

 special creationism
 spontaneous generation
 eternity of life
 cosmozoan theory
 biochemical origin
a) Special creationism
Special creation theory states that the different forms of life on earth were created by a
Supreme Being/ God/ at once with six days. Special creation is always linked to religion and
mainly focused on spiritual matters that cannot be seen, touched or measured effectively.
There are two views on the origin of life:
76
Types of creationism theory
Gap creation – discusses a large gap between the formation of the earth and the creation of all
the animals and plants. The gap could be billions or millions of years.
Progressive creation – accepts the Big Bangs as the origin of the universe. It accepts the fossil
record of a series of creation for all of the organisms but it does not accept these as part of a
continuing process (each is seen as unique creation).
Evolutionary creationism (Theistic evolution) – This view of evolution maintains that God
„invented‟ evolution and takes some form of an active part in the ongoing process of
evolution.
Intelligent design – a theory states that life developed (formed) due to a combination of
natural forces and the intervention of a supernatural being.
b) Spontaneous generation theory
Suggests that life can evolve 'spontaneously' from non-living objects. E.g. people believed
that rotting meat turned into flies.

c) Eternity of life
The theory of eternity of life states that the universe has always existed and that there has
always been life in the universe. There is no beginning and no end to life on earth and so life
is neither created nor generated from non-living matters

d) Cosmozoan Theory
States that life on the earth originally came from elsewhere in the universe (possibly from
another planet). E.g. Meteorites brought bacterial spores, germs to the earth. This theory did
not gain any significant support because it lacks evidence and it is strongly linked to the
„eternity of life‟ theory of the origin life.

e) Biochemical theory
It suggests that life on earth originated as a result of a number of biochemical reactions
producing organic molecules, which combined (associated) to form cells. This theory is also
called abiogenesis; states life originates from chemical inanimate (abiotic substances). The
two scientists (biologists) who developed the theory of abiogenesis (origin of life from
chemicals) were: - Alexander Operon (1924) and John Haldane (1929). They both suggested:

• The primitive atmosphere of the earth was a reducing atmosphere – no free

oxygen (no oxygen gas).
• There was an appropriate supply of energy, such as lightening or ultraviolet
light (Up – rays).
• This would provide the energy for reactions that would synthesize a wide range
of organic compounds (amino acids, sugars and fatty acids).

Operon suggested that the atmosphere of the primitive earth contained NH3, H2, water vapor
(H2O (g)) and CH4. He suggested that at high temperature (above boiling point), these gases
could have undergone a series of chemical reactions and might have formed colloidal

77
aggregates or coacervates (collections of droplets that composed of molecules of different
types). Oparin considered that these coacervates were able to absorb and assimilate organic
compounds (amino acids, DNA and others) and leading to the first true cells.

J. Haldane – proposed that the chemical reactions of these gases were occurred in the
primitive sea by solar energy and the sea became a „hot dilute soup‟ of organic monomers and
small polymers.

In 1953, Stanley Miller tested the biochemical theory. He applied electrical sparks repeatedly
through a mixture of gases (NH3, water, H2 and CH4) that were represent the primitive
atmosphere of the earth (no oxygen) connected a flask of heated water.

Miller leaving the equipment for longer periods of time, a larger variety and more complex
organic molecules were formed including:

• amino acids - to form proteins

• pentose sugar - to form nucleic acids
• hexose sugar - need for respiration and to form starch and cellulose.
• Hydrogen cyanide (HCN)- starting point for synthesizes of nitrogen containing bases
in nucleotides.

This experiment gave strong evidence to support the Oparin-Haldane hypothesis.

Origin of Autotrophy: The first life (cell) appeared on earth – about 4 billion years ago and
they were: - anaerobes, heterotrophs and prokaryotes. They would have fed on organic
chemicals (soup) which formed spontaneously in the waters of the earth. The three
consecutive lines of evolution of organisms on earth leading to:

• Archaebacterial - are first appeared organisms. They are prokaryotes including

thermophilic (high temp. loving), sulphobacteria, methanobacteria and halophilic (salt
loving) bacteria.

They can survive under harsh (extreme) environment.

• Eubacteria – are true (ordinary) bacteria, ordinary bacteria and cyanobacteria (blue –
green algae)
• Prokaryotes – evolved into Protista, fungi, plants, animals (nearly all are aerobes).
Later (3.5 billion years ago) – the first autotrophs (photosynthetic organisms) like
cyanobacteria (blue-green algae) came in existence. With the evolution of chlorophyll
molecules, oxygen (O2) was released as a by-product of photosynthesis and this
changes the earth’s atmosphere from the reducing to an atmosphere containing
oxygen. The fossil record shows that cyanobacteria had been producing oxygen by
photosynthesis from about 305 million years ago but the levels of oxygen in
atmosphere did not rise for almost 1 billion years ago. Because oxygen was absorbed
by the vast amount iron in the earth it rusted.

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Theories of Evolution
There have been many theories of evolution that have explained: - how does evolution
happen? And what drives the population to become a new species?

A. Lamarck Theory of evolution

In the 19th century (1809), Lamarck published a paper entitled Philosophic „Zoologies‟ in
which he described the two-part mechanism by which change was gradually introduced into
the species and passed down through the generations. This theory is also called „theory of
transformation‟ or Lamarckism. The two parts of Lamarck theory are:

• Use and disuse

• Inheritance acquired traits

Use and disuse – Lamarck suggested that a structure or process in organism that can be used
continuous will become enlarged or more developed but any structure that is not. Example,
According Lamarck, giraffe had short neck but they stretched their neck to reach high
branches, developed an elongated neck use theory. The wings of penguins would have become
smaller than those of other birds because penguins do not use their wings to fly disuse theory.
Inheritance of Acquired traits – Lamarck believed that traits changed (acquired during an
organism’s lifetime could be passed on to its offspring’s. Example: - Giraffes that had
acquired long necks would have offspring with long necks.
Note: - Nowadays, Lamarck’s theories are not accepted because the environmental changes
that were believed by Lamarck have brought about the changes in the phenotypes (Physical
appearance) of the organisms have no effect on their gametes and hence their heredity.

B. Charles Darwin and Natural Selection

In 1858, both Charles Darwin and Alfred Wallace jointly published a scientific paper that
proposed species were modified by natural selection. Darwin visited five of the Galapagos
Islands, made drawings, and collected species. In particular, Darwin studied the finches found
on the different islands and noted there were many similarities between them but have some
obvious differences. Darwin concluded that an “ancestral finch” had colonized the Islands
from mainland and been able to adapt to the different conditions on the islands and evolve into
different species. E.g. He suggested that some finches had evolved into insect eaters (pointed
peak), other in to seedeaters (crushing peak). Darwin summarized his observations in two
main ideas:

• all species tend to produce more offspring’s than can possibly survive (Fecundity)
• there is a variation among the offspring’s.

From these observation Darwin deduced (concluded) that:

• There will be a “struggle for existence” between members of a species because they
are over – reproduced and resources are limited.

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 • Some members of a species will be better adapted than others to the environment
because there is a variation in the offspring.

Darwin proposed: - Those members of a species, which are best adapted to their environment,
will survive and reproduce in greater number than other less adapted (died out).

C. Neo – Darwinism Theory

Charles Darwin knew very little about genetics and did not propose how variations in the
population was passed to the next generation. Now days genes and gene action are the driving
force of evolution in the theory of Natural selection. A Gene pool is all the alleles in the
population. It might be evolving a population into a new species. Suppose an allele
determines a feature that gives an organism an advantage in its environment. The following
will happen

• Those individuals with the advantageous allele of a gene will survive to reproduce in
greater number than other types
• Advantageous allele passes to their offspring’s in greater numbers than other genes
(alleles).
• The frequency of the advantageous allele will be higher in the next generation of a
population.

Mutations are important in introducing variation into population. Any mutation could produce
an allele which:

• increase in frequency if they are beneficial in their effect, may increase slowly, stable
or decrease if they are neutral and decrease and could disappear if they are harmful
(disadvantages) in their effects.

Neo-Darwinism is a modification of Darwin’s original theory that takes into account: -

genetics and ethology (behavioral patens can also be advantageous or not). E.g. Young geese
„imprint‟ upon the first moving object after they are hatched.

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 Chapter Six

6. Infectious diseases and Immunity

Self-
test
. What are the important steps to cause infection?
1. What make infectious diseases different from other types of diseases?
2
Infectious diseases are diseases caused by living organisms called infectious agents like
bacteria, viruses, fungi, protozoa, and helminthes and prions, it occurs as the result of
interactions between pathogenic (disease-producing) microorganisms and the host. All
infectious diseases begin at some surface of the host, whether it be the external surfaces such
as the skin and conjunctiva or internal surfaces such as the mucous membranes of the
respiratory tract, intestine, or urogenital tract.

In order to cause infectious disease a pathogen must accomplish the following steps: -
1. It must enter the host,
2. It must metabolize and multiply on or in the host tissue.
3. It must resist host defenses
4. It must damage the host.

In order to cause disease, pathogens must be able to enter the host body, adhere to specific
host cells, invade and colonize host tissues, and inflict damage on those tissues. Entrance to
the host typically occurs through different entry route such as the mouth, eyes, or genital
openings, or through wounds that breach the skin barrier to pathogens. Although some
pathogens can grow at the initial entry site, most must invade areas of the body where they are
not typically found. They do this by attaching to specific host cells. Some pathogens then

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multiply between host cells or within body fluids, while others such as viruses and some
bacterial species enter the host cells and grow there. Although the growth of pathogens may
be enough to cause tissue damage in some cases, damage is usually due to the production of
toxins or destructive enzymes by the pathogen.

6.1 Principles of infectious diseases

6.1.1 Infection and Disease

The terms "infection" and "disease" are not synonymous. An infection results when an
infectious agent (pathogen) enters and begins growing within a host.
Disease occurs when the cells in host body are damaged, tissue function is impaired as a result
of the infection and signs and symptoms of an illness appear.

6.1.2 Sign, symptom and syndrome

 Symptom: A change in body function that is felt by a patient as a result of disease 

Sign: A change in a body that can be measured or observed as a result of disease.

Signs (objective) Symptoms (subjective)

 Syndrome: A specific group of signs and symptoms that accompany a disease

6.1.3 Classifying infectious diseases

• Communicable disease: A disease that is spread from one host to another

• Contagious disease: A disease that is easily spread from one host to another
• Non-communicable disease: A disease that is not transmitted from one host to
another

6.1.4 Classifying infectious diseases by occurrence of diseases

• Incidence: fraction of a population that contracts a disease during a specific time
• Prevalence: fraction of a population having a specific disease at a given time
• Sporadic disease: disease that occurs occasionally in a population
• Endemic disease: disease constantly present in a population
• Epidemic disease: disease acquired by many hosts in a given area in a short time
• Pandemic disease: worldwide epidemic

6.1.5 Severity or duration of infectious disease

Scope of infectious disease can be defined as: -
• Acute: disease develops rapidly
• Chronic: disease develops slowly
• Subacute: symptoms appear between acute and chronic
• Latent: disease with a period of no symptoms when the causative agent is
inactive

6.1.6 Extent of host involvement:

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 An Infection of Infectious diseases can be

• Local infection: Pathogens are limited to a small area of the body

• abscesses
• Systemic infection: an infection throughout the body by blood and/or lymph
• Bacteremia: bacteria in the blood
• Sepsis: toxic inflammatory condition arising from the spread of microbes,
especially bacteria or their toxins, from a focus of infection
• Septicemia: growth of bacteria in the blood
• Toxemia: toxins in the blood
• Viremia: viruses in the blood
• Focal infection: systemic infection that began as a local infection
• local tooth infection can move via blood or lymph to set up a new infection at
another site - rheumatoid arthritis
• Primary: acute infection causing initial illness
• Secondary: occurs after host is weakened from primary infection
• Subclinical (in apparent): no noticeable signs and symptoms

6.1.7 Disease development and stages

• Incubation period: time interval between initial infection and first appearance
of signs and symptoms.
• Prodromal period: characterized by appearance of first mild signs and symptoms.
• Period of illness: disease at its height: all disease signs and symptoms apparent.
• Period of decline: signs and symptoms subside.
 Period of convalescence: body returns to predeceased state, health is restored.

Fig: 6.1 Disease development and stages

6.1.8 Pathogenicity

Self-test
What are opportunistic pathogens?
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We contact numerous microorganisms daily when we breathe in, ingest with food and drink,
pick up on skin. Most microbes are harmless and many are beneficial. Vast majority generate
no ill effects and relatively few are pathogens that cause damage. These microorganisms are
classified based on their pathogenicity: -
Primary pathogen is microbe or virus that causes disease in otherwise healthy individual.
Diseases such as plague, malaria, measles, influenza, diphtheria, tetanus, tuberculosis, etc.
These pathogenic organisms are called virulent because of their virulence factor. Virulence
refers to a degree of pathogenicity, which is caused by virulence factors are traits that allow
microorganism to cause disease.
Opportunistic pathogen (opportunist) causes disease only when body’s innate or adaptive
defenses are compromised or when introduced into unusual location. It can be members of
normal microbiota or common in environment (e.g., Pseudomonas).
Normal microbiota (normal flora) are organisms that routinely reside on body’s surfaces and
the relationship is delicate balance and some can cause disease if opportunity arise. This is due
to the fact that weaknesses or defects in innate or adaptive defenses can leave individuals
vulnerable to invasion.
• These individuals are said to be immune-compromised
• Factors include malnutrition, cancer, AIDS or other disease, surgery, wounds, genetic
defects, alcohol or drug abuse, and immunosuppressive therapy following procedures
such as organ transplants.
6.1.9. The spread of infection
• Human reservoirs of infection - people who have a disease or are
carriers of pathogenic microorganisms.
• Sick people = actively ill
• Carriers = one who harbors disease organisms in their body without
manifest symptoms (healthy).
• Latent infection carriers = contagious during incubation period or
convalescent period.
• Zoonosis - are diseases that affect wild and domestic animals and can
be transmitted to humans.
• Direct contact with animal or its waste
• Eating animals
• Blood sucking arthropods
• Nonliving reservoirs - soil, water, and food can be reservoirs of
infection.
• Presence of microorganisms is often due to contamination by feces or
urine.

Activity: -
1. Discuss the differences between: - • Infection and diseases
• Sign and Symptom
• Incidence and prevalence
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• Endemic and epidemic
• Acute and Chronic
• Primary and secondary infection
6.2 Types of infectious disease and their causative agent

Bacteria, viruses, fungi, protozoa, parasites, and prions are different types of pathogen. They
vary in their size, shape, function, genetic content, and how they act on the body. For example,
viruses are smaller than bacteria, and they can enter a host and take over cells. However,
bacteria can survive without a host.

The common pathogens known as causative agents for different types of infectious diseases
are: -

6.2.1 Bacteria

Self-test
List at least five infectious diseases caused by bacteria

Bacteria are unicellular prokaryotic organisms; they have circular genomes, double-stranded
DNA that is associated with much less protein than eukaryotic genomes. Most bacteria
reproduce by growing and dividing into two cells in a process known as binary fission.
Despite these commonalities that group them together in the Kingdom Monera, there are a
variety of morphologies among them, but three of the most common are bacillus (rod-shaped),
coccus (spherical), or spirillum (helical rods). The energy sources for bacteria also vary. Some
bacteria are photosynthetic and obtain their energy directly from the sun. Others oxidize
inorganic compounds to supply their energy needs. Still other bacteria generate energy by
breaking down organic compounds such as amino acids and sugars in a respiratory process.
Some bacteria require oxygen (aerobes), while others are unable to tolerate it (anaerobes).
Some bacteria can grow either with or without oxygen (facultative anaerobes).

Bacteria are frequently divided into two broad classes based on their cell wall structures,
which influences their Gram stain reaction. Gram-negative bacteria appear pink after the
staining procedure. Familiar pathogenic gram-negative organisms are Salmonella typhi, which
causes typhoid fever, and Yersinia pestis, which causes plague. Gram-positive bacteria appear
purple after the Gram staining procedure. Examples of pathogenic gram-positive bacteria are
Staphylococcus aureus, which causes skin, respiratory, and wound infections, and Clostridium
tetani, which produces a toxin that can be lethal for humans.
There are trillions of strains of bacteria, and few of these cause diseases in humans. Some of
them live inside the human body without causing harm, for example in the gut or airways.
Some bacteria attack other bacteria and prevent them from causing sickness.

However, some bacterial diseases are deadly which include: cholera, diphtheria, dysentery,
bubonic plague, pneumonia, tuberculosis, typhoid, typhus and etc.

Some examples of bacterial infections are: bacterial meningitis, otitis media, pneumonia,
tuberculosis, upper respiratory tract infection, gastritis, food poisoning, eye infections,

85
sinusitis, urinary tract infections, skin infections and sexually transmitted diseases. Bacterial
infections can be treated with antibiotics, but some strains become resistant and can survive
the treatment.

6.2.2 Viruses

Viruses can infect all organisms, from plants and animals to fungi and bacteria. Viruses,
however, are not organisms themselves because, apart from a host cell, they have no
metabolism and cannot reproduce. A virus particle is composed of a viral genome of nucleic
acid that is surrounded by a protein coat called a capsid. In addition, many viruses that infect
animals are surrounded by an outer lipid envelope, which they acquire from the host cell
membrane as they leave the cell. Unlike organisms, in which the genetic material is always
double-stranded DNA, viral genomes may be double- or single-stranded DNA (a DNA virus),
or double- or single-stranded RNA (an RNA virus).

In the general process of infection and replication by a DNA virus, a viral particle first
attaches to a specific host cell via protein receptors on its outer envelope, or capsid. The viral
genome is then inserted into the host cell, where it uses host cell enzymes to replicate its
DNA, transcribe the DNA to make messenger RNA, and translate the messenger RNA into
viral proteins. The replicated DNA and viral proteins are then assembled into complete viral
particles, and the new viruses are released from the host cell. In some cases, virus-derived
enzymes destroy the host cell membranes, killing the cell and releasing the new virus
particles. In other cases, new virus particles exit the cell by a budding process, weakening but
not destroying the cell.
In the case of some RNA viruses, the genetic material can be used directly as messenger RNA
to produce viral proteins, including a special viral RNA polymerase that copies the RNA
template to produce the genetic material for new viral particles. Other RNA viruses, called
retroviruses, use a unique enzyme called reverse transcriptase to copy the RNA genome into
DNA. This DNA then integrates itself into the host cell genome. These viruses frequently
exhibit long latent periods in which their genomes are faithfully copied and distributed to
progeny cells each time the cell divides. The human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), which
causes AIDS, is a familiar example of a retrovirus.

Viruses cause disease by disrupting normal cell function. They do this in a variety of ways.
Some viruses make repressor proteins that stop the synthesis of the host cell's proteins, RNA,
and DNA. Viral activity may weaken cell membranes and lysosomal membranes, leading to
cell autolysis. Some viral proteins are toxic to cells, and the body's immune defenses also may
kill virus-infected cells.

Viruses are classified using a variety of criteria, including shape, size, and type of genome.
Among the DNA viruses are the herpes viruses that cause chicken pox, cold sores, and painful
genital lesions, and the poxvirus that causes smallpox. Significant RNA viruses that cause
human disease include rhinoviruses that cause most common colds; myxoviruses and

86
paramyxoviruses that cause influenza, measles, and mumps; rotaviruses that cause
gastroenteritis; and the retroviruses that cause AIDS and several types of cancer.

Viruses invade a host and attach themselves to a cell. As they enter the cell, they release
genetic material. The genetic material forces the cell to replicate, and the virus multiplies.
When the cell dies, it releases new viruses, and these go on to infect new cells. Not all viruses
destroy their host cell. Some of them change the function of the cell. In this way, viruses such
as human papillomavirus (HPV) or Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) can lead to cancer by forcing
cells to replicate in an uncontrolled way.

. A virus may remain dormant for a period before multiplying again. The person with the virus
can appear to have recovered but may get sick again when the virus reactivates. Antiviral
medications help in some cases. They can either prevent the virus from reproducing or boost
the host's immune system.
Antibiotics are not effective against viruses. Using antibiotics against a virus will not stop the
virus, and it increases the risk of antibiotic resistance. Most treatment aims to relieve
symptoms while the immune system combats the virus without assistance from medicine.

6.2.3 Fungi
Fungi are eukaryotic, heterotrophic organisms that have rigid cellulose- or chitin-based cell
walls and reproduce primarily by forming spores. Most fungi are multicellular, although some,
such as yeasts, are unicellular. Together with bacteria, fungi fulfill the indispensable role of
decomposers in the environment. Many fungal infections will appear in the upper layers of the
skin, and some progress to the deeper layers. Inhaled fungal spores can lead to systemic fungal
infections, such as thrush, or candidiasis. Systemic diseases affect the whole body.
Those with a higher risk of developing a fungal infection include people who:
• use strong antibiotics for a long time
• have a weakened immune system, due, for example, to HIV or AIDS, diabetes,
chemotherapy treatment, and those who have undergone a transplant, as they take
medications to prevent their body from rejecting the new organ

Many fungi infect plants and animals. Examples of diseases caused by fungi are ringworm and
histoplasmosis (a mild to severe lung infection transmitted by bat or bird droppings). Yeasts of
the Candida genus are opportunistic pathogens that may cause diseases such as thrush (a
throat infection) among people who are immunocompromised or undergoing antibiotic
therapy.

6.2.3 Protozoa

Protozoa are unicellular, heterotrophic eukaryotes that include the familiar amoeba and
paramecium. Because protozoa do not have cell walls, they are capable of a variety of rapid
and flexible movements. Protozoa can be acquired through contaminated food or water or by
the bite of an infected arthropod such as a mosquito. Diarrheal disease can be caused by two
common protozoan parasites, Giardia labia and Cryptosporidium partum. Malaria, a tropical
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illness that causes 300 million to 500 million cases of disease annually, is caused by different
species of the protozoan Plasmodium.

6.2.4 Helminths

Helminths are simple, invertebrate animals, some of which are infectious parasites. They are
multicellular and have differentiated tissues. Because they are animals, their physiology is
similar in some ways to ours. This makes parasitic helminth infections difficult to treat
because drugs that kill helminths are frequently very toxic to human cells.

Many helminths have complex reproductive cycles that include multiple stages, many or all of
which require a host. The common helminthes are Ascaries, tape worm, hook worm
Schistosoma etc.

6.2.6. Prions
A prion is a protein that contains no genetic material. It is normally harmless, but if it
folds into an abnormal shape, it can become a rogue agent and affect the structure of the
brain or other parts of the nervous system. Prions do not replicate or feed on the host but
trigger abnormal behavior in the body's cells and proteins.

The known prion diseases include Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (in humans), scrapie (in sheep),
and bovine spongiform encephalopathy ("mad cow disease" in cattle); all known prion
diseases frequently result in brain tissue that is riddled with holes. While some prion diseases
are inherited, others are apparently due to infection by eating infected tissue or inadvertently
through medical procedures such as tissue transplants.

Activities

1. What is the main difference between bacteria and virus?

2. Why antibiotics is not effective to cure virus infections?

3. Why viral drug discovery remains difficult?

4. List two examples of aerobic and anaerobic bacteria.

5. What makes gram positive bacteria different from gram negative bacteria?

6. Explain abut replication of DNA virus.

7. Discuss on the life cycle of plasmodium in human host and vector.

8. Which helminthes needs vector animal in its transmission route?

6.3 Modes of transmission

Self-test
1. Why do infectious agents transmit from infected host to healthy host?
2. What is the difference between horizontal and vertical mode of transmission?
Infectious agents may be transmitted through either direct or indirect contact. Direct contact
occurs when an individual is infected by contact with the reservoir, for example, by touching
an infected person, ingesting infected meat, or being bitten by an infected animal or insect.
Transmission by direct contact also includes inhaling the infectious agent in droplets emitted
88
by sneezing or coughing and contracting the infectious agent through intimate sexual contact.
Some diseases that are transmitted primarily by direct contact with the reservoir include
ringworm, AIDS, trichinosis, influenza, rabies, and malaria.

Indirect contact occurs when a pathogen can withstand the environment outside its host for a
long period of time before infecting another individual. Inanimate objects that are
contaminated by direct contact with the reservoir (for example, a tissue used to wipe the nose
of an individual who has a cold or a toy that has been handled by a sick child) may be the
indirect contact for a susceptible individual. Ingesting food and beverages contaminated by
contact with a disease reservoir is another example of disease transmission by indirect contact.
The fecal-oral route of transmission, in which sewage-contaminated water is used for
drinking, washing, or preparing foods, is a significant form of indirect transmission, especially
for gastrointestinal diseases such as cholera, rotavirus infection, cryptosporidiosis, and
giardiasis.

These modes of transmission are all examples of horizontal transmission because the
infectious agent is passed from person to person in a group. Some diseases also are
transmitted vertically; that is, they are transmitted from parent to child during the processes of
reproduction (through sperm or egg cells), fetal development, or birth. Diseases in which
vertical transmission occurs include AIDS and herpes encephalitis (which occurs when an
infant contracts the herpes simplex type II virus during birth).

6.4. Host defenses against infectious diseases

6.4.1. Overview of the immune system

The immune system is the body’s biological defense mechanism that protects against foreign
invaders. The true roots of the study of the immune system date from 1796 when an English
physician, Edward Jenner, discovered a method of smallpox vaccination. He noted that dairy
workers who contracted cowpox from milking infected cows were thereafter resistant to
smallpox. In 1796, Jenner injected a young boy with material from a milkmaid who had an
active case of cowpox. After the boy recovered from his own resulting cowpox, Jenner
inoculated him with smallpox; the boy was immune. After Jenner published the results of this
and other cases in 1798, the practice of Jennerian vaccination spread rapidly.

In addition, Louis Pasteur who established the cause of infectious diseases and the medical
basis for immunization. Pasteur formulated his germ theory of disease, the concept that
disease is caused by communicable microorganisms. In 1880, Pasteur discovered that aged
cultures of fowl cholera bacteria lost their power to induce disease in chickens but still
conferred immunity to the disease when injected. He went on to use attenuated (weakened)
cultures of anthrax and rabies to vaccinate against those diseases.

The immune system is composed of a number of different cell types, tissues and organs. Many
of these cells are organized into separate lymphoid organs or glands. Since attack from
microbes can come at many different sites of the body, the immune system has a mobile force

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of cells in the bloodstream that are ready to attack the invading microbe wherever it enters the
body.

Although many of the cells of the immune system are separate from each other, they maintain
communication through cell contact and molecules secreted by them. For this reason, the
immune system has been likened to the nervous system.

The human body has several general mechanisms for preventing infectious diseases. Some of
these mechanisms are referred to as nonspecific or innate defenses because they operate
against a wide range of pathogens. Other mechanisms are referred to as specific or adaptive
defenses because they target particular pathogens and pathogen-infected cells.

6.4.2. Nonspecific mechanisms (Innate Immune system)

Self-test
1. Explain about anatomical and physiological barriers of human body
2. What is inflammation?
Nonspecific mechanisms are the body's primary defense against disease. The Innate immune
system is the first line of defense which is present at birth and changes little throughout the
life of an individual. The cells and molecules of this innate system are mainly responsible for
the first stages of expulsion of the microbe. These mechanisms include anatomical barriers to
invading pathogens, physiological deterrents to pathogens, phagocytosis, inflammation and
the presence of normal flora. An example of an anatomical barrier is the nasal opening to the
respiratory system. This natural opening is a long, convoluted passage covered by mucous
membranes that trap airborne particles and prevent most of them from reaching the lungs.
Other anatomical barriers are the skull and vertebral column, which protect the central
nervous system few pathogens are able to penetrate bone. The skin also is a major anatomical
barrier to microorganisms. The surface layer of dead, hardened cells is relatively dry, and skin
secretions make the surface somewhat acidic. When sweat evaporates, salt is left behind on
the skin. All of these conditions (low moisture, low pH, and high salinity) prevent most
microorganisms from growing and multiplying on the skin. The major medical challenge in
treating burn patients is preventing and treating infections that result because of the absence of
skin that ordinarily would prevent invasion of microorganisms.

Natural openings also are protected by a variety of physiological deterrents. For example, tears
continually flush debris from the eyes. Vaginal secretions are acidic, a hostile environment
that discourages the growth of many pathogens. The eye, mouth, and nasal openings are
protected by tears, saliva, or nasal secretions that contain lysozyme, an enzyme that breaks
down bacterial cell walls. Blood, sweat, and some tissue fluids contain lysozyme as well. In
addition to lysozyme, the blood has many elements that defend the body from disease-causing
organisms. The white blood cells include several types of phagocytic cells that detect, track,
engulf, and kill invading bacteria and viruses, as well as infected host cells and other debris.
These phagocytic cells are part of the nonspecific immune system. Blood plasma also includes
clotting factors that initiate a clot at the injury site, preventing pathogens from invading the
body further. Finally, the complement proteins in the blood participate in a cascade of
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 molecular events that result in inflammation, the release of molecules that stimulate
phagocytic cells, and the formation of a complex of proteins that binds to the surface of
bacterial or infected host cells and lyses those cells.

The inflammatory response is another nonspecific defense mechanism that helps to prevent
infectious agents from spreading in the body. Inflammation involves swelling, reddening,
elevated temperature, and pain. Unfortunately, inflammation itself frequently causes tissue
damage and, in severe cases, even death.

Finally, the protective role of the "normal flora" of microorganisms present on and in the body
should not be overlooked. These organisms survive and grow on the skin and in the mouth,
gastrointestinal tract, and other areas of the body, but do not cause disease because their
growth is kept under control by the host's defense mechanisms and by the presence of other
microorganisms. These organisms protect the host by successfully competing with disease-
causing organisms, preventing the latter from invading host tissues. When the growth of the
normal flora is suppressed (for example, due to antibiotic treatment), other "opportunistic"
agents that normally do not grow in or on the body may be able to infect and cause disease.

Summary

The Innate immune system is the first line of defense’ which is present at birth and changes
little throughout the life of the individual. The cells and molecules of this innate system are
mainly responsible for the first stages of expulsion of the microbe.
Some of the most important cells in the innate immune system are phagocytes, since they are
able to ingest and kill microbes. In general, the innate immunity includes: -
•
Anatomical and physiological barriers
•
Cellular defense (phagocytosis and extracellular killing)
•
Inflammation
•
• The complement system
Normal flora

6.4.3. Specific mechanisms of host resistance (Adaptive defense)

Self-test
1. What is the main difference between T and B lymphocytes?
2. Explain about helper and killer T cells
3. What are antibodies?
When these nonspecific mechanisms fail, the body initiates a second, specific line of defense.
Adaptive immune system is brought into action even as the innate immune system is dealing
with the microbe, and especially if it is unable to remove the invading microbe. The key
difference between the two systems is that the adaptive system shows far more specificity and
remembers that a particular microbe has previously invaded the body. This leads to a more
rapid expulsion of the microbe on its second and third time of entry.

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This specific immune response enables the body to target particular pathogens and pathogen
infected cells for destruction. It depends on specialized white blood cells called lymphocytes
and includes T-cells (produced from lymphocytes that matured in the thymus gland) and Bells
(produced from lymphocytes that matured in the bone marrow).
The two complementary components of the specific immune response are the cell-mediated
response and the antibody-mediated response. The cell-mediated response involves T-cells
and is responsible for directly destroying body cells that are infected with a virus or have
become cancerous, or for activating other immune cells to be more efficient microbe killers.
The antibody-mediated response involves both T-cells and B-cells and is critical for the
destruction of invading pathogens as well as the elimination of toxins.

Both the cell-mediated and antibody-mediated responses are initiated after a particular type of
phagocytic cell, a macrophage, engulfs a pathogen. Macrophages digest the pathogen and then
display antigens from the pathogen on their surface. Antigens are specific molecules, such as
the proteins on the surface of pathogens, that elicit an immune response. This display helps the
macrophages stimulate specific helper T-cells to release signal molecules called lymphokines.
The lymphokines, in turn, stimulate the cell-mediated and antibody-mediated responses.

The cell-mediated response occurs when the lymphokines released from the helper T-cells
stimulate other cell types to participate in the immune response. Lymphokine-stimulated killer
T-cells attach to the pathogen-infected cells and destroy them, whereas lymphokine-activated
phagocytic cells produce more toxic molecules that can kill the pathogen directly.

The antibody-mediated response occurs when the lymphokines activate specific B-cells to
produce antibodies (proteins that specifically recognize and bind to antigens). These
antibodies attach to antigens on the surface of the pathogens and signal attack by phagocytic
cells and complement system. Other B-cells go on to become memory B-cells, which respond
quickly by producing more antibodies upon subsequent infection.

The branches of acquired immunity: -

I. Humoral or Antibody-mediated immunity
• Consists of antibodies circulating in the fluids of the body
• Targets are mainly extracellular microbes and parasites
• Produced by B-lymphocytes

II. Cellular or Cell-mediated immunity

• Mediated by lymphocytes (T-cells) themselves
• Targets – virus or parasite-infected cells, cancer cells, foreign graft cells
• Can act directly by lysing foreign cells or indirectly by releasing chemicals that
enhance the inflammatory response or activate other lymphocytes or macrophages.

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 Fig: 6.2 overview of cell-mediated and antibody-mediated immune responses

6.4.4. Interaction between innate and adaptive immunity

The innate and adaptive immune system have different types of cells and molecules, which are
responsible for the two different types of immune systems. In addition, they have different
characteristics as it is explained above: -
The cells, molecules and characteristics of innate and adaptive immune systems are
summarized in the table below.

Table 6.1. The innate and adaptive immunity

Characteristics Cells Molecules
Innate immunity
Responds rapidly Phagocytes (PMNs and macrophages) Cytokines
Present at birth Dendritic cells Complement
Has no specificity Natural killer cells Acute phase
No memory Mast cells proteins
Adaptive immunity
Highly specific T and B cells Antibodies
Slow to start Cytokines
Has Memory
Adaptiveness

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Although innate and adaptive immunity are often considered separately for convenience and
to facilitate their understanding, it is important to recognize that they frequently work
together. The various cells of both systems work together through direct contact with each
other, and through interactions with chemical mediators, the cytokines and chemokines. Here
are some examples: -
1. Macrophages are responsible to phagocytosis the infectious microbes and at the same
time produce important cytokines that help to induce the adaptive immune response.
2. Complement components of the innate immune system can be activated directly by
microbes, but can also be activated by antibodies, molecules of the adaptive system.

Fig. 6.3 Patterns and layers of responses against pathogens

Activity
1. What is the main difference between innate and adaptive immune response?
2. Explain the process of Phagocytosis?
3. What makes normal flora to become opportunistic pathogen?
4. What is the difference between cellular and hum moral arm of immunity?
6.5. Adverse immune reactions (responses)
The aim of the immune responses is to protect the body from damage from any environmental
agents including pathogens and also from cancer, but adverse immunological reactions can
occur and cause adverse effects. In the other way adverse immunological reactions can occur
and cause adverse effects to the host due to: Exaggerated immune response and/or producing
inappropriate immune response against self components. Due to failure of appropriate
recognition mechanism. It May lead to different forms of tissue damage. In this there is a
Production of more damage than it prevents, immune responses (especially to some antigens)
can lead to more severe tissue damaging reactions (immunopathology). This kind of immune
disorder can be divided as hypersensitivity and autoimmunity.

In general, there are three types of immunological disorders.

• Hypersensitivity
• Autoimmune diseases
• Immunodeficiency

6.5.1. Hypersensitivity reactions

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An immune response to antigen causes inappropriate and/or excessive tissue damage (harmful
to the host). Hypersensitivity is the over reactivity by the immune system to antigens.
Hypersensitivity reactions are antigen specific and occur after the immune system has already
responded to an antigen.

There are four types of hypersensitivity reactions: Type I, Type II, Type III and Type IV. The
Types I, II and III are antibody or immune complex mediated occurring within minutes or
hours after a sensitized individual re-encounters the same antigen. Type IV is cell mediated
(Delayed type hypersensitivity (DTH)). Occurs days after re-encountering the antigen.

Type I Hypersensitivity
Type I reactions (immediate hypersensitivity) are IgE-mediated. Antigen binds to IgE that is
bound to tissue mast cells and blood basophils, triggering release of preformed mediators
(e.g., histamine, proteases, chemotactic factors) and synthesis of other mediators (e.g.,
prostaglandins, leukotrienes, platelet-activating factor, cytokines). These mediators cause
vasodilation, increased capillary permeability, mucus hypersecretion, smooth muscle spasm,
and tissue infiltration with eosinophils, type 2 helper T (TH2) cells, and other inflammatory
cells. Type I reactions develop 1 hour after exposure to antigen.

Type I hypersensitivity reactions underlie all atopic disorders (e.g., atopic dermatitis, allergic
asthma, rhinitis, conjunctivitis) and many allergic disorders (e.g., anaphylaxis, some cases of
angioedema, urticaria, latex and some food allergies). The terms atopy and allergy are often
used interchangeably but are different:
• Atopy is an exaggerated IgE-mediated immune response; all atopic disorders are type I
hypersensitivity disorders.
• Allergy is any exaggerated immune response to a foreign antigen regardless of
mechanism.
Thus, all atopic disorders are considered allergic, but many allergic disorders (e.g.,
hypersensitivity pneumonitis) are not a topic. Allergic disorders are the most common
disorders among people.
Type II Hypersensitivity
Type II reactions (antibody-dependent cytotoxic hypersensitivity) result when antibody binds
to cell surface antigens or to a molecule coupled to a cell surface. The antigen antibody
complex activates cells that participate in antibody-dependent cell-mediated cytotoxicity (e.g.,
natural killer cells, eosinophils, macrophages), complement, or both. The result is cell and
tissue damage. The disorders involving type II reactions include hyper acute graft rejection of
an organ transplant, Coombs-positive hemolytic anemias, Hashimoto thyroiditis, and
anti–glomerular basement membrane disease (e.g., Good pasture syndrome).

• Example for type II hypersensitivity

Rhesus Incompatibility
Rhesus D (RhD) antigen is carried by erythrocytes. Children born to RhD− mothers and RhD+
fathers may express RhD on their erythrocytes. Prior to pregnancy, the mother can become
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sensitized to RhD antigen through blood transfusion and during pregnancy and especially at
birth by the baby’s RhD+ erythrocytes coming into contact with the mother’s immune system.
Some pass across the placenta but most are released into the maternal circulation during
placental shedding. Since RhD is not present in the mother, her immune system responds to it
as a foreign antigen and makes antibodies (Fig.6.3). This is usually not a problem during the
first pregnancy but in subsequent pregnancies small amounts of erythrocytes passing across
the placenta stimulate a memory response leading to specific anti-RhD antibody production.
IgG antibodies pass across the placenta and bind to the fetal erythrocytes leading to their
opsonization and lysis. This results in hemolytic anemia of the newborn if not prevented. This
is often call hemolytic disease of the newborn.

Generally, mothers at risk are detected during early stages of pregnancy and monitored
thereafter. At termination of each pregnancy with an RhD+ fetus, RhD (−) mothers are given
antibodies to RhD which is thought to remove the fetal erythrocytes from the blood stream
and suppress the development of a subsequent immune response.

Blood transfusion
It is common practice to give blood transfusions in cases of severe blood loss. The major
blood group antigens A and B are expressed at the surface of erythrocytes and we have natural
antibodies (mostly IgM) to these antigens. Individuals who are blood group A have antibody
to B antigens, those who are blood group B will have anti-A antibodies and those who are AB
will have neither. Those who are blood group O will have both antibodies. It is therefore
important to do blood group typing on transfusion donors and recipients. In most cases, this is
done accurately but occasionally accidents occur whereby blood is given to a recipient who
has the reactive isohemagglutinins. This can result in a transfusion reaction which manifests
itself as (a complement mediated) massive intravascular life-threatening hemolysis.

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Fig. 6.4. Rh factor and pregnancy

Type III Hypersensitivity

Type III reactions (immune complex disease) cause inflammation in response to circulating
antigen-antibody immune complexes deposited in vessels or tissue. These complexes can
activate the complement system or bind to and activate certain immune cells, resulting in
release of inflammatory mediators.
Consequences of immune complex formation depend in part on the relative proportions of
antigen and antibody in the immune complex. Early, there is excess antigen with small
antigen-antibody complexes, which do not activate complement. Later, when antigen and
antibody are more balanced, immune complexes are larger and tend to be deposited in various
tissues (e.g., glomeruli, blood vessels), causing systemic reactions. Type III reactions develop
4 to 10 days after exposure to antigen and, if exposure to the antigen continues, can become
chronic. Type III disorders include serum sickness, systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE),
rheumatoid arthritis(RA), leukocytoclastic vasculitis, cryoglobulinemia, acute hypersensitivity
pneumonitis, and several types of glomerulonephritis.

Type IV Hypersensitivity
T cells, sensitized after contact with a specific antigen, are activated by continued exposure or
re exposure to the antigen; they damage tissue by direct toxic effects or through release of
cytokines, which activate T cells, together with dendritic cells eosinophils, monocytes and
macrophages, neutrophils, or natural killer cells. This hypersensitivity starts from 24 h after
contact with an antigen. Disorders involving type IV reactions include contact dermatitis (e.g.,
poison ivy), subacute and chronic hypersensitivity pneumonitis, allograft rejection, the
immune response to tuberculosis, and many forms of drug hypersensitivity.
Examples: -Mycobacterium tuberculosis – the bacteria survive within macrophages, which is
the tuberculin reaction
• This is a „recall‟ response to purified mycobacterial antigens and is used as the basis
of a skin test for an immune response (not necessarily curative) to TB.

• The inability to kill all mycobacteria in macrophages by T cells often results in a

chronic stimulation of the mycobacterial specific T cells.
• The cytokines produced are responsible for „walling off‟ the macrophages containing
the persistent antigens and thus the production of granulomas.

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 Fig. 6.5. Types of hypersensitivity reactions (source, Kubit immunology)

6.5.2. Autoimmunity and autoimmune disease

Self-test

1. What are the factors responsible for autoimmune diseases?

2. What do we mean by self tolerance?

Autoimmunity is an acquired immune reactivity to self antigens which lead to tissue damage.
Normally, the immune system can tell the difference between foreign cells and your own
cells. In the case of an autoimmune disease, the immune system mistakes part of your body,
like joints or skin, as foreign. It releases proteins called auto-antibodies that attack healthy
cells. In short autoimmune diseases arise as the result of a breakdown in self-tolerance. Some
autoimmune diseases target only one organ. Type 1 diabetes damages the pancreas. Other
diseases, like systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE), affect the whole body. There are more
than 80 different autoimmune diseases but here are 14 of the most common ones.

Type 1 diabetes: -The pancreas produces the hormone insulin, which helps regulate blood
sugar levels. In type 1 diabetes mellitus, the immune system attacks and destroys insulin
producing cells in the pancreas. High blood sugar results can lead to damage in the blood
vessels, as well as organs like the heart, kidneys, eyes, and nerves.

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Rheumatoid arthritis (RA):-In rheumatoid arthritis (RA), the immune system attacks the
joints. This attack causes redness, warmth, soreness, and stiffness in the joints. Unlike
osteoarthritis, which commonly affects people as they get older, RA can start as early as your
30s or sooner.

Psoriasis/psoriatic arthritis:- Skin cells normally grow and then shed when they’re no longer
needed. Psoriasis causes skin cells to multiply too quickly. The extra cells build up and form
inflamed red patches, commonly with silver-white scales of plaque on the skin. Some people
with psoriasis also develop swelling, stiffness, and pain in their joints. This form of the
disease is called psoriatic arthritis.

Multiple sclerosis:-Multiple sclerosis (MS) damages the myelin sheath, the protective coating
that surrounds nerve cells, in your central nervous system. Damage to the myelin sheath slows
the transmission speed of messages between your brain and spinal cord to and from the rest of
your body.

This damage can lead to symptoms like numbness, weakness, balance issues, and trouble
walking. The disease comes in several forms that progress at different rates. According to a
2012 study Trusted Source, about 50 percent of people with MS need help for walking within
15 years after the disease starts.
Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE):-Although doctors in the 1800s first described lupus as
a skin disease because of the rash it commonly produces, the systemic form, which is most the
common, actually affects many organs, including the joints, kidneys, brain, and heart. Joint
pain, fatigue, and rashes are among the most common symptoms.

Inflammatory bowel disease:-Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) is a term used to describe

conditions that cause inflammation in the lining of the intestinal wall. Each type of IBD
affects a different part of the GI tract.

• Cohn’s disease can inflame any part of the GI tract, from the mouth to the anus.

• Ulcerative colitis affects only the lining of the large intestine (colon) and rectum.

Addison’s disease: -Addison’s disease affects the adrenal glands, which produce the
hormones cortisol and aldosterone as well as androgen hormones. Having too little of cortisol
can affect the way the body uses and stores carbohydrates and sugar (glucose). Deficiency of
aldosterone will lead to sodium loss and excess potassium in the bloodstream. Symptoms
include weakness, fatigue, weight loss, and low blood sugar.

Graves’ disease:-Graves‟ disease attacks the thyroid gland in the neck, causing it to produce
too much of its hormones. Thyroid hormones control the body’s energy usage, known as
metabolism. Having too much of these hormones revs up your body’s activities, causing
symptoms like nervousness, a fast heartbeat, heat intolerance, and weight loss.

One potential symptom of this disease is bulging eyes, called exophthalmos. It can occur as a
part of what is called Graves‟ ophthalmopathy, which occurs in around 30 percent of those
who have Graves‟ disease, according to a 1993 study Trusted Source.

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Sjogren’s syndrome: -This condition attacks the glands that provide lubrication to the eyes
and mouth. The hallmark symptoms of Sjogren`s syndrome are dry eyes and dry mouth, but it
may also affect the joints or skin.

Hashimoto’s thyroiditis:-In Hashimoto`s thyroiditis, thyroid hormone production slows to a

deficiency. Symptoms include weight gain, sensitivity to cold, fatigue, hair loss, and swelling
of the thyroid (goiter).

Myasthenia gravis:-Myasthenia gravis affects nerve impulses that help the brain control the
muscles. When the communication from nerves to muscles is impaired, signals can’t direct the
muscles to contract. The most common symptom is muscle weakness that gets worse with
activity and improves with rest. Often muscles that control eye movements, eyelid opening,
swallowing, and facial movements are involved.

Autoimmune vasculitis: -Autoimmune vasculitis happens when the immune system attacks
blood vessels. The inflammation that results narrows the arteries and veins, allowing less
blood to flow through them.

Pernicious anemia:- This condition causes deficiency of a protein, made by stomach lining
cells, known as intrinsic factor that is needed in order for the small intestine to absorb vitamin
B-12 from food. Without enough of this vitamin, one will develop an anemia, and the body’s
ability for proper DNA synthesis will be altered.

Pernicious anemia is more common in older adults. According to a 2012 study, it affects 0.1
percent of people in general, but nearly 2 percent of people over age 60.

Celiac disease People with celiac disease can’t eat foods containing gluten, a protein found in
wheat, rye, and other grain products. When gluten is in the small intestine, the immune system
attacks this part of the gastrointestinal tract and causes inflammation.

Factors contributing for autoimmune diseases:

• Age, Auto-antibodies are more prevalent in older people and

• Gender women have a greater risk than men for developing an autoimmune disease.
• Genetic factor Antigen-specific autoimmune phenomena cluster in certain families.

– Particular HLA genes are associated with certain autoimmune diseases

• Infections
– Many infectious agents (EBV, mycoplasma, streptococci, klebsiella, malaria,
etc.)
– have been linked to particular autoimmune diseases and may be important in
their etiology.
• Nature of the auto antigen.
– Target antigens are often highly conserved proteins such as heat shock proteins
(HSPs), stress proteins, enzymes, or their substrates.

6.5.3. Immune Deficiencies

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The immunological disorders can be caused by the deficiency of immune response of the host
body or the excessive production of the host immune system. Immune deficiencies occur
when one or more components of the immune system is defective. It is classified as primary
or secondary.

6.5.3.1 Primary immunodeficiency

It is congenital because of genetic disorder, which caused by mutations affecting any of a

large number of genes that control the expression and activities of immune responses. Most
present in clinic as a recurrent or overwhelming infections in very young children. May affect
either the acquired or innate immune system. In other way this defect can affect in either the
lymphoid or the myeloid lineages.

Defects in lymphoid lineage: - May involve B-cell, T-cell or both. The severity depends on
the number and type of immune components involved.

• B- cell immunodeficiency: associated with recurrent bacterial infections but may be

normal immunity to viruses and fungi.

• T-cell deficiencies: can affect both cell and humoral immunity. Do not response to
various types of pathogens.

Defects in myeloid linage: Affect innate immunity, especially phagocytic activity.

• Chronic granulomatous disease (CGD). It Leads to recurrent or persistent intracellular
infections and granuloma formation. Genetically heterogeneous deficiency disorder
resulting from the inability of phagocytes to kill microbes they have ingested. Have a
higher prevalence of mucosal inflammatory disorders such as colitis, enteritis, etc.
• Complement deficiencies, this one associated with increased susceptibility to bacterial
or fungal infection and/or immune complex disease.
6.5.3.2. Secondary immunodeficiency
This type is acquired secondary to some agents after birth, more common in malnutrition,
infection, cancer, etc. Patients treated by immunosuppressive drugs. The good example is HIV
that cause AIDS.
Activity

1. What is the main difference between hypersensitivity and autoimmunity?

2. Give example for each of the four types of hypersensitivity

3. Give at least four examples of common systemic autoimmune diseases

4. Explain about how HIV/AIDs results in immune-deficiency

6.6. Tumor Immunology

Self-test

1. What is the different between cancer and tumor cells?

2. What are the important antigens to produce tumor immunity?

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A tumor is a mass of tissue that's formed by an accumulation of abnormal cells. Tumor cells
grow, even though the body does not need them, and unlike normal old cells, they don't die.

Cancer is a disease in which cells, almost anywhere in the body, begin to divide
uncontrollably. A tumor is when this uncontrolled growth occurs in solid tissue such as an
organ, muscle, or bone. Tumors may spread to surrounding tissues through the blood and
lymph systems.

Most cancers form a lump called a tumor or a growth. Lumps that are not cancer are called
benign. Lumps that are cancer are called malignant. There are some cancers, like leukemia
(cancer of the blood), that don't form tumors.

Tumor immunology immune surveillance is a concept that envisages prevention of the

development of the most tumors through early destruction of abnormal cells by the host's
immune system. Surveillance probably acts against viruses not tumors. The evidence for this
is that although there is an increased incidence of tumors in immuno-suppressed individuals,
the most dramatic increase is in tumors associated with oncogenic viruses. Cellular responses
to tumor-associated antigens occur; the antigens may be virus coded, or they may be altered or
over-expressed host gene are produced. Differentiated antigens expressed on tumor can be
detected by monoclonal antibodies or patients' sera. Although the antigens are no restricted to
tumor cells, they are useful for diagnosis and may be targets for antibody-mediated therapy.
Passive immunotherapy with monoclonal antibodies is promising when single cells are
targeted or the problem of poor penetration into tumor masses can be circumvented.
Immunotherapy by active immunization or by passive transfer of cells is still largely
experimental, because of tumor escape mechanisms. Cytokines are active against a few tumor
types.

6.6.1. Evidence for immune reactivity to tumor

There is a lot of evidence that tumors can elicit an immune response. Such evidence includes:

• Tumors that have severe mononuclear cell infiltration have a better prognosis than
those that lack it.
• Certain tumors regress spontaneously (e.g., melanomas, neuroblastomas), suggesting
an immunological response.
• Some tumor metastases regress after removal of primary tumor which reduces the
tumor load, thereby inducing the immune system to kill the residual tumor.
• Although chemotherapy leads to rejection of a large number of tumor cells, the few
tumor cells that evade the action of the drugs can outgrow and kill the host. However,
the immune system may be able to mount an attack against the few tumor cells that are
spared by the chemotherapeutic agent.
• There is an increased incidence of malignancies in immuno-deficient patients such as
AIDS patients who are susceptible to Kaposis sarcoma and transplant patients who are
susceptible to Epstein Barr virus (EBV)-induced lymphoma.

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 • Tumor-specific antibodies and T lymphocytes (detected in cytotoxicity and
proliferative response assays) have been observed in patients with tumors.
• The young and the old population have an increased incidence of tumors. These
members of the population often have an immune system that is compromised.
• Hosts can be specifically immunized against various types of tumors demonstrating
tumor antigens can elicit an immune response.

6.6.2. Tumor associated antigens

In order for the immune system to react against a tumor, the latter must have antigens that are
recognized as a foreign. A number of alterations in gene expression occur in cells during
tumorigenesis. Tumorigenesis may lead to expression of new antigens (neoantigens) or
alteration in existing antigens that are found on normal cells. These antigens may include
membrane receptors, regulators of cell cycle and apoptosis, or molecules involved in signal
transduction pathways.

There are 2 main types of tumor antigens:

• Tumor-specific transplantation antigens (TSTA) which are unique to tumor cells and
not expressed on normal cells. They are responsible for rejection of the tumor.
• Tumor associated transplantation antigens (TATA) that are expressed by tumor cells
and normal cells.

Although chemical, UV- or virus-induced tumors express neo-antigens, the majority of these
tumors are often weakly immunogenic or non-immunogenic. In most cases, TSTAs cannot be
identified easily. Some of these antigens may be secreted while others may be membrane
associated molecules.

Chapter Seven

7. Taxonomy of organisms
Dear learners, this unit describes taxonomy and its etymology, an early and modern view of
classification of organisms. It also deals with the major schemes of classification, concepts of
kingdom and species, identification of organisms and nomenclature.

The major topics to be addressed in this unit include:

Early attempts to classify organisms

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 Modern views of classification or Schemes of classification

Schemes of classification (the five kingdom concepts)

Domains of life and the hierarchical system of classification

Binomial nomenclature

Brainstorming Questions:
 What is Taxonomy?
 How diversified organisms the world are managed to be studied?
 Explain the differences between classification, nomenclature and
identification.

Etymology of Taxonomy

The term taxonomy was coined by a Swiss naturalist, De Candolle, in the French form as
"taxonomies" in 1813. The word taxonomy was derived from two Greek words: "taxis and
nomos" which means arrangement and law respectively. Thus, taxonomy means the law
governing the classification or arrangement of organisms into taxa. Taxonomy is the basic
science since no start on understanding the wealth of variation can be made until some sort of
classification is adopted. It is also most all-embracing and ultimate of all biological sciences
because taxonomy is not complete until the data from other fields of investigation have been
incorporated.

Although some naturalists use the term taxonomy as synonymous with systematics, but many
naturalists consider taxonomy as one part of systematics, and it is mainly concerned with:
classification, nomenclature and identification of organisms.
Classification: Is ordering/assignment of organisms into hierarchy of ranks or categories
distinguished by certain characters; or based on similarities and/or differences.

Nomenclature: Is the naming of groups of organisms and the rules governing the application
of the names.

Identification: Is the naming of an organism or a specimen by reference to an already existent

classification. It involves referring an individual specimen to a previously classified and
named system.

7.1. Early Attempts to Classify Organisms

Brainstorming questions:

How taxonomy is growing as a science?

What are the specific contributions of early naturalists for the development of modern
taxonomy?

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The development of modern taxonomy has not a linear path. Taxonomy was started as old as
man himself. Several early Greek and Roman philosophers enumerated organisms. Some of
them are discussed below:
Aristotle (384–322 BC)
Aristotle was a Greek philosopher who contributed most extensively to the development of the
modern biology. Aristotle viewed life was hierarchical and he classified organisms, mainly
history of Animals and other works where he showed naturalist leanings, and later more
empirical works that focused on biological changes and the diversity of life. Later, Aristotle
was replaced by Theophrastus and other naturalists who wrote a series of botany books that
were used for many generations.

Theophrastus (370-285 BC)

He was a keen observer of mainly plants. He was the first taxonomist to write down a
classification in a permanent and logical form. For this reason, he was called the father of
Botany by Linnaeus. In his book "De Historian Plantarum", he classified 480 kinds of plants
based on their habit. However, his work reflects the philosophy, which incorporates the
principle of the rules of dichotomy or the “Excluded Middle”. Any given organisms are either
A or not A. According to Theophrastus classification system, there are no any intermediate
organisms. He was typologists, belief that every natural group of organisms has an invariant,
generalized or idealized pattern shared by all members of the group.

Pliny the Elder (23-79 A.D.)

He was a Roman scholar and naturalist who wrote encyclopedic books termed Historian
naturalist, in which he mentioned and categorized plants in terms horticultural practices,
medicinal uses, and timber use practices. In his classification, he used a similar classification
as his predecessors' errors.
Discords (1st Century AD)

He was a Greek physician who studied and described about 600 medicinal plants in his book
“De Matera Medica” with their useful applications.

A. Caesalpinus (1519-1603)

In his book "De Plantis" he illustrated about 1500 plant species. He classified plants based on
definite morphological criteria mainly on the basis of habit, fruits, seeds, and ovaries and their
position.
J. Bauhin (1554-1631) and G. Bauhin (1560-1624)

They were brothers of Swiss botanists who worked separately but along rather similar lines.
G. Bauhin produced to order the state of nomenclature which existed to some extent currently.
He was also notably remembered for his recognition of genera and species as major
taxonomic levels or used a binary nomenclature composed of the genus name followed by a
single specific. J. P. de Tournfort (1656-1708) also carried out further Bauhin's promotion of
the rank of genus with a clear explanation.
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Linnaeus and Post Linnaean Classifications

Carolus Linnaeus (1707-1778), a Swede Taxonomist and Physician, was the founder of
modern taxonomy both of plants and animals. The system of nomenclature that we employ
today is essentially Linnaeus‟. Linnaeus produced important books that he classified all
known animals, plants and minerals. The two most important works are: Genera Plantarum
(1737) and Species Plantarum (1753), which listed and briefly described the genera and the
species. Though Linnaeus was the father of modern taxonomy, and his classification system
was popular largely because its simplicity, his classification system was artificial-which
depends only on few characteristics like stamens and pistil number and position.

The foundation of modern classification comes mainly after the form the works of other
taxonomists M. Adanson (1727-1806), De Jussieu (1748-1836), and J. de Lamarck
(17441829), A.P. de Candolle and C. Darwin (1859), who never followed artificial system of
Linnaeus classification.
M. Adanson (1727-1806)

Adanson is most remembered for championing the idea that in classification one should use a
great range of characters covering all aspects of the organisms without placing greater
emphasis on some than on others. This is called an empirical approach. Adanson was a severe
critic of Linnaeus' works.

Lamarck is best known for his theory of evolution, Lamarckism, whereby characters acquired
during life become inherited. DeCandolle (1778-1841) wrote a 17 volume books, in which he
first introduced the word taxonomy in the French form Taxonomie. The evolutionary theory
of Darwin (The Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, 1859) had little immediate
impact on classifications of organisms. The previous classifications were based on
morphological similarities or dissimilarities. But after Darwin work, evolutionary thinking
was incorporated into classification system and population thinking came into picture.

However, the early classification systems were broad and vague as indicated by generic terms
like animals, worms, sedges, grasses and trees, etcetera. Thus, the modern classification
system was developed.

7.2. Modern Views of Classification (Schemes of Classification)

Brainstorming questions:
1.
What are the modern views of classification?
2.
How the modern views of classification are based up on?

Unlike the early classifications the modern classification system of diversified organisms is
depend up on the combined evidence of morphology, ultrastructure and molecular phylogeny.
In classification, though it is organisms that are being classified, their character’s /character
states are used to classify or categorize organisms. Different approaches have been developed

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to compare these characters. These differences in approach to comparison of character states
are lead to the development of five different classification systems.

7.2.1. Artificial classification system

In artificial classification system, only one or at most a few characters are selected for use in
making comparison among organisms. Because a few characters are involved, the difficulties
encountered in describing, measuring and comparing the character states usually are minimal.
Ranking is done subjectively. Artificial system is monothetic i.e. possession of unique set of
characters/features is both sufficient and necessary for membership in the group defined.
Artificial system was the first to be used in the classification of organisms, and Theophrastus
and Linnaeus are good example of artificial system of classification.

7.2.2. Natural classification system

This classification system is based up on several to many characters selected for their value in
positively correlating with character states of groups in ranks containing high information
content. This system is therefore polythetic i.e. it places together organisms that have the
greatest number of shared features, and no single feature is either essential to group
membership or is sufficient to make an organism a member of the group. Adanson and De
Jussieu are good examples of natural classification system.

7.2.3. Phyletic or Evolutionary classification system

It is a classification that aims at reconstructing a sequence starting with the most primitive
character and ending with the most advanced or derived character. It ensures that each taxon
recognized as a monophyletic i.e. has arisen by the diversification of a single ancestor.
According to phyletic classification system, d decision as to which list represents the primitive
and which the advanced state is made primarily by examining the fossil record to discover
which character states are nowadays more common and which are less common than earlier in
the fossil record.
7.2.4. Phenetics classification system

This is a classification system developed based up on numerous characters of equal weight

and their comparison is using computer program. According to Harrison (1960), the word
"Phenetic" is to mean a relationship by overall similarity of all available morphological
characters. Thus, Similarity/resemblance is determined based on a set of phenotypic
characteristics of organisms‟. The following methods/approaches are used for determining the
similarity of the studied organisms.
 Selection of taxa-called Operational Taxonomic Units(OTUs) for study. Thus may be
species, genera or families.
 Selection of character states (minimum of 60 and 80-100 are desirable for
comparision).
 Description or measurement of character states.
 Ranking of all OTUs into the categories of the taxonomic hierarchy.
7.2.5. Phylogenetic classification system
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Phylogenetic or cladistics classification system is the concepts and methods of determining
similarity by constructing branching patterns of evolution. The method works as follows:

 Select monophyletic taxa

 Select characters of evolutionary interest.
 Describe and/or measure character states.
 Determine homologies of characters and character states.
 Generate trees or cladograms.
Once the cladogram or tree of life is generated, it is possible to construct classification based
upon the cladogram. For example, the following cladogram shows the similarity of the
different organisms within the three domains.

Fig:7.1. The phylogenetic tree of life

7.3. Domains of Life and the Hierarchical System of Classification

Brainstorming questions:
1.
What are the major domains of life?
2.
How organisms are arranged in the hierarchical classification?
3.
Discuss about the different kingdom concepts, and which organisms are categorized
in each kingdom?

Linnaeus developed a hierarchical system of classification. An arrangement of taxa into an

ascending series of ever–increasing inclusiveness forms is known as a hierarchical system of
classification. In different levels of categories, each classifying group, called taxon (pl. taxa) is
subdivided into other groups. The three domains are identified and organized based on the
difference between eukaryotes and prokaryotes (Domain Archae bacteria, Eubacteria and
Eukarya). Prokaryotes are extremely diverse and different from eukaryotes as proven by
molecular biological studies (RNA structure) with modern technology. To understand the
concepts of domains and kingdoms, see the following diagrammatical representation of
mammal and insect and hierarchical classification.
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 Fig: 7.2. Classification hierarchy of organism

In a hierarchical system, we start at the bottom with individuals (species) and end up at the top
with one all-embracing taxon (Domain). Between the two, there are various taxa of organisms
at different levels of the hierarchy, each of which is subordinate to one and one immediately
higher taxon except the lowest and the highest taxon. The major levels in the hierarchy are the
following:

Species are a series of recognizably similar individuals distinct from other species; they are
the fundamental bases of the hierarchy of classification. Related species are grouped in to one
genus. Related genera are grouped in to one family. Related families are grouped in one order.
Similarly, related orders put in one class, classes in to division (if plant) and in to phylum (if
animal), and in to kingdom and domain.

7.3.1. Concepts of the Kingdom

In biology, Kingdom (Latin: regnum, pl. regna) is a taxonomic rank, which is the highest
rank or in the more recent three-domain system, it is the second rank below the Domain.
Kingdoms are divided into different types/approaches. These different kingdom systems were

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developed based on the diversity of organisms and to produce inclusive all-inclusive
classification system.

The Two- Kingdom Concept/Approach

The two kingdom concept existed before the 1950s. This concept was classifying organisms
based up on the cell wall present versus absent. Thus, Kingdom Plantae and Kingdom
Animalia were identified. However, after the invention of the Electron Microscope, some
naturalists later questioned this approach. Then the three kingdom systems were developed.
Three-Kingdom Concept
This kingdom concept/approach classifies all organisms in to three Kingdoms, namely;
kingdom Plantae, Animalia and Protista (for the intermediates, like some algae and protozoa,
which behave like both plants and animals. Still there are other ungrouped organisms, which
lead four kingdom concepts.

The Four-Kingdom Concept

The four Kingdoms Were Kingdom Plantae, Animal, Protista and Fungi. Fungi are organisms
that do have both plant and animal characteristics.

The Five-Kingdom Concept

After the invention of the Transmission Electron Microscope (has a very high-resolution
power- up to 100000x), some biologists were able to investigate the composition of the cell.
The microscope revealed that there are differences in the composition of the cells of few
groups of organisms that were considered members of the Kingdom Plantae, and some
members of the Kingdom Animalia. Thus, they suggested the Five Kingdom approaches;
which are: kingdom Monera, kingdom Fungi, kingdom Protista, kingdom Plantae and
kingdom Animalia.

The Six-Kingdom Concept

This concept classifies first kingdom monera in to two groups based on the nucleus and other
organelles have or lacking a membrane. Thus, the six kingdom system was developed, and
these are: kingdom Archaebacteria, Eubacteria, Protista, Fungi, Plantae and Animalia (Figure
7.3).

Fig: 7.3. The six kingdom systems

7.4. Binomial Nomenclature

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Brainstorming questions:
1.
What is the binomial nomenclature?
2.
How the binomial nomenclature is applicable for organisms?
3.
What are the preconditions for giving binomial nomenclature for organisms?
4.
What is the purpose of giving scientific names for organisms?
5.
What are characteristics scientific names?
6.
What are operative principles of nomenclature?
7.
How authorities of scientific names are cited?

Nomenclature is the naming of organisms and the rules governing the application of these
names. The rules of nomenclature begin from Linnaus‟s of classification where he
established the real beginning of a perfect nomenclature of organisms. Especially binomial
nomenclature was practicable after Linnaeus wrote the books "Species Plantarum and
Genera Plantarum". In nomenclatural system, each organism is designated by two names,
the first is the name of the genus; the second is the specific epithet. No two species can have
the same name. The names are always Latin (or Latinized) and the genus is capitalized while
species name is not.

7.4.1. The Purpose of giving names to organisms

Name is a conventional symbol or code that serves as a means of reference and avoids the
need for continuous use of an inconvenient descriptive phrase. Giving name for an organism is
used for act as vehicle of communication, to universalize the organism and to avoid any
names. In the world, there are many languages, and many of them use different alphabets.
Even within a single language the same name is often used in different senses to denote
different kinds of organisms, or same organism is known by more than one name. Thus, the
Code of nomenclature tries to avoid the defects of vernacular names and for this reason sets of
rules have been drawn up. Scientific names are written in Latin form as well as in Latin
alphabet. The scientific names of all living organisms are therefore Latin or are treated as
Latin even if they are derived from other languages.

2.4.2. International Code nomenclature

The code is a rulebook that contains principles, rules and recommendations which form the
basis of the system of nomenclature. Generally, the code provides stability in the naming and
classification of organisms and ensures that any given taxonomic grouping of a given rank can
have only one correct name, by which the species is known. Varies international codes are
established for different groups of organisms (plants, animals, fungi, bacteria, cultivated
plants).

7.4.2.1. International Code Botanical Nomenclature (ICBN)

Botanical Nomenclature is the naming of groups of plants (including algae, fungi and lichens).
After groups of plants have been classified names must be given to these groups so that
communication about particular units will be facilitated and continuous progress in
classification can be made.

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7.4.2.2. International Code of Zoological Nomenclature (ICZN)

It is the system of naming animals, which applies to both living and extinct animals. The
ICZN is responsible for producing the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature - a set
of rules for the naming of animals and the resolution of nomenclatural problems. The
primary objective of the Code is to promote the stability of the names of taxa (groups of
organisms) by providing rules concerning name usage and the activity of naming new taxa.

7.4.2.3. International Code of Nomenclature of Bacteria

The International Code of Nomenclature of Bacteria (ICNB) governs the scientific names for
Bacteria, including Archaea bacteria. It denotes the rules for naming taxa of bacteria,
according to their relative rank. As such it is one of the Nomenclature Codes of biology.
Originally the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature dealt with bacteria, and this
kept references to bacteria until these were replaced in 1975. An early Code for the
nomenclature of Bacteria was approved at the 4th International Congress for Microbiology in
1947. These rules are maintained by the International Committee on Systematics of
Prokaryotes.

7.4.2.4. International Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants

The need for a comprehensive set of practical, easily understood and internationally
acceptable regulations on the naming of cultivated plants has long been evident. The
International Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants (ICNCP) regulates the names of
cultigens (plants whose origin or selection is primarily due to intentional human activity).
These are, for the most part, plants with names in the classification categories cultivar and
groups. Since cultivated plants are artificial populations maintained & propagated by man,
the botanical hierarchy of infraspecific categories is hardly applicable to cultivated plants. It
is largely replaced by a system based on the taxonomic category cultivar. Cultivar is any
assemblage of cultivated plants which is clearly distinguished by any characters and which
retains its distinguishing characters when reproduced sexually or asexual. It is internationally
recognized term for category of distinct cultivated sorts, which are usually called varieties.
Cultivar names are preceded by the abbreviation Cv. or placed in single quotation marks and
not Latinized names.

7.4.3. International Organizations & Unions for the Stabilization of Changes

At various times, taxonomists are concerned with the classification of organisms and come
together at international meetings to discuss the overabundance of problems associated with
nomenclature. As a result of such meetings, a set of International Commissions or Committees
have been created to lay down sets of rules and recommendations covering the application of
nomenclatural procedures to their particular groups of organisms. For example:
• For ICBN: International Botanical Congress;
• For ICZN: International Congress for Zoological Nomenclature.

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• For Cultivated plants: The International Commission for the Nomenclature of Cultivated
Plants.
• For Fungi: The International Commission for the Taxonomy of Fungi (ICTF).
However, the codes for above groups of organisms may be modified by a decision of the
above bodies.
7.4.4. Names of taxa (the rank of the genus and above)
The family names consist of one term only and called uninominal names. They are plural
nouns or adjectives used as nouns. They are written with a capital initial letter. E.g.
Asteraceae, Lamiaceae. Names of the genera are uninomial and singular nouns. They are
written with capital initial letter. E.g. Hagenia, Datura, Withania and etc. Names of the
species consist of two terms, and called binomial, binominal or binary names. It contains the
genus name in upper case followed by a second term which is peculiar to the species in lower
case. The second term may be adjective or a noun, which is known as specific epithet.

7.4.5. Operative Principles of Nomenclature

The nomenclature code has set certain provisions, called Operative Principles of
Nomenclature. These provisions are publication, typification and priority.
7.4.5.1. Publication

Publication is the means by which scientific names enter to the biological nomenclature
system. The two basic conditions must be fulfilled before a properly formulated scientific
name can have any legal status in biological nomenclature. Primarily the name must be
published in works that are printed in permanent and made available to the interested public.
Secondly, a name must be accompanied by a written matter or a reference to such description.

7.4.5.2. Typification

Type is the process of designating a nomenclatural type, or means by which types are
allocated to taxa. A „type‟ is an element on which the description associated with the original
publication of a name was based. The „type‟ of names of taxa above the Genus and below and
including the Family is a Genus. The “type‟ of the names of taxa above Species and below
and including the Genus is a species; and the names of taxa below and including species is a
specimen or sometimes a description or an illustration of a specimen. In nomenclature, there
are different kinds of "Types". Some of these are:
• Holotype: It is the sole element used or designated by the author of a name as a type.
• Isotype: The duplicates of a holotype.
• Syntype: Is any one of two or more elements used by the author of a name who did not
designate a holotype.
• Lectotype: Is an element selected subsequently from amongst syntypes to serve as a
„type‟.
• Neotype: It is an element selected to serve as a nomenclatural type when through loss
or destruction of the above "Types". Dear students please read about other kinds of
"Types".

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7.4.5.3. Priority
The principle of priority requires when two or more names apply to the same taxon. In this
case, the name is given generally based up on by the oldest one, which is validly published
name. However, one of the limitations of priority is the starting-point date, which is the date
of publication of a work prior to which no name is considered to have been made available for
zoological code and validly published names for botanical code.

There are certain names that are not considered in the code. For example, homonyms -names
spelt in an identical manner but based on different „types‟ of the organism, superfluous
names-names that include the „type‟ of another name when published, and tautonyms-name
of a species in which the second term exactly repeats the generic names have no any legal
status in the code. However, tautonyms are allowed in zoological code.

In nomenclature, when two or more names are applied the same taxon, it is known as
synonyms. There are two kinds of synonyms; nomenclatural and taxonomic synonyms. The
first names are based on the same “type‟ of the organism and called obligateor homotypic
synonyms. Taxonomic synonyms are based on different „type‟ of an organism, and called
heterotypic synonyms.

7.4.6. Authorities and Their Citations

The scientific names of organisms are often written followed by one or more personal names
or the author name, who first published the name in the way that satisfies the criteria of valid
publication or available names. Sometimes it is abbreviated. E.g. Rumex abyssinicus Jacq.,
Plantago lanceolata L. Sometimes, double citations are required. A double citation indicates
there has been a change in taxonomic position or rank. For example, when a tax on below the
rank of genus is transferred to another taxon, but also when a genus or taxon of lower rank is
altered in rank but retains its original epithet. E.g. Carissaedulis Vahl.Later Linnaeus decided
to place the specific epithet "spinarum", and written as Carissa spinarum(Vahl.) L.

Chapter 8:

8. Ecology and Conservation of Natural Resources

This chapter deals with definition of ecology, basic concepts of ecology, aquatic and terrestrial
ecosystems, energy flow through ecosystems and nutrient recycling. It also introduces
students about conservation of natural resources, principles of conservation and environmental
pollution and public health.

Learning objectives of the chapter

At the end of this chapter, the students will be able to:

• Define ecology briefly

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 • Describe types of ecosystems
• Describe the various terrestrial ecosystems
• Describe the various aquatic ecosystems
• Discuss primary and secondary productivity in the ecosystem
• Show trophic structures and energy flow in the ecosystems
• Explain the natural processes involved in nutrient cycling
• Sketch the diagrams of water, carbon, nitrogen and phosphorus cycles
• Describe the principles of conservation
• Illustrate the environmental pollution, causes and effects on human health.

8.1. Definition of ecological terms and Basic concepts of Ecology

Definition of Ecology

The word “Ecology‟ was coined from Greek word 'oaks' meaning 'house' or 'a place to live'
and 'logos' meaning study. Ecology is the study of the households of the planet earth. Living
things depend on each other and on the non-living components of the environment for
survival. Based on this, it is possible to say ecology is the study of the relationship of living
organisms among themselves and with the non-living components of the environment.
Different Authors defined ecology differently. Some of them are:

 Ecology is the scientific study of the interactions between organisms and their
environments
 The study of the relationships, distribution, and abundance of organisms, or groups of
organisms, in an environment

Ecology deals with relationships between organisms and their physical environments; between
organisms of the same species; between organisms of different species; and between
organisms and the fluxes of matter and energy through biological systems (Environment
includes not only the physical but also the biological conditions under which an organism
lives).

Ecologists study these interactions in order to understand the abundance and diversity of life
within Earth's ecosystems. In other words, why there are so many plants and animals, and why
there are so many different types of plants and animals? To answer these questions, they may
use field measurements, such as counting and observing the behavior of species in their
habitats; laboratory experiments that analyze processes such as predation rates in controlled
settings; or field experiments, such as testing how plants grow in their natural setting but with
different levels of light, water, and other inputs. Applied ecology uses information about these
relationships to address issues such as developing effective vaccination strategies, managing
fisheries without over-harvesting, designing land and marine conservation reserves for
threatened species, and modeling how natural ecosystems may respond to global climate
change.

Change is a constant process in ecosystems, driven by natural forces that include climate
shifts, species movement, and ecological succession. By learning how ecosystems function,
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we can improve our ability to predict how they will respond to changes in the environment.
But since living organisms in ecosystems are connected in complex relationships, it is not
always easy to anticipate how a step such as introducing a new species will affect the rest of
an ecosystem.

Ecological terminologies and their definitions

Students are expected to understand the meaning of the following terminologies since they are
important throughout the course to grasp its concept.

1. Abiotic: all non-living components in the biosphere, e.g., air, water, soil,
climate.
2. Autotrophic: when an organism is able to produce its own food using abiotic
components.
3. Biotic: all the living components in the biosphere: animals, plants,
microorganisms, etc.
4. Biosphere: it is the global sum of all ecosystems, and is the zone where all
living organisms live on earth.
5. Biome: the biosphere is divided into millions of biomes, based on the specific
climate of each region, where the climate determines the unique plant and
animal species that live and are adapted to survive in a region.
6. Carnivores: animals that eat only meat. They are generally predators, like
lions, cheetahs etc., in a specific environment.
7. Ecosystem: the combined physical and biological components of a specific
habitat where animals and plants are interdependent on each other for survival.
8. Herbivores: animals that only eat plants, e.g., buck, cows, goats, sheep, rabbits
etc.
9. Heterotrophic: when an organism is unable to produce its own food, and must
eat other organisms
10. Omnivores: animals that eat both plant and animal matter, e.g., humans, pigs,
baboons.
11. Saprophytic organisms: organisms that live on dead organic matter because
they are able to decompose (break down) dead plant and animal matter.
12. Scavengers: animals that eat what is left over by predators. Examples are
hyenas, crayfish and vultures.
13. Photosynthesis: a process where plants use sunlight energy, water and CO2
from the air, to produce organic compounds like glucose and inorganic
compounds like O2.
14. Vegetation: the plant life that is found in a biome.

Branches of ecology
Ecology can be divided depending on the following concepts: - 
Hierarchical organization –according to level of organization
 Taxonomic –according to organisms studied

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  Time/Place -According to time/place Many other ways to
subdivide ecology:
A) Hierarchic: organism, population, community, ecosystem, biosphere
B) Taxonomic: plant ecology, animal ecology, microbial ecology, avian ecology, etc.
C) Time/Place: marine ecology, tropical ecology, freshwater ecology

Hierarchical structure of ecological systems

Organism: fundamental unit of ecology. No smaller unit in biology has an independent life in
the environment.
Population: A group of organisms consisting of a number of different populations that live in
defined area and interact with each other.
Community: A group of organisms consisting of a number of different species that live in an
area and interact with each other
Ecosystem: a biological community plus all of the abiotic factors influencing that community.
Biome: A distinct ecological community of plants and animals living together in a particular
climate.
Biosphere: the aggregation of all ecosystems (the sum of all of the organisms of the earth and
their environment). Biome is the living zone of the planet.

Fig: 8.1. Hierarchical structure of ecological systems

Some examples of the above ecological branches are given below:

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- Population ecology (or Autecology) o It is concerned with population growth including
birth rates and death rates, fluctuation, spread and interactions (scientific study of
relationships between organisms of the same species).
- Community ecology (or Synecology)
o Community ecology is the scientific study of relationships between organisms of
different species.
- Ecosystems ecology, having to do with the structure and function of the entire suite of
microbes, plants, and animals, and their abiotic environment, and how the parts interact to
generate the whole. This branch of ecology often focuses on the energy and nutrient flows
of ecosystems, and when this approach is combined with computer analysis and
simulation it is often called systems ecology.
- Evolutionary ecology, which may operate at any of these levels but most commonly at
the physiological or population level, is a rich and dynamic area of ecology focusing on
attempting to understand how natural selection developed the structure and function of the
organisms and ecosystems at any of these levels.

- Conservation ecology: -it deals with methods of proper management of natural resources
such as land, water, forests, sea, mines, etc., for the benefit of human beings.

Activity:
1. What are the practical applications of ecology in your daily life?

8. 1.1. Aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems

A natural ecosystem is an assemblage of plants and animals which functions as a unit and is
capable of maintaining its identity such as forest, grassland, an estuary; human intervention is
an example of a natural ecosystem. A natural ecosystem is totally dependent on solar energy.
There are two main categories of ecosystems.

A) Aquatic ecosystem
An aquatic ecosystem is an ecosystem in a body of water. Communities of organisms that are
dependent on each other and on their environment live in aquatic ecosystems. The two main
types of aquatic ecosystems are:
1. Marine ecosystems

2. Freshwater ecosystems

1. Marine ecosystems cover approximately 71% of the earth's surface and contain
approximately 97% of the planet's water. They are distinguished from freshwater
ecosystems by the presence of dissolved compounds, especially salts, in the water.
Approximately 85% of the dissolved materials in seawater are sodium and chlorine.
Organisms found in marine ecosystems include brown algae, dinoflagellates, corals,
cephalopods, echinoderms, sharks…etc. Fishes caught in marine ecosystems are the biggest
source of commercial foods obtained from wild populations.

2. Freshwater ecosystems

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 Freshwater ecosystems (occupy only about 2% of earth’s surface). Example
i. Rivers and streams: flowing-water ecosystems
ii. Lakes and ponds: standing-water ecosystems A
large lake has three zones:
a) The littoral zone is a shallow-water area along the shore of a lake or pond where light
reaches the bottom; it is the most productive section of the lake.
b) The limnetic zone is the open water beyond the littoral zone; it extends down as far as
sunlight penetrates to permit photosynthesis.
c) The profoundly zone is beneath the limnetic zone; light does not penetrate effectively
to this depth (no plants or algae found here). Thermal stratification and turnover in
temperate lakes:
Thermal stratification is the marked layering of large temperate lakes caused by how far light
penetrates it, causing temperature to change sharply with depth.
Falling temperatures in fall, and rising temperatures in spring cause turnover, a mixing of the
layers of lake water.

3. Marshes and swamps: freshwater wetlands

• Grass like plants dominate in marshes, while woody trees and/or shrubs dominate in
swamps.
• Wetlands are valued wildlife habitats of migratory birds, beaver, otters, muskrats, and
game fishes; they provide natural flood control and serve as groundwater recharging
areas.
Estuaries: are where fresh and salt water meet.
i. Estuaries are among the most fertile ecosystems in the world
ii. Temperate estuaries usually contain salt marshes which are important in
preventing flood damage during storm surges
iii. Mangrove forests are the tropical equivalent of salt marshes; they cover
nearly 70% of tropical coastlines.
• Mangroves are breeding ground and nurseries for several
commercially important fishes, shellfish, and birds.
• They also help prevent coastal erosion and provide a barrier against
the ocean during storms/hurricanes.

Activity:

Explain the two main types of aquatic ecosystem

B. Terrestrial ecosystems

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 Self test

1. Write some of the terrestrial ecosystems with their characteristic features

Terrestrial ecosystems include:

(a) Forests
(b) Grasslands,
(c) Deserts and (d) tundra
(a) Forests: are large areas supporting rich growth of trees. Depending on the climate and type
of trees they are generally grouped into:
i. Tropical rain forests
ii. Temperate deciduous forests
iii. Boreal or north coniferous forests include

i. Tropical rain forest

Distribution: These are found in the high rain fall areas on either side of the equator.
Such forests are found in the western coast of India, scattered in south East Asia,
some parts of Africa and South America.
Flora and fauna: Tropical rainforests occur in areas by having high temperature and
high humidity and receives above 200 cm of rainfall per year. Soil is rich in humus.
These forests have a very rich biodiversity e.g. Brazilian tropical rain forests have
more than 300 species of trees in an area of 200 square kilometer. Trees are tall
growing up to 50 to 60 m. These forests also support epiphytes, like vines, creepers,
woody creepers and orchid etc. These forests are rich in tree dwelling animals such as
monkeys, flying squirrels, snails, centipedes, millipedes, and many insect species are
common on the forest floor.
ii. Temperate deciduous forests
• Distribution: They occur mostly in the Northwest, Central and Eastern
Europe, Eastern North America, North China, Korea, Japan, far Eastern Russia
and Australia. Trees of deciduous forests shed their leaves in autumn and new
foliage grow in spring.
• Climate: These forests occur in the areas of moderate climatic conditions such
as temperature ranging but 10 to 200C with a 6-month long winter and an
annual rainfall between 75 to 150 cm. They have its brown soils which are rich
in nutrients.
• Flora and fauna: Common trees are oak, beach, heath, chest nut, birch, pine.
These forests also show stratification and have an under story of saplings
shrubs and tall herbs. Prominent grazers include deer, bison and rodents.
Rodents play a very important role in these forests. They feed on seeds, fruits
and tree leaves. Black bear, raccoons, wild cat, wolves, fox and skunks are the

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 omnivores found in these forests. Hibernation or winter sleep during winter is a
common feature of animals found in these forests. Invertebrate fauna
comprises green flies, aphids, certain moths and butterflies.

iii. Boreal or north coniferous forests:

• Distribution: Coniferous forests are also known as „Taiga‟. They extend as a
continuous belt across north America and north Eurasia below the arctic
tundra. There is no counterpart of these forests in southern hemisphere as there
is no land at this latitude. Climate is cold with long, harsh winter, with mean
annual temperature below 00C. The soils are acidic and poor in nutrients.
• Flora and fauna: Coniferous forests are characterized by evergreen, drought
resistant and woody. Conifers (gymnosprerms) e.g. spruce, fir and pine trees
which bear naked seeds in cones. The animals found in these forests, are red
squirrel, deer, goat, mule, moose etc. The carnivores which feed upon them are
timber wolves, lynxes, and bear. Some common birds are crossbill, thrushes,
warblers, flycatchers, robin and sparrow.
Grasslands
• Distribution: Grasslands are areas dominated by grasses. They occupy about 20%
of the land on the earth surface. Grasslands occur in both in tropical and temperate
regions where rainfall is not enough to support the growth of trees. Grasslands are
known by various names in different parts of the world. For example:

Table 8.1.
Place Name of the grassland
North America Prairies
Eurasia (Europe and Asia) Steppes
Africa Savanna
South America Pampas
India Grassland, Savanna

Grasslands are found in areas having well defined hot and dry, warm and rainy
seasons. Tropical grasslands are commonly called Savannas. They occur in eastern
Africa, South America, Australia and India. Savannas form a complex ecosystem with
scattered medium size trees in grass lands.
• Flora and fauna: Grasses are the dominating plants with scattered drought
resistant thorny trees in the tropical grasslands. Badgers, fox, ass, zebra, antelope
are found grazing on grasslands which support the dairy and leather industries.
Grasslands also support large population of rodents, reptiles and insects. Deserts

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• Distribution: Deserts are hot and low rain areas suffering from water shortage and
high wind velocity. They show extremes of temperature. Globally deserts occupy
about 1/7th of the earth‟s surface.
• Flora and fauna: Cacti, Acacia, Euphorbia and prickly pears are some of the
common desert plants. Desert animals include shrew, fox, wood rats, rabbits,
camels and goat are common mammals in desert. Other prominent desert animals
are, reptiles, and burrowing rodent’s insects.
•Adaptations:
Desert plants and animals adapt both hot and dry conditions.
(i) These plants conserve water by the following methods:
 They are mostly shrubs.
 Leaves absent or reduced in size.
 Leaves and stem are succulent and water storing.
 In some plants even the stem contains chlorophyll for photosynthesis.
 Root system well developed spread over large area.
(ii) The animals are physiologically and behaviorally adapted to desert conditions.
 They are fast runners.
 They are nocturnal in habit to avoid the sun’s heat during day time.  They
conserve water by excreting concentrated urine.
 Animals and birds usually have long legs to keep the body away from the hot
ground.
 Lizards are mostly insectivorous and can live without drinking water for several
days.
 Herbivorous animals get sufficient water from the seeds which they eat. Camel
is known as the ship of the desert as it can travel long distances without drinking
water for several days.
Tundra: The word tundra means a "barren land" since they are found in those regions
of the world where environmental conditions are very severe.
There are two types of tundra: arctic and alpine.
• Distribution: Arctic tundra extends as a continuous belt below the
polar ice cap and above the tree line in the northern hemisphere. It occupies
the northern fringe of Canada, Alaska, European Russia, Siberia and island
group of Arctic Ocean. On the South Pole Antarctica tundra in the South
Pole is very small since most of it is covered by ocean. Alpine tundra occurs
at high mountains above the tree line. Since mountains are found at all
latitudes therefore alpine tundra shows day and night temperature variations.
• Flora and fauna: Typical vegetation of arctic tundra is cotton grass,
sedges, dwarf heath, willows, birches and lichens. Animals of tundra are
reindeer, musk ox, arctic hare, caribous, lemmings and squirrel. Most of
them have long life e.g. Salix arctica that is arctic willow has a life span of
150 to 300 years. They are protected from chill by the presence of thick

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 cuticle and epidermal hair. Mammals of the tundra region have large body
size and small tail and ear to avoid the loss of heat from the surface. The
body is covered with fur for insulation. Insects have short life cycles which
are completed during favorable period of the year.

Activities:
1. What are deciduous trees?
2. Explain two common characteristics of the desert.
3. How do the animals and plants of deserts adapt to heat and drought?
4. Where prairies and steppes are found?

8.1.2. Energy flow through ecosystems

The transfer of energy from the source in plants through a series of organisms by eating and
being eaten constitutes food chains. At each transfer, a large proportion of energy is lost in the
form of heat. These food chains are not isolated sequences, but are interconnected with each
other. This interlocking pattern is known as the food web. Each step of the food web is called
a trophic level. Hence green plants occupy the first level, herbivores the second level,
carnivores the third level and secondary carnivores the fourth level. These trophic levels
together form the ecological pyramid.

8.1.2.1 The food chains

The transfer of food - energy from plants to animals and then to other animals by successive
stage of feeding is called a food chain. The cyclic interdependence of one trophic level over
the others forms a food chain. A food chain is also defined as "the sequence of organisms that
are related to each other for their source of food." In an ecosystem, energy is transferred
through a series of organisms, each feeding on the preceding organisms and providing raw
materials and energy for the next organisms. Each stage of the food chain is known as trophic
level. The first trophic level is occupied by the autotrophic organisms, so they are called
producers.

The organisms of the second trophic level are called primary consumers or herbivores. Twenty
percent (20%) to thirty percent (30%) of net primary production is consumed by the
herbivores. The organisms of the third trophic level are called secondary consumers or
primary carnivores. The organisms of the fourth trophic level are called tertiary consumers or
secondary carnivores. The final carnivore of a food chain is not eaten by other animals, so it is
known as climax carnivore.

In nature, basically two types of food chains are recognized: They are grazing food chain and
detritus food chain.
i) Grazing food chain: starts from the living green plants and goes to grazing herbivores and
on to the carnivores. Ecosystems with such type of food chain are directly dependent on an
influx of solar radiation. Thus, this type of food chain depends on autotrophic energy capture
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and the movement of this energy to herbivores. Most of the ecosystems in nature follow this
type of food chain. These chains are very significant from energy standpoint.
The following are examples of grazing food chain:
1. Aquatic food chain: Phytoplanktons zooplanktonsfish
2. Terrestrial food chain: GrassesRabbitfox

ii) Detritus food chain

The organic wastes, exudates and dead matter derived from the grazing food chain are
generally termed as detritus. The energy contained in this detritus is not lost to the
ecosystem as a whole; rather it serves as the source of energy for a group of organisms
(detritivores) that are separated from the grazing food chain. The detritus food chain
represents an exceedingly important component in the energy flow of an ecosystem.
Indeed, in some ecosystems, considerably more energy flows through the detritus food
chain than through the grazing food chain. In the detritus food chain the energy flow
remains as a continuous passage rather than as a stepwise flow between discrete entities.
The organisms of the detritus food chain are many and include algae, bacteria, slime
molds, actinomycetes, fungi, protozoa, insects, mites, crustacea, centipedes, molluscs,
rotifers, annelid worms, and nematodes.

Other feeding groups such as parasites and scavengers form supplementary food chains in the
ecosystem. Parasitic food chains are highly complicated because of the life cycle. Some
parasites are passed from one host to another by predatory in the food chains. External
parasites (ectoparasites) may move from one host to another. Other parasites are transmitted
by insects from one host to another through the blood stream or plant floods. Food chain also
exists among parasites. For instances, fleas that parasitize mammals and birds are in turn
parasitized by protozoan, leptosomes.

Fig: 8.2: Terrestrial and aquatic food chain

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 8.1.2.2 The food web

Self test

1. What does food web mean? How it is different from food chain?

In an ecosystem there are a very large number of interlinked chains and forms a food web.
Stability of the ecosystem is maintained by food web. If the linkages in the chains that make
up the web of life are disrupted due to human activities that lead to the extinction of species,
the web will break down.

Fig: 8.3. Food web

8.1.2.3 Ecosystem productivity

Productivity in land ecosystems generally rises with temperature about 30oC, after which it
declines, and is positively correlated with moisture. On land primary productivity is highest in
warm, wet zones in the tropics where tropical forest biomes are located. In contrast, desert
scrub ecosystems have the lowest productivity because their climates are extremely hot and
dry.

A. Primary production

The flow of energy through a terrestrial ecosystem starts with the harnessing of sunlight by
green plants, a process that in itself demands the expenditure of energy. A plant gets its start
by living on the food energy stored in the seed until it produces leaves. Energy accumulated
by plants is called primary production, because it is the first and basic form of energy stored.
Total energy assimilated by the plant is gross primary production. Plants, like all other
organisms, must expend energy in production, maintenance, and reproduction. This energy is
produced by the process of respiration which liberates energy. Energy remaining after
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respiration and stored as organic matter is net primary production. Net primary production can
be described by the following equation:

Net primary production (NPP) = gross primary production (GPP) - respiration by the
autotroph (R). Production is expressed in kilocalories per square meter (kcal/m2) and can also
expressed in grams per square meter (g/m2).

B. Secondary production

Net primary production is the energy available to the heterotrophic component of the
ecosystem. The energy left over from maintenance and respiration goes into production,
including both the growth of new tissues and the production of young. This net energy of
production is called secondary production.

Activities:

1. How does energy flow occur from one organism to another?

2. How many trophic levels can an ecosystem support?

3. Why do primary consumers get more energy than secondary consumers?

4. How much energy does a consumer obtain from producer?

8.1.3 Ecological pyramid

Ecological pyramid is the graphic representation of the number, biomass and energy of the
successive trophic levels of an ecosystem. The concept of ecological pyramid was first
described by Charles Elton. Ecological pyramids represent the trophic structure (feeding
relationships) and trophic function (efficiency of energy transfer through biotic components)
of an ecosystem.

Types of ecological pyramid

I) Pyramid of number depicts the number of individual organisms at different trophic
levels of food chain.
II) Pyramid of biomass depicts the amount of biomass at different trophic levels of food
chain or the total weight of living matter per unit area present in the ecosystem.
III) Pyramid of energy depicts the amount of energy at different trophic levels of food
chain. It shows how energy moves throughout an ecosystem. As you move up the pyramid
levels, approximately 90% of the food’s original energy is lost from level to level because
animals must use their own energy to consume and digest food. The consumers at the top of
the pyramid do not have as much energy available to them because their food, another animal,
is simply not very good at converting the food it eats into energy in its body.

Ecological pyramids are always upright; i. e. the apex is pointed upwards. In some ecosystems
the number and biomass of producers are less and those of consumers are more. So the apex is
directed down wards. This type of pyramid is called inverted pyramid. Inverted pyramid of

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numbers is found in parasitic food chain. Inverted pyramid of biomass occur in pond and lake
ecosystems. However, the pyramid of energy is always upright (never inverted).

Fig: 8.4. Pyramid of Energy

Activity. Why the pyramid of numbers is inverted in parasitic food chain?

8.2 Cycling of Materials (Nutrients)

Every ecosystem has several interrelated mechanisms that affect human life. These are the
water cycle, the carbon cycle, the oxygen cycle, the nitrogen cycle and the energy cycle.
While every ecosystem is controlled by these cycles, in each ecosystem its abiotic and biotic
features are distinct from each other.

All the functions of the ecosystem are in some way related to the growth and regeneration of
its plant and animal species. These linked processes can be depicted as the various cycles.
These processes depend on energy from sunlight. During photosynthesis, carbon dioxide is
taken up by plants and oxygen is released. Animals depend on this oxygen for their
respiration. The water cycle depends on the rainfall, which is necessary for plants and animals
to live. The energy cycle recycles nutrients into the soil on which plant life grows. Our own
lives are closely linked to the proper functioning of these cycles of life. If human activities go
on altering them, humanity cannot survive on our earth.
8.2.1 The Water Cycle

When it rains, the water runs along the ground and flows into rivers or falls directly into the
sea, and part of the rainwater falls on land percolates into the ground. This is stored
underground throughout the rest of the year. Water is drawn up from the ground by plants
along with the nutrients from the soil. Then, water is transpired from the leaves as water vapor
and returned to the atmosphere. As it is lighter than air, the water vapor rises and forms
clouds. Winds blow the clouds for long distances and when the clouds rise higher, the vapor

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condenses and changes into droplets, which fall on the land as rain. Though this is an endless
cycle on which life depends, man’s activities are making drastic changes in the atmosphere
through pollution which is altering rainfall patterns.

Fig: 8.5. Water cycle

8.2.2 The Carbon cycle

The carbon, which occurs in organic compounds, is included in both the abiotic and biotic
parts of the ecosystem. Carbon is a building block of both plant and animal tissues. In the
atmosphere, carbon occurs as carbon dioxide (CO2). In the presence of sunlight, plants take up
carbon dioxide from the atmosphere through their leaves. The plants combine carbon dioxide
with water, which is absorbed by their roots from the soil. In the presence of sunlight, they are
able to form carbohydrates that contain carbon. This process is known as photosynthesis.
Plants use this complex mechanism for their growth and development. In this process, plants
release oxygen into the atmosphere on which animals depend for their respiration. Plants
therefore help in regulating and monitoring the percentage of oxygen and carbon dioxide in
the earth‟s atmosphere. All of mankind thus, depends on the oxygen generated through this
cycle. It also keeps the CO2 at acceptable levels.

Herbivorous animals feed on plant material, which is used by them for energy and for their
growth. Both plants and animals release carbon dioxide during respiration. They also return
fixed carbon to the soil in the waste they excrete. When plants and animals die they return
their carbon to the soil. These processes complete the carbon cycle.

8.2.3 Nitrogen cycle

• 78% of the air is nitrogen

• Plants use nitrogen in their cellular processes
• Nitrogen is present in our DNA and RNA and in amino acids (proteins).
• The food chain largely moves nitrogen around.
Nitrogen Fixation
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Nitrogen fixation is the conversion of atmospheric nitrogen (N2) into reactive compounds such
as ammonia (NH3) and nitrate (NO3-). The breaking of the bonds between the nitrogen atoms
requires a great deal of energy and occurs naturally in two primary ways:
i. Abiotic Fixation: Nitrate is the result of high energy fixation in the
atmosphere from lightning and cosmic radiation. In this process, N2 is combined with
oxygen to form nitrogen oxides such as NO and NO2, which are carried to the earth‟s
surface in rainfall as nitric acid (HNO3). This high energy fixation accounts for
approximately 10% of the nitrate entering the nitrogen cycle.
ii. Biological fixation: It is accomplished by a series of soil micro-organisms
such as aerobic and anaerobic bacteria. Often, symbiotic bacteria such as Rhizobium
are found in the roots of legumes and provide a direct source of ammonia to the plants.
In root nodules of these legumes, the bacteria split molecular nitrogen into two free
nitrogen atoms, which combine with hydrogen to form ammonia (NH3). The following
plants are common examples of legumes: clover, alfalfa, soy beans, and chick peas.
The breakdown of these legumes by bacteria during ammonification actually returns
excess nitrogen not utilized by the plant to the surrounding soil. Therefore, to promote
sustainable soil fertility, it is beneficial to use these agricultural crops in rotation with
other plants, such as corn, that are more profitable but deplete the available nitrogen in
the soil some free-living aerobic bacteria, such as Azotobacter, and anaerobic bacteria,
like Clostridium, freely fix nitrogen in the soil and in aquatic environments. Some
members of the photosynthetic cyanobacteria phylum fix nitrogen in aquatic
environments as well.

Nitrification – conversion of ammonia in soil to nitrite ions and finally to nitrate ions that are
easily used by plants (aerobic bacteria).

Assimilation

Nitrates are the form of nitrogen most commonly assimilated by plants through root hairs.
Since heterotrophic organisms cannot readily absorb nitrogen as plants do, they rely on
acquiring nitrogen-based compounds through the food they eat. Since plants are the base of
the food chain, the nitrogen-based compounds they have assimilated into their tissue will
continue to pass from one organism to another (through consumption) as matter and energy
transfers through the ecosystem’s food web.

Ammonification
In ammonification, a host of decomposing microorganisms, such as bacteria and fungi, break
down nitrogenous wastes and organic matter found in animal waste and dead plants and
animals and convert it to inorganic ammonia (NH3) for absorption by plants as ammonium
ions. Therefore, decomposition rates affect the level of nutrients available to primary
producers. Denitrification
It is the process by which nitrates are reduced to gaseous nitrogen (N2) and lost to the
atmosphere. This process occurs by facultative anaerobes in anaerobic environments. Farmers
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with waterlogged fields and soils that have high clay content are especially vulnerable to
nitrogen losses due to denitrification. In short it is conversion of ammonia and ammonium
ions to nitrate and nitrite ions and then back into nitrogen gas and nitrous oxide gas.

8.2.4 The Oxygen Cycle

Oxygen is taken up by plants and animals from the air during respiration. The plants return
oxygen to the atmosphere during photosynthesis. This links the oxygen cycle to the carbon
cycle. Deforestation is likely to gradually reduce the oxygen levels in our atmosphere. Thus,
plant life plays an important role in our lives which we frequently do not appreciate. This is an
important reason to participate in forestation programs.

8.2.5 Phosphorus cycle

The phosphorus cycle, is the circulation of phosphorous among the rocks, soils, water, and
plants and animals of the earth. The phosphorous cycle is the simplest of the cycles that we
will examine. For our purposes, phosphorous has only one form, phosphate (PO4-3), which is a
phosphorous atom with four oxygen atoms. This heavy molecule never makes its way into the
atmosphere; it is always part of an organism, dissolved in water, or in the form of rock. When
rock with phosphate is exposed to water (especially water with a little acid in it), the rock is
weathered out and goes into solution. Autotrophs take this phosphorous up and use it in a
variety of ways. It is an important constituent of cell membranes, DNA, RNA, and, of course
ATP. Heterotrophs obtain their phosphorous from the plants they eat, although one type of
heterotroph, the fungi, excel at taking up phosphorous and may form mutualistic symbiotic
relationships with plant roots. These relationships are called Mycorrhizae; the plant gets
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phosphate from the fungus and gives the fungus sugars in return. Animals, by the way, may
also use phosphorous as a component of bones, teeth and shells. When animals or plants die
(or when animals defecate), the phosphate may be returned to the soil or water by the
decomposers. There, it can be taken up by another plant and used again. This cycle will occur
over and over until at last the phosphorous is lost at the bottom of the deepest parts of the
ocean, where it becomes part of the sedimentary rocks forming there. Ultimately, phosphorous
will be released if the rock is brought to the surface and weathered. Two types of animals play
a unique role in the phosphorous cycle. Humans often mine rock rich in phosphorous. For
instance, in Florida, which was once sea floor, there are extensive phosphate mines. The
phosphate is then used as fertilizer. This mining of phosphate and use of the phosphate as
fertilizer greatly accelerates the phosphorous cycle and may cause local overabundance of
phosphorous, particularly in coastal regions, at the mouths of rivers, and anyplace where there
is a lot of sewage released into the water (the phosphate placed on crops finds its way into our
stomachs and from there to our toilets). Local abundance of phosphate can cause overgrowth
of algae in the water; the algae can use up all the oxygen in the water and kill other aquatic
life. This is called eutrophication. The other animals that play a unique role in the
phosphorous cycle are marine birds. These birds take phosphorous containing fish out of the
ocean and return to land, where they defecate. Their guano (droppings of birds) contains high
levels of phosphorous and in this way marine birds return phosphorous from the ocean to the
land. The guano is often mined and may form the basis of the economy in some areas.

Fig:8.7 Phosphorus cycle

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8.2.1. Principles of conservation of natural resources

For standard and general criteria for conservation and sustainable use of natural resources, it
should be developed at a local level and be adapted to local ecosystems, cultures, values and
social and economic conditions. Where necessary, networks of protected areas, corridors and
integrated management zones should be established first. Although the principles and
strategies for sustainable resource management is not new concept, is now gaining the world’s
attention in response to the decline in the quality of the natural resource due to various natural
and anthropogenic factors including modern agricultural expansion and urbanization.

Sustainable use of resources, especially the genetic resources for food and agriculture is vital
for the next generation. Greater resource use-efficiency saves land, water and biodiversity, and
enhances ecological services underpinning food production. In addition, improved resource-
use efficiency can help to reduce pressure on ecosystems, which also subsequently lead to
resource depletion and degradation. That is why direct action is needed to conserve, protect
and enhance natural resources. Intensification practice of agricultural land over natural
landscape often comes together with practices that include high use of inputs, in particular
water, fertilizers, and pesticides is unwise use of resources. These in turn, when not properly
used, deplete soils, pollute water, and destroy biodiversity. World’s tropical forests remove
from the atmosphere 4.8 billion tons of CO2 a year, or about 18 percent of annual emissions
from burning fossil fuels. Reforestation and reducing the rate of deforestation will not only
mitigate impact of climate change. It should also contribute to sustainability through soil
formation, water purification, biodiversity and pollination mechanisms.

According to convention on biodiversity, conservation of biodiversity, forests, fragile

ecosystems and other natural resources are the major areas of resource managements. The
major strategies of natural resource management techniques are in-situ and ex-situ or both
methods. One of among other things, principles of conserving the natural resource is reducing
the destruction to biodiversity, which in turn brings about hunger and poverty.

Biodiversity conservation still plays a pivotal role in sustaining and strengthening nutrition. It
enhances the resilience of people, communities and ecosystems, especially to climate change
and market volatility. Natural disasters or extreme weather events, food safety emergencies,
market volatility and civil strife impair the livelihoods of millions of people who depend on
natural resources for their livelihoods and negatively impact sustainability of food and other
benefits of natural resources.

All of these principles of conservation can be possible through decisions made under various
government and public participations, revenue protection policies, an insurance scheme
incentivizing to diversify and conserve natural resources, adopt alternative resource utilization
strategies, and apply integrated resources management policies among various institutions and
individuals. In addition, promoting responsible and effective governance mechanisms are also
bet methods for resource management principles. Especially, this approach is preferred since
it ensures accountability, equity, transparency and the rule of law. The underpinning processes
must be participatory and involve all key stakeholders, men, women, public and private
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sectors and civil society. They need to be provided with an enabling institutional and policy
environment that provides the right incentives that support the adoption of appropriate
practices on the ground. Responsible and effective governance creates trust and encourages
the community to take part in resource conservation.

8.3 Environmental pollution and public health

Developmental activities such as construction, transportation and manufacturing not only

deplete the natural resources but also produce large amount of wastes that leads to pollution of
air, water, soil, and oceans; global warming and acid rains. Untreated or improperly treated
waste is a major cause of pollution of rivers and environmental degradation causing ill health
and loss of crop productivity. In this lesson, you will study about the major causes of
pollution, their effects on our environment and the various measures that can be taken to
control such pollutions.

Self test
1. Define pollutant and pollution
2. What is the difference between sources and sinks?

Learning Objectives
After completing this lesson, you will be able to:
• define the terms pollution and pollutants;
• list various kinds of pollution;
• describe types of pollution, sources, harmful effects on human health and control of air
pollution, indoor air pollution, noise pollution;

• describe water pollution, its causes and control;

• describe thermal pollution;
• discuss about soil pollution, its causes and control;
• describe radiation pollution, sources and hazards.

8.3.1 Pollution and pollutants

Human activities directly or indirectly affect the environment adversely. A stone crusher adds
a lot of suspended particulate matter and noise into the atmosphere. Automobiles emit from
their tail pipes oxides of nitrogen, Sulphur dioxide, carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide and a
complex mixture of unburnt hydrocarbons and black soot which pollute the atmosphere.
Domestic sewage and run off from agricultural fields, laden with pesticides and fertilizers,
pollute water bodies. Effluents from tanneries contain many harmful chemicals and emit foul
smell. These are only a few examples which show how human activities pollute the
environment. Pollution may be defined as addition of undesirable material into the
environment as a result of human activities. The agents which because environmental

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 pollution are called pollutants. Pollutants may be defined as a physical, chemical or biological
substance unintentionally released into the environment which is directly or indirectly harmful
to humans and other living organisms.
Types of pollution

Self test
1. List types of pollution
2. What are the main sources of pollution?

Pollution may be of the following types:

• Air pollution
• Noise pollution
• Water pollution
• Soil pollution
• Thermal pollution
• Radiation pollution
Air pollution
Air pollution is recognized as one of the leading contributors to the global environmental
burden of disease, even in countries with relatively low concentrations of air pollution. Air
pollution is a result of industrial and certain domestic activity. An ever increasing use of fossil
fuels in power plants, industries, transportation, mining, construction of buildings, stone
quarries had led to air pollution. Air pollution may be defined as the presence of any solid,
liquid or gaseous substance including noise and radioactive radiation in the atmosphere in
such concentration that may be directly and indirectly injurious to humans or other living
organisms, plants, property or interferes with the normal environmental processes. Air
pollutants are of two types (1) suspended particulate matter, and (2) gaseous pollutants like
carbon dioxide (CO2), NOx etc.

Table 8.3.1 Particulate air pollutants, their sources and effects

Pollutant Sources Effects

Suspended Smoke from domestic, Depends on specific composition, Reduces sunlight

particulate industrial and vehicular soot and visibility, increases corrosion, Pneumoconiosis,
matter/dust asthma, cancer, and other lung diseases.

Fly ash Part of smoke released from Settles down on vegetation, houses. Adds to the
suspended participate matter (SPM)in the air.
chimneys of factories and
power plants Leachates contain harmful material

Particulate pollutants

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 Particulate matters suspended in air are dust and soot released from the industrial chimneys.
Their size ranges from 0.001 to 500 µm in diameter. Particles less than 10µm float and move
freely with the air current. Particles which are more than 10µm in diameter settle down.
Particles less than 0.02 µm form persistent aerosols. Major source of SPM (suspended
particulate matter) are vehicles, power plants, construction activities, oil refinery, railway
yard, market place, industries, etc.
Fly ash
Fly ash is ejected mostly by thermal power plants as byproducts of coal burning operations.
Fly ash pollutes air and water and may cause heavy metal pollution in water bodies. Fly ash
affects vegetation as a result of its direct deposition on leaf surfaces or indirectly through its
deposition on soil. Fly ash is now being used for making bricks and as a land fill material.
Lead and other metals particles
The lead particles coming out from the exhaust pipes of vehicles are mixed with air. If
inhaled, it produces injurious effects on kidney and liver and interferes with development of
red blood cells. Lead mixed with water and food can create cumulative poisoning. It has long
term effects on children as it lowers intelligence. Oxides of iron, aluminum, manganese,
magnesium, zinc and other metals have adverse effect due to deposition of dust on plants
during mining operations and metallurgical processes. They create physiological, biochemical
and developmental disorders in plants and also contribute towards reproductive failure in
plants.
Gaseous pollutants

Power plants, industries, different types of vehicles – both private and commercial use
petrol, diesel as fuel and release gaseous pollutants such as carbon dioxide, oxides of nitrogen
and Sulphur dioxide along with particulate matter in the form of smoke. All of these have
harmful effects on plants and humans. Table 8.3.2 lists some of these pollutants, their sources
and harmful effects.

Table 8.3.2 Gaseous air pollutants: their sources and effects

Pollutant Source Harmful effect
Carbon compound (CO and Automobile exhaust burning •Respiratory problems
of wood and coal, Power
CO2 ) •Greenhouse effect
plants and refineries, volcanic
Sulphur compounds (SO2 and eruptions, Motor vehicle •Respiratory problems in humans
H2 S)Nitrogen • Loss of chlorophyll in plants
Compound (NO and exhaust atmospheric reaction (chlorosis)
Automobiles and petroleum
N2O) Hydrocarbons (benzene, •Acid rain
industries Thermal power
ethylene), SPM (Suspended, plants, Construction activities, Irritation in eyes and lungs
Particulate Matter) (Any solid metallurgical processes and
• Low productivity in plants
automobiles Textiles and
and liquid, particles •Acid rain damages material
carpet weaving industries
suspended in the air, (metals and stone)
(flush, dust lead) Fibers
•Respiratory problem
(Cotton, wool)
Cancer causing properties
Poor visibility, breathing problems
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 •Lead interferes with the
development of red blood diseases
and cancer.
• Smoge (skoke & fog)
formation leads to poor visibility and
aggravates asthma in patients
• Lung disorders

Prevention and control of air pollution

(i) Indoor air pollution

Poor ventilation due to faulty design of buildings leads to pollution of the confined space.
Paints, carpets, furniture, etc. in rooms may give out volatile organic compounds. Use of
disinfectants, fumigants, etc. may release hazardous gases. In hospitals, pathogens present in
waste remain in the air in the form of spores. This can result in hospital acquired infections
and is an occupational health hazard. In congested areas, slums and rural areas burning of
firewood and biomass results in lot of smoke. Children and ladies exposed to smoke may
suffer from acute respiratory problems which include running nose, cough, sore throat, lung
infection, asthma, difficulty in breathing, noisy respiration and wheezing.

(ii) Prevention and control of indoor air pollution

Use of wood and dung cakes should be replaced by cleaner fuels such as biogas, kerosene or
electricity. But supply of electricity is limited. Similarly, kerosene is also limited. Improved
stoves for looking like smokeless chullahs have high thermal efficiency and reduced emission
of pollutants including smoke. The house designs should incorporate a well ventilated kitchen.
Use of biogas and CNG (Compressed Natural Gas) need to be encouraged. Those species of
trees such as baval (Acacia nilotica) which are least smoky should be planted and used.
Charcoal is a comparatively cleaner fuel. Indoor pollution due to decay of exposed kitchen
waste can be reduced by covering the waste properly. Segregation of waste, pretreatment at
source, sterilization of rooms helps in checking indoor air pollution.

(iii) Prevention and control of industrial pollution

Industrial pollution can be greatly reduced by:

a. Use of cleaner fuels such as liquefied natural gas (LNG) in power plants,
fertilizer plants etc. which is cheaper in addition to being environmentally
friendly.
b. Employing environment friendly industrial processes so that emission of
pollutants and hazardous waste is minimized.
c. Installing devices which reduce release of pollutants. Devices like filters,
electrostatic precipitators, inertial collectors, scrubbers, gravel bed filters or dry
scrubbers are described below:

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 i. Filters – Filters remove particulate matter from the gas stream. The
medium of a filter may be made of fibrous materials like cloth,
granular material like sand, a rigid material like screen, or any mat
like felt pad. Bug-house filtration system is the most common one
and is made of cotton or synthetic fibers (for low temperatures) or
glass cloth fabrics (for higher temperature up to 290oC).
ii. Electrostatic precipitators - The emanating dust is charged with
ions and the ionized particulate matter is collected on an oppositely
charged surface. The particles are removed from the collection
surface by occasional shaking or by rapping the surface. ESPs are
used in boilers, furnaces, and many other units of thermal power
plants, cement factories, steel plants, etc.
iii. Inertial collectors – It works on the principle that inertia of SPM
in a gas is higher than its solvent and as inertia is a function of the
mass of the particulate matter this device collects heavier particles
more efficiently. „Cyclone‟ is a common inertial collector used in
gas cleaning plants.
iv.
Scrubbers – Scrubbers are wet collectors. They remove aerosols
from a stream of gas either by collecting wet particles on a surface
followed by their removal, or else the particles are wetted by a
scrubbing liquid. The particles get trapped as they travel from
supporting gaseous medium across the interface to the liquid
scrubbing medium. Gaseous pollutants can be removed by
absorption in a liquid using a wet scrubber and depends on the type
of the gas to be removed e.g. for removal of Sulphur dioxide
alkaline solution is needed as it dissolves Sulphur dioxide. Gaseous
pollutants may be absorbed on an activated solid surface like silica
gel, alumina, carbon, etc. Silica gel can remove water vapor.
Condensation allows the recovery of many by products in coal and
petroleum processing industries from their liquid effluents.
Apart from the use of above mentioned devices, other control measures are:
• Increasing the height of chimneys.
• Closing industries which pollute the environment.
• Shifting of polluting industries away from cities and heavily populated areas.
• Development and maintenance of green belt of adequate width.

iv. Control of vehicular pollution

• The emission standards for automobiles have been set, which if followed will reduce
the pollution. Standards have been set for the durability of catalytic converters which
reduce vehicular emission.
• In cities like Delhi, motor vehicles need to obtain Pollution under Control (PUC)
certificate at regular intervals. This ensures that levels of pollutants emitted from
vehicle exhaust are not beyond the prescribed legal limits.

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 • The price of diesel is much cheaper than petrol, which promotes use of diesel. To
reduce emission of Sulphur dioxide, Sulphur content in diesel has been reduced to
0.05%.
• Earlier lead in the form of tetraethyl lead was added in the petrol to raise octane level
for smooth running of engines. Addition of lead in petrol has been banned to prevent
emission of lead particles with the vehicular emission.
Activities
1. Which type of pollution is common in your area? Why?
2. Name any three devices that control pollution.
3. State two means of controlling indoor air pollution.
4. What is a PUC certificate?

Global Warming and Greenhouse Effect

Atmospheric gases like carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, water vapor, and
chlorofluorocarbons are capable of trapping the out-going infrared radiation from the earth.
Infra-red radiations trapped by the earth‟s surface cannot pass through these gases and to
increase thermal energy or heat in the atmosphere. Thus, the temperature of the global
atmosphere is increased. As this phenomenon of increase in temperature is observed in green
houses, in the botanical gardens these gases are known as greenhouse gases and the heating
effect is known as greenhouse effect. If greenhouse gases are not checked, by the turn of the
century the temperature may rise by 50C. This will melt the polar ice caps and increase the sea
level leading to coastal flooding, loss of coastal areas and ecosystems like swamps and
marshes, etc.

Noise pollution

Noise is one of the most pervasive pollutants. A musical clock may be nice to listen during
the day, but may be an irritant during sleep at night. Noise by definition is “sound without
value” or “any noise that is unwanted by the recipient”. Noise in industries such as stone
cutting and crushing, steel forgings, loudspeakers, shouting by hawkers selling their wares,
movement of heavy transport vehicles, railways and airports leads to irritation and an
increased blood pressure, loss of temper, decrease in work efficiency, loss of hearing which
may be first temporary but can become permanent in the noise stress continues. It is therefore
of utmost importance that excessive noise is controlled. Noise level is measured in terms of
decibels (dB). W.H.O. (World Health Organization) has prescribed optimum noise level as 45
dB by day and 35 dB by night. Anything above 80 dB is hazardous. The table10.4 gives the
noise intensity in some of the common activities.

Sources of noise pollution

Noise pollution is a growing problem. All human activities contribute to noise pollution to
varying extent. Sources of noise pollution are many and may be located indoors or outdoors.
Indoor sources include noise produced by radio, television, generators, electric fans, air

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coolers, air conditioners, different home appliances, and family conflict. Noise pollution is
more in cities due to a higher concentration of population and industries and activities such as
transportation. Noise like other pollutants is a byproduct of industrialization, urbanization and
modern civilization.

Outdoor sources of noise pollution include indiscriminate use of loudspeakers, industrial

activities, automobiles, rail traffic, airplanes and activities such as those at market place,
religious, social, and cultural functions, sports and political rallies. In rural areas farm
machines, pump sets are main sources of noise pollution. During festivals, marriage and many
other occasions, use of fire crackers contribute to noise pollution.

Effects of noise pollution noise pollution is highly annoying and irritating. Noise disturbs
sleep, causes hypertension (high blood pressure), emotional problems such as aggression,
mental depression and annoyance. Noise pollution adversely affects efficiency and
performance of individuals.

Prevention and control of noise pollution following steps can be taken to control or minimize
noise pollution-
• Road traffic noise can be reduced by better designing and proper maintenance of
vehicles.
• Noise abatement measures include creating noise mounds, noise attenuation walls and
well maintained roads and smooth surfacing of roads.
• Retrofitting of locomotives, continuously welded rail track, use of electric locomotives
or deployment of quieter rolling stock will reduce noises emanating from trains.
• Air traffic noise can be reduced by appropriate insulation and introduction of noise
regulations for takeoff and landing of aircrafts at the airport.
• Industrial noises can be reduced by sound proofing equipment like generators and
areas producing lot of noise.
• Power tools, very loud music and land movers, public functions using loudspeakers,
etc. should not be permitted at night. Use of horns, alarms, refrigeration units, etc. is to
be restricted. Use of fire crackers which are noisy and cause air pollution should be
restricted.
• A green belt of trees is an efficient noise absorber.
Activities

1. What is noise and in which units it is measured?

2. State two harmful effects of noise pollution.
3. State two important indoor and two outdoor sources of noise pollution? Mention method of
control for each of them.

2. Water pollution

Addition or presence of undesirable substances in water is called water pollution. Water

pollution is one of the most serious environmental problems. Water pollution is caused by a

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variety of human activities such as industrial, agricultural and domestic. Agricultural runoff
laden with excess fertilizers and pesticides, industrial effluents with toxic substances and
sewage water with human and animal wastes pollute our water thoroughly. Natural sources of
pollution of water are soil erosion, leaching of minerals from rocks and decaying of organic
matter. Rivers, lakes, seas, oceans, estuaries and ground water sources may be polluted by
point or non-point sources. When pollutants are discharged from a specific location such as a
drain pipe carrying industrial effluents discharged directly into water body it represents point
source pollution. In contrast non-point sources include discharge of pollutants from diffused
sources or from a larger area such as runoff from agricultural fields, grazing lands,
construction sites, abandoned mines and pits, roads and streets.

Sources of water pollution

Water pollution is the major source of water borne diseases and other health problems.
Sediments brought by runoff water from agricultural fields and discharge of untreated or
partially treated sewage and industrial effluents, disposal of fly ash or solid waste into or close
to a water body cause severe problems of water pollution. Increased turbidity of water because
of sediments reduces penetration of light in water that reduces photosynthesis by aquatic
plants.
(i) Pollution due to pesticides and inorganic chemicals
• Pesticides like DDT and others used in agriculture may contaminate water
bodies. Aquatic organisms take up pesticides from water get into the food chain
(aquatic in this case) and move up the food chain. At higher trophic level they get
concentrated and may reach the upper end of the food chain.
• Metals like lead, zinc, arsenic, copper, mercury and cadmium in industrial
waste waters adversely affect humans and other animals. Arsenic pollution of ground
water has been reported from West Bengal, Orissa, Bihar and Western Utara paradish
(U.P). Consumption of such arsenic polluted water leads to accumulation of arsenic in
the body parts like blood, nails and hairs causing skin lesions, rough skin, dry and
thickening of skin and ultimately skin cancer.
• Pollution of water bodies by mercury causes Minamata disease in humans and
dropsy in fishes. Lead causes dyslexia, cadmium poisoning causes Itai – Itai disease
etc.
• Oil pollution of sea occurs from leakage from ships, oil tankers, rigs and
pipelines. Accidents of oil tankers spill large quantity of oil in seas which kills marine
birds and adversely affects other marine life and beaches.
(ii) Thermal pollution
Power plants- thermal and nuclear, chemical and other industries use lot of water
(about 30 % of all abstracted water) for cooling purposes and the used hot water is
discharged into rivers, streams or oceans. The waste heat from the boilers and heating
processes increases the temperature of the cooling water. Discharge of hot water may
increase the temperature of the receiving water by 10 to 15 °C above the ambient
water temperature is called thermal pollution. Increase in water temperature decreases
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dissolved oxygen in water which adversely affects aquatic life. Unlike terrestrial
ecosystems, the temperature of water bodies remains steady and does not change very
much. Accordingly, aquatic organisms are adopted to a uniform steady temperature of
environment and any fluctuation in water temperature severely affects aquatic plants
and animals. Hence discharge of hot water from power plants adversely affects
aquatic organisms. Aquatic plants and animals in the warm tropical water live
dangerously close to their upper limit of temperature, particularly during the warm
summer months. It requires only a slight deviation from this limit to cause a thermal
stress to these organisms. Discharge of hot water in water body affects feeding in
fishes, increases their metabolism and affects their growth. Their swimming efficiency
declines. Running away from predators or chasing prey becomes difficult. Their
resistance to diseases and parasites decreases. Due to thermal pollution biological
diversity is reduced. One of the best methods of reducing thermal pollution is to store
the hot water in cooling ponds, allow the water to cool before releasing into any
receiving water body
Ground water pollution Lot of people around the world depend on ground water for
drinking, domestic, industrial and agricultural uses. Generally, groundwater is a clean
source of water. However, human activities such as improper sewage disposal,
dumping of farm yard manures and agricultural chemicals, industrial effluents are
causing pollution of ground water.
Eutrophication - „Eu‟ means well or healthy and „trophy‟ stands for nutrition. The
enrichment of water bodies with nutrients causes eutrophication of the water body.
Discharge of domestic waste, agricultural surface runoff, land drainage and industrial
effluents in a water body leads to rapid nutrients enrichment in a water body. The
excessive nutrient enrichment in a water body encourages the growth of algae
duckweed, water hyacinth, phytoplankton and other aquatic plants. The biological
demand for oxygen (BOD) increases with the increase in aquatic organisms. As more
plants grow and die, the dead and decaying plants and organic matter acted upon by
heterotrophic protozoans and bacteria, deplete the water of dissolved oxygen (DO).
Decrease in DO result in sudden death of large population of fish and other aquatic
organisms including plants, releasing offensive smell and makes the water unfit for
human use. The sudden and explosive growth of phytoplankton and algae impart
green color to the water is known as water bloom, or "algal blooms". These
phytoplankton release toxic substances in water that causes sudden death of large
population of fishes. This phenomenon of nutrient enrichment of a water body is
called eutrophication. Human activities are mainly responsible for the eutrophication
of a growing number of lakes and water bodies in the country. Methods for control
of water pollution and water recycling
Control water pollution
Waste water from domestic or industrial sources or from garbage dumps is generally
known as sewage. It may also contain rain water and surface runoff. The sewage
water can be treated to make it safe for disposal into water bodies like rivers, lakes
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 etc. The treatment involves three stages: primary, secondary and tertiary. This
includes: Sedimentation, coagulation/flocculation, filtration, disinfection, softening
and aeration. The first four steps are primary treatment. The first three steps are
involved in primary treatment remove suspended particulate matter. Secondary
treatment removes organic solids, left out after primary treatment, through their
microbial decomposition. Effluents after secondary treatment may be clean but
contain large amounts of nitrogen, in form of ammonia, nitrates and phosphorous
which can cause problem of eutrophication upon their discharge into a receiving water
body such as river, lake or pond. The tertiary treatment is meant to remove nutrients,
disinfect for removing pathogenic bacteria, and aeration removes hydrogen sulphide
and reduce the amount of carbon dioxide and make water healthy and fit for aquatic
organisms. This treatment of waste water or sewage is carried out in effluent treatment
plants especially built for this purpose. The residue obtained from primary treatment
one known as sludge.
Water recycling with increasing population the requirement for water is increasing
rapidly. However, the availability of water is limited but an ever increasing water
withdrawal from different sources such as rivers, lakes and ground water is depleting
these sources and deteriorating their water quality. Therefore, it is essential to utilize
the available water with maximum economy. This involves recycling of waste water
for certain uses with or without treatment. Recycling refers to the use of waste-water
by the original user prior to the discharge either to a treatment system or to a receiving
water body. Thus the waste water is recovered and repetitively recycled with or
without treatment by the same user.
Control of water pollution
The following measures can be adopted to control water pollution:
(a) The water requirement should be minimized by altering the techniques involved.
(b) Water should be reused with or without treatment.
(c) Recycling of water after treatment should be practiced to the maximum extent
possible. (d) The quantity of waste water discharge should be minimized.
Activities

1. Name the metals in water that cause Minamata and Itaiitai diseases.
2. When fertilizers and sewage enter a water body, phytoplankton and algae grow rapidly.
What is this phenomenon?
3. What is primary treatment?
4. The water used for cooling purposes in industries may be drained industrial into rivers. To
what extent does this raise the water temperature of the river?
5. What effect does thermal pollution have on the swimming efficiency of fish?
6. What effect does thermal pollution have on metabolism of aquatic animals?
7. State the term for residue left after primary treatment of waste water.
3. Soil pollution

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Addition of substances which adversely affect the quality of soil or its fertility is known as
soil pollution. Generally polluted water also pollute soil. Solid waste is a mixture of plastics,
cloth, glass, metal and organic matter, sewage, sewage sludge, building debris, generated from
households, commercial and industries establishments add to soil pollution. Fly ash, iron and
steel slag, medical and industrial wastes disposed on land are important sources of soil
pollution. In addition, fertilizers and pesticides from agricultural use which reach soil as
runoff and land filling by municipal waste are growing cause of soil pollution. Acid rain and
dry deposition of pollutants on land surface also contribute to soil pollution.

Sources of soil pollution

Plastic bags made from low density polyethylene (LDPE), is virtually indestructible, create
colossal environmental hazard. The discarded bags block drains and sewage systems. Leftover
food, vegetable waste etc. on which cows and dogs feed may die due to the choking by plastic
bags. Plastic is non-biodegradable and burning of plastic in garbage dumps release highly
toxic and poisonous gases like carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, phosgene, dioxine and other
poisonous chlorinated compounds.

Industrial sources: It includes fly ash, chemical residues, metallic and nuclear wastes. Large
number of industrial chemicals, dyes, acids, etc. find their way into the soil and are known to
create many health hazards including cancer.

Agricultural sources: Agricultural chemicals especially fertilizers and pesticides pollute the
soil. Fertilizers in the runoff water from these fields can cause eutrophication in water bodies.
Pesticides are highly toxic chemicals which affect humans and other animals adversely
causing respiratory problems, cancer and death.

Control of soil pollution

Indiscriminate disposal of solid waste should be avoided. To control soil pollution, it is

essential to stop the use of plastic bags and instead use bags of degradable materials like paper
and cloth. Sewage should be treated properly before using as fertilizer and as landfills. The
organic matter from domestic, agricultural and other waste should be segregated and subjected
to vermicomposting which generates useful manure as a byproduct. The industrial wastes
prior to disposal should be properly treated for removing hazardous materials. Biomedical
waste should be separately collected and incinerated in proper incinerators.

Activities
1. Define soil pollution.
2. Why are plastic bags a big environmental nuisance?
3. How vermicomposting degrades organic waste into a useful substance? What is this
substance used for?

Radiation pollution: sources and hazards

Radiation pollution is the increase in over the natural background radiation. There are many
sources of radiation pollution such as nuclear wastes from nuclear power plants, mining and
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processing of nuclear material etc. The worst case of nuclear pollution was the Chernobyl
disaster in Russia occurred in 1986 but the effects still longer today.
Radiation is a form of energy travelling through space. The radiation emanating from the
decay of radioactive nuclides are a major sources of radiation pollution. Radiations can be
categorized into two groups namely the non-ionizing radiations and the ionizing radiations.

Non-ionizing radiations are constituted by the electromagnetic waves at the longer

wavelength of the spectrum ranging from near infra-red rays to radio waves. These waves
have energies enough to excite the atoms and molecules of the medium through which they
pass, causing them to vibrate faster but not strong enough to ionize them. In a microwave
oven the radiation causes water molecules in the cooking medium to vibrate faster and thus
raising its temperature.

Ionizing radiations cause ionization of atoms and molecules of the medium through which
they pass. Electromagnetic radiations such as short wavelength ultra violet radiations (UV),
X-rays and gamma rays and energetic particles produced in nuclear processes, electrically
charged particles like alpha and beta particles produced in radioactive decay and neutrons
produced in nuclear fission, are highly damaging to living organisms. Electrically charged
particles produced in the nuclear processes can have sufficient energy to knock electrons out
of the atoms or molecules of the medium, thereby producing ions. The ions produced in water
molecules, for example, can induce reactions that can break bonds in proteins and other
important molecules. An example of this would be when a gamma ray passes through a cell,
the water molecules near the DNA might be ionized and the ions might react with the DNA
causing it to break. They can also cause chemical changes by breaking the chemical bonds,
which can damage living tissues. The ionizing radiations cause damage to biological systems
and are, therefore, pollutants.

Radiation damage the biological damage resulting from ionizing radiations is generally
termed as radiation damage. Large amounts of radiation can kill cells that can dramatically
affect the exposed organism as well as possibly its offspring. Affected cells can mutate and
result in cancer. A large enough dose of radiation can kill the organism. Radiation damage can
be divided into two types:

(a) Somatic damage (also called radiation sickness) and

(b) Genetic damage. Somatic damage refers to damage to cells that are not associated with
reproduction. Effects of somatic radiation damage include reddening of the skin, loss of
hair, ulceration, fibrosis of the lungs, the formation of holes in tissue, a reduction of white
blood cells, and the induction of cataract in the eyes. This damage can also result in cancer
and death. Genetic damage refers to damage to cells associated with reproduction. This
damage can subsequently cause genetic damage from gene mutation resulting in
abnormalities. Genetic damages are passed on to next generation.

Radiation dose-the biological damage caused by the radiation is determined by the intensity
of radiation and duration of the exposure. It depends on the amount of energy deposited by the
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radiation in the biological system. In studying the effects of radiation exposure in humans, it is
important to realize that the biological damage caused by a particle depends not only on the
total energy deposited but also on the rate of energy loss per unit distance traversed by the
particle (or “linear energy transfer”). For example, alpha particles do much more damage per
unit energy deposited than do electrons.

Radiation effects and radiation doses-A traditional unit of human-equivalent dose is the
rem, which stands for radiation equivalent in man. At low doses, such as what we receive
every day from background radiation (< 1 m rem), the cells repair the damage rapidly. At
higher doses (up to 100 rem), the cells might not be able to repair the damage, and the cells
may either be changed permanently or die. Cells changed permanently may go on to produce
abnormal cells when they divide and may become cancerous. At even higher doses, the cells
cannot be replaced fast enough and tissues fail to function. An example of this would be
“radiation sickness.” This is a condition that results after high doses is given to the whole
body (>100 rem). Nuclear explosions and accidents in nuclear reactors are a serious source of
radiation hazard. The effects of atomic explosions in Nagasaki and Hiroshima are still not
forgotten. The nuclear reactor accident at Chernobyl in 1986 led to deaths of many reactor
personnel and a very large release of radionuclide to the environment causing a long term
radiation damage to the people living in the neighboring regions.

Accidents at nuclear power plants nuclear fission in the reactor core produces lot of heat
which if not controlled can lead to a meltdown of fuel rods in the reactor core. If a meltdown
happens by accident, it will release large quantities of highly dangerous radioactive materials
in the environment with disastrous consequences to the humans, animals and plants. To
prevent this type of accidents and reactor blow up, the reactors are designed to have a number
of safety features. Inspite of these safety measures two disasters in the nuclear power plants
are noteworthy- namely at „Three Mile Island‟ in Middletown (U.S.A.) in 1979, at Chernobyl
(U.S.S.R.) in 1986. In both these cases a series of mishaps and errors resulted in over heating
of the reactor core and lot of radiation was released into the environment. The leakage from
Three Mile Island reactor was apparently low and no one was injured immediately. However,
in case of Chernobyl the leakage was very heavy causing death of some workers and radiation
spread over large areas scattered all over Europe. People of the city had to be evacuated to
safer places and the plant had to be closed down. These two disasters are a reminder that
nuclear power reactors require a constant up gradation of safety measures. Accidents with
nuclear submarines also points to the same.

Activities

1. Which type of radiations are produced in a microwave oven?

2. State the use of absorbed dose of radiation.
3. How much of radiation can damage internal organs upon its exposure for a few days?
4. What are ionizing and non-ionizing radiations? Give examples.

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 Chapter Nine

Introduction to Botany and Zoology

Learning objectives

After completion of this unit, students will be expected to:

 describe features of algae

 explain different characteristics of algae
 describe the major features of bryophytes and pteridophytes
 what are the major features and groups of seed plants?

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  Define invertebrates and vertebrates
 Identify and use key features to differentiate between invertebrate groups
 Differentiate the characteristics of vertebrates
 Classify invertebrates and vertebrate’s animals
 Services provided by invertebrates

9.1. Introduction to Botany

Brain Storming Questions
1.
What is Botany?
2.
What are various branches of botany?
3.
What organisms are addressed/studied under each sub disciplines of botany
Botany is one of the main branches of Biology concerned with the scientific study of plants.
Botany has several branches. Like algology, bryology, pteridology, plant physiology, plant
ecology, plant anatomy, plant nutrition, plant pathology, dendrology, photochemistry, cell
biology, histology, phytopathology, phytogeography, geobotany, paleo botany, cell
phytopathology, phytogeography, geobotany and paleo botany are some of the major
branches.
9.1.1. Algology
Algology (phycology) is a branch of botany deals with algae. It is derived from two Greek
words: Phycos=algae; Logos=study. This discipline deals with the morphology, phylogeny
(tree of Life), biology, reproduction and ecology of algae in all ecosystems. Algae can be
defined as: simple, eukaryotic, autotrophic, have a various range of cell morphologies and
diversified life cycle organisms. They differ widely in their distribution, structure,
biochemical traits and reproduction (sexual and asexual). They lack the roots, stems, leaves &
vascular tissues. Algae show the following major morphological variations:
 Unicellular: single celled algae.
 Colonial: An assemblage of individual cells together.
 Filamentous: a morphology in which daughter cells remain attached after cell
division.
 Saponaceous: a morphology in which one large, multi-nucleate cell without cross
walls.
Algae reproduce both asexually and sexually. The common methods of asexual reproductions
are: binary fission, fragmentation, homogony and spore production. Isogamy and hierogamy
are the two common sexual reproduction methods.
Ecology and Distribution of Algae
Generally, algae can be found everywhere in nature. They are found from marine to fresh
water, terrestrial land, shaded areas, etc. Various terminologies are applied for microhabitats
of algae. For example, Epipelic: algae live on clay; Epipamic: algae live on sand; Epileptic:
algae live on rocks; Epiphytic: algae live/grow on other plants; Endozoic/epizoic: Live in or
on animals
Currently, there are different divisions of algae. The most common are listed below.
 Cyanophyta: a group of blue green algae includes Nostoc, Anabaena, Spirullin,

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 Oscilatotia, etc.
 Chlorophyta: a group of green algae includes Spirogyra, Volvox, Oedogonium, Chlorella,
and others.
 Phaeophyta: a group of brown algae includes Fucus, Laminaria, Sargassum, Ectocarpus 
Rhodophyta: a group of red algae includes Polysiphonia, Coralline, etc.
 Charophyta: Commonly known as stoneworts, usually preferred less oxygenated & hard
water (Ca and Mg carbonates) areas. Example Chara, Vaucheria, etc.
 Euglenophyta: Unicellular fresh water algae, plant-animal feature. Example Euglena.
 Bacillariophyta: Especial group of algae, abundant in sediments in marine and freshwater
ecosystems. Example Diatoms.
Economical uses of Algae
Algae have various economical uses like:
 Primary Producers
 As Fertilizers
 Sources of Iodine
 In biological research
 Pharmaceutical, cosmetic, and industrial applications
 Source of different compounds, like: agar, carrageenan sand alginates
 Applications in Pisciculture
 Biofuel production
 Carbon sequestration
 Bioremediation
9.1.2. Bryology and Pteridology

Bryology is a science mosses and liverworts (Bryophyte). Pteridology is the science of ferns
and their relatives. Division Bryophyte is divided in to 3 classes. These are:
• Class Hepaticopsida (Liverworts)
• Class Anthocertopsida (Hornworts)
• Class Bryopsida (Mosses)
Liverworts are given their name because the lobes of their gametophyte plant resemble to the
liver of human, wort - means "plant". Most species are leafy resemble mosses while others are
thaloid superficially resembling lichens. Their thallus is attached to the substrate by
unicellular rhizoids. There are about 8500 species of liverworts. Liverworts range in size from
tiny, leafy filaments less than 0.5 mm in diameter to a thallus more than 20 cm wide.

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Fig: 9.1. Marchantia (Liverwort)

Hornworts are a group of small, inconspicuous thaloid plants that often grow on moist soils.
They consist of only about 400 named species. They are different from all other
embryophytesin having a single large chloroplast (occasionally two to four) per cell and
chloroplasts have a pyrenoid, both algal feature and absent in all other embryophytes.

Mosses are perennial & remarkably successful plants. Although the mosses are small plants,
they are conspicuous (their wide range of habitats, soft texture and pleasant green
appearance). About 12,000 species of mosses are known. They are the largest and most
familiar group of bryophytes.

The division Pteridophytes also categorized in to four main groups. Namely Psilophyta,
Lycopsida (containing lycopodiales, selaginellales, isoetes), Sphenopsida and
Pteropsida.Psilophyta are characterized by aerial stem, bear small scale like leaves that are
epidermal in origin. This scale like leaves (Propyls) do not have vascular tissues which
resemble the leaves of bryophyte in having no vascular strand and regarded as appendages
rather than true leaves. Like all other vascular plants, Psilotales possess stomata, but unlike
other vascular plants the stomata are found in the epidermis of the stem.
Lycophyta are also characterized or distinguished form members of Psilotals by having true
leaves and roots; by association of their sporangia with fertile leaves-sporophylls. They are
known as club mosses because of their small size and their moss like leaves. Dear students,
please read about different divisions of Pteridophytes from various books.

9.1.3. Seed plants

Another important and dominant group of plants are called seed plants. Seed is the product of
the fertilized ovule. Seed is a culmination of the activities of one plant generation and the start
of a new one that contains embryo for survival value. The plant world is dominated by
gymnosperms and angiosperms, which are collectively known as seed plants
orspermatophytes. They are the most important plants on Earth unlike other seedless plants

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(mosses, liverworts, horsetails), which are overlooked because of their size or inconspicuous
appearance. Life on land as we know it is shaped largely by the activities of seed plants. Soil,
forest, and food are some of the most apparent products of this group.

The angiosperms or flowering plants are the most advanced one now a day.Most land plants
familiar to us belong to this groupincludes from grasses to cactuses, tiny herbs to large trees.
This huge and diverse group is divided again into two subgroups; monocotyledons (grasses,
crops, lilies and palms) and dicotyledons(Olea, Ficus, beans, peas, chickpea, etc…).

Seeds contain: embryo, food, endosperm, seed coat or testa and sporophyte. The embryo
within the seed is dormant; it can survive for long periods without additional food or water.
When conditions become favorable, the embryo resumes growth as the seed germinates i. e
upon germination the seeds produce the sporophyte. Seeds have freedom from external water
for transfer of the male gamete or spermatozoids to the female gamete or egg cells. They
produce pollen and pollen tube. Endosperm provides nourishment or food supply for the
growing embryo (young sporophyte).

Seed plants have distinct features. They producetwo major features that distinctly distinguish
them from other plants. The first is the seed. The production of seed is a very advanced stage
in plant life. The second is wood. The possession of wood is also another very important
feature. Therefore, the production of seed and wood, which other non-seed plants cannot
produce are unique features.
Seed plants have also haveother many features in common, like:

 The dominant phase is represented by the sporophyte, which is differentiated into

roots, stems and leaves or shoot.

 The leaves of seed plants are megaphyllous.

 The gametophytes (male and female) are protected from desiccation and injury by the
protective covering of the ovules called integuments and later embryo is protected by
the seed coat ortesta.

The generalized life cycle of seed plants, which have separate male and female gametophytes
produced by different sized spores is indicated below the Figure.

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Fig:9.2. Generalized life cycle of seed plants

Seed plants are broadly divided in to two. These are Gymnosperms and angiosperms. The
following are common characteristics of gymnosperms.

Gymnospermsare distinguished from angiosperms recently. At one time, they were

considered to be a single class of seed plants. The term gymnosperm derived from two Greek
words (gymnos- naked, sperma-seed=naked seed plants). Plants with seeds that are not
enclosed within a fruit- seeds are produced on the open surface of the cones or cups. They do
not form true flowers and fruits. They were the first true seed plants. Most are tall evergreen
trees with roots, wood and stems. They are needle shaped leaves. Have vascular tissues for
transport and reproductive structures are found on cones. Seeds are found in female cones.

Angiosperms are the largest group of seed plants with about 90% of all plant species. Their
name Angiosperm derived from Greek words, Angio-container/vessel and sperma- seed= seed
enclosed in vessel or fruits. They are the most abundant and recognized plants. These plants
are a gain divided into two main groups (monocots & dicots) based on cotyledons. They
produce seeds in flowers they do have fruits and advanced vascular tissues.

9.2. Introduction to Zoology

9.2.1. Invertebrates

There are over a million described species of animals. Of this number about 5% possess a
backbone and are known as vertebrates. All others, constituting the greater part of the animal
kingdom, are invertebrates. The Invertebrates therefore include 95% of all species in the
animal kingdom plus more than half of the animal-like members of the kingdom protista.

Self-test

1. Write the general characteristics of invertebrates.

2. List down major classes of invertebrates

9.1.1 General Characteristics of Invertebrates

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 → Invertebrates are animals without backbones.
→ Invertebrates are by far the most numerous animals on earth and heterogeneous
assemblage of groups that do not hold a single positive characteristic in common.
→ Invertebrates are multicellular, heterotrophs and motile animals but the adult forms of
some lower invertebrate species are sessile, belonging to a group of filter feeders.
→ Invertebrates are varying in size, in structural diversity, and in adaptations to different
modes of existence.
→ Invertebrates able to exhibit all types of reproduction.
→ Invertebrates can be categorized as acoelomates, pseudocoelomates or coelomates.
→ Invertebrates show radial symmetry, bilateral symmetry or they may be assymetric.
→ Invertebrates are with different stages of organization.
→ Some invertebrates have common phylogenetic origin; others are only remotely
related. Some are much more closely related to the vertebrates than to other
invertebrate groups.

9.1.2 Classification of Invertebrates

Zoologists classify invertebrates into different major groups, known as phyla. These phyla
vary enormously in the number of species they contain. The major phyla are described as
following:

A. Phylum Porifera (Sponges)

The word Porifera has been adopted from the Latin porus for pore and Ferre to bear, hence
sponges are called “pore bearing animals” since their body wall is perforated by numerous
tiny pores. The phylum comprises the most primitive and simple multicellular animals that
lack organs. Compared with other metazoans, sponges‟s cells show a high degree of
interdependence that the sponge body resembles a protozoan colony in some respects.
General characteristics
• Sponges are the most primitive metazoans.
• They are mostly marine; all aquatic in habitat.
• Radial symmetry or asymmetrical.
• They are diploblastic animals (Having two germ layers ectoderm (pinacoderm) and
endoderm (chanoderm)).
• The bodies of the sponges are supported by spicules made up of calcium, silica or
sponging fibres.
• All adults sessile and attached to substratum.
• Sponges can vary in size from one-millimeter to one meter.
• They are filter-feeders (the separation of suspended food particles from water by
passing them through a mesh that strains out the food).
• The body wall has numerous pores called ostia. The body encloses large cavity called
spongocoel
• Gas exchange: As water passes through the sponge, each cell is responsible for
exchanging O2 and CO2 across the cell membrane by simple diffusion.
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 • Reproduction is both by sexual or asexual reproduction by budding or by specialized
cell called gemmules. Gemmules develop into new sponges during favourable
conditions.
• Sponges show greater power of regeneration.
• Classes of Porifera: Class Calcarea (calcispongiae), Class Hexactinellida
(Hyalospongiae) or 'Glass sponges', and Class Demospongiae

B. Phylum Radiata

The first groups of true Metazoa (Eumetazoa) are called radiates. The Eumetazoa can be
divided into the Radiata, which are characterized by a primary radial or biradial symmetry,
and the Bilateria, which have a bilateral symmetry. The Radiata are the most primitive of
the Eumetazoa. The radiate animals are made up of two phyla, namely Cnidaria and
Ctenophora, which have got their common name from the type of symmetry they have.

General Characteristic of Radiate Animals

 Both phyla Cnidaria and Ctenophora make up the radiate animals.
 Other eumetazoans have bilateral symmetry or radial symmetry.
 Neither Cnidaria nor Ctenophora have advanced beyond tissue level of organization.
 Both phyla have two well-defined germ layers: ectoderm and endoderm; mesoderm
may be derived from ectoderm.
 There is an internal body cavity: the gastrovascular cavity.
 Extracellular digestion occurs in the gastrovascular cavity; gastrodermal cells
accomplish cellular digestion.
 Most have tentacles, which are extensible projections for food capture.
 Radiates are the simplest animals with nerve cells; there is no central nervous system.
 Radiates are the simplest animals with sense organs: statocysts and ocelli.
 Locomotion is by muscular contraction or ciliary comb plates.
 The polyp and medusa forms allow wider ecological possibilities.
 Unique features include nematocysts- defense, prey capture, and temporary anchorage
of the body to a substrate in cnidarian, colloblasts and ciliary comb plates in
ctenophores.
 Cnidaria have two basic body plans.: polyp and medussa
A polyp is a hydroid form.
Polyps are an adaptation to a sedentary life.
The body is tubular with the mouth directed upward and surrounded by
tentacles.
The aboral end is attached to a substrate by a pedal disc.
Only have a small amount of mesoglea.
In colonial forms, the polyps may be specialized for feeding, reproduction or
defense.
e.g. Sea anemones and corals are all polyps with no medusa stage
Medusa form

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 • Bell or umbrella shaped body, with the mouth is directed downward.
• Small tentacles, directed downward.
• Possess a large amount of mesoglea.
• Motile, move by weak contractions of body.

Fig:9.3: a) Polypoid body form. b) Medusoid body form

 Classification of the Phylum Cnidaria: There are approx 9200 species classified into
four classes: Hydrozoa (freshwater hydra, fire coral) 3000 spp; Scyphozoa (true
jellyfish) 200 spp; Cubozoa (box jellyfish) 20 spp; and Anthozoa (true coral, sea
anemones, sea pens) 6000 spp.
 Phylum Ctenophora (Comb-jellies). E.g. Class Nuda and Class Tentaculata

C. Acoelomate Bilateria

Common features of Acoelomates

 Have no coelom (body cavity).

 The space between the body wall and the digestive tract is filled with muscle fibers
and loose tissue called parenchyma.
 They have bilateral symmetry.
 They have defined tissues organized into functional organs.
 They have a highly organized nervous system with concentration of nervous tissue
and sense organs in the anterior end (cephalization).
 They have an excretory system of specialized flame cells and tubules for elimination
of nitrogenous wastes.
 Platyhelminthes have a gastrovascular system, but ribbon worms have separated the
two functions and have a complete mouth-to-anus digestive tract and a circulatory
system.
 Flatworms have a tissue-organ level of organization.
 Acoelomates include:
-flatworms, phylum Platyhelminthes (Gr. platys, flat, + helmins, worm) -ribbon
worms, phylum Nemertea (Gr. Nemertes, one of the Nereids, mermaids of
Greek mythology) and
-Jaw worms, phylum Gnathostomulida (Gr. gnathos, jaw, + stoma, mouth).

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  Flatworms (phylum Platyhelminthes) are divided into four classes:
1. Class Turbellaria – Free living Flatworms
2. Class Trematodes - parasitic flukes
3. Class Monogenea – parasitic monogenetic flukes
4. Class Cestoda – tapeworms

Fig: 9.4. Flat worm

i)Class Turbellaria
Contains mostly free-living forms ranging in size from a few mm to 60 cm. Most species are
bottom dwellers in marine and freshwater environments that crawl over rocks, sand or
vegetation. Smaller forms can swim by means of ventral cilia. Larger forms use powerful
muscle contractions to crawl or swim.
Unique to turbellarians are rod-shaped epidermal bodies called rhabdites, found among the
ventral epidermal cells of the body surface. o They are produced by epidermal gland cells
o These rhabdites secrete thick mucus that coats the animal's body, possibly for
protection against predators or to prevent drying.
Epidermal duo-gland adhesive organs produce secretions that anchor the organism to the
substrate.
In terms of nutrition, most turbellarians are predators and scavengers.
Epidermal mucous secretions trap and kill prey items (dual-gland adhesive organ may help
anchor animal while struggling to subdue prey).
In terms of gas exchange, internal transport and excretion, flatworms have a high enough
surface area to volume ratio to accomplish these tasks by simple diffusion.
Excretion and Osmoregulation - a network of water collecting tubules adjacent to flame cells
or a protonephridia o When cilia beat they move water into the tubules and out the body
through pores called nephridiopores
Example: Planarians are also known for their tremendous powers of regeneration,
and a planarian that has been cut into three pieces will give rise to three new complete
individuals!

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Fig:9.5 Regeneration in Planaria ii) Class Monogenea
- This class derives its name from the fact there is only one host in its life cycle.
- They are also distinguished from the digenetic trematodes in having a large, posterior
adhesive organ called the opisthaptor.
- The opisthaptor is a large muscular organ which attaches to the host by suckers and
hooks.
- The class is primarily parasitic on marine and freshwater fish, but reptiles, amphibians,
and invertebrates may serve as host.
- They are ectoparasites for the most part, but some attach in body chambers with
external openings as mouth, gills, and urogenital tract.
- Eggs are shelled.
- Eggs, upon hatching, release a free-swimming larva called the onchomiracidium.
- Polystoma integerrimum is a species found in the bladder of frogs and toads.
- It synchronizes its life cycle with that of the host.
o Eggs of Polystoma are shed when the frog returns to the water to breed.
- The onchomiracidium then attaches to the gills of the tadpole.
- From there it passes from gut to bladder as the tadpole metamorphoses.
- Gyrodactylus is an ectoparasite of gills and body surfaces of marine and freshwater
fish. It often becomes a serious pest in hatcheries.

D. Class Trematoda
 Contains about 8,000 species of leaf-like animals called the (digenetic) flukes.
 The adults are endoparasites on vertebrates but many invertebrates serve as
intermediate hosts
 Many species are of medical and economic importance!
 Development in Trematodes is indirect; not only adults but also the larvae reproduce
 All species have at least two hosts, one for transmission and the other for reproduction.
 The outer covering is a tegument that does not bear cilia in the adult.
 The tegument is syncytial.
 The outer most zone of the tegument consists of an organic layer of proteins and
carbohydrates called the glycocalyx.
o Aids in the transport of nutrients, wastes and gases across the body wall.
o Protecting the fluke against enzymes and the host's immune system.
 Microvilli are also found in this zone and used to increases the surface area for nutrient
absorption.
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  Movement in flukes is entirely muscular (no cilia on the outer body wall of adults).
 The vast majority of flukes possess two large suckers that are used for attachment:
an anterior one called an oral sucker, which surround the mouth and a posterior one
called a ventral sucker, or acetabulum.
 The class Trematoda contains two subclasses, o The subclass Digenea is a large and
successful group with much economic importance to mankind.
o The subclass Aspidogastrea is a small group of absolutely no economic
importance to mankind at all.
Subclass Digenea (The Flukes)
The Digeneans are a large and successful group of parasites.
There are about 6,000 species known to science.
They all have complicated life cycles involving at least one intermediate host, which is
normally an aquatic snail as well as the primary host which is normally a vertebrate.
They have two suckers. An oral sucker around the mouth and a ventral sucker, the
acetabulum, about midway down the body.
o The oral sucker has two functions, a) hold the animal to its host and
b) assist in feeding. o
The ventral sucker is used for attachment.

E. Phylum Nematoda (also called roundworms) General

characteristics
-Are pseudocoelomate
More than 25,000 species.
Nematodes are an extensive group with worldwide distribution.
Bilateral symmetry
Triploblastic structure (endoderm, mesoderm and ectoderm)
Some degree of cephalization = head with sensory organs
 Some organ systems (formed of true tissues) are present
 They are elongated roundworms covered with a flexible, nonliving cuticle.
 Complete digestive tract with three angled (longitudinal, circular and oblique)
muscular pharynx, intestine lacking muscular walls, short rectum and anus
 Excretion and osmoregulation through the cuticle and by excretory canals
 Lack both cilia and flame cells/bulbs
 Longitudinal muscles only, no circular muscles in body wall.
 Free living, aquatic, terrestrial and many parasitic
 A handful of good garden soil contains thousands of nematodes.
 Some nematodes are plant parasites feeding on plant sap, especially roots.
 Caenohabditis elegans, a free-living nematode o Easy to culture in the laboratory and
has become an individual model for studies of basic developmental biology.
 Dioecious; sexes separate with females larger than males; one or two tubular gonads;
Copulatory spicules present in males

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Fig:9.6. Typical nematode

Examples of some nematode parasites

Nematodes are parasitic in humans, cats, dogs, and domestic animals of economic importance,
such as cows and sheep. They are also parasitic on the roots, stems, leaves, and flowers of
plants.
- Giant Intestinal Roundworm (Ascaris lumbricoides)
-Hookworm
-Filarial worms, Pinworm (Enterobius vermicularis)
-Porkworm (Trichinella spiralis) -Humans infected by eating improperly cooked pork
-Dog heartworms (Dirofilaria immitis

F. Coelomate Animals: Protostomes Vs Deutrostomes

Protostomes exhibit determinate development. In this type of development, each embryonic

cell has a predetermined fate in terms of what kind of tissue it will form in the adult.
Deuterostomes, on the other hand, display indeterminate development. The first few cell
divisions of the egg produce identical daughter cells. Any one of these cells, if separated from
the others, can develop into a complete organism.
In protostomes, the egg cleaves spirally, and the blastopore becomes the mouth. In
deuterostomes, the egg cleaves radially, and the blastopore becomes the anus.
In all coelomates, the coelom originates from mesoderm. In protostomes, coelom produced
simply and directly from the mesoderm. However, in deuterostomes the coelom is normally
produced by an evagination of the archenteron the central tube within the gastrula, also called
the primitive gut. This tube, lined with endoderm, opens to the outside via the blastopore and
eventually becomes the gut cavity.

Fig: 9.7. Embryonic development of Protostomes and Deutrostomes

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Phylum Annelida (segmented worms, bristle worms)
 Annelids take their name from the Latin anellus, meaning "little ring", and refers to the
ringlike constriction of the body.
 The Annelida are a medium sized phylum of more than 9,000 species of worms.
 Most species prefer aquatic environments, but there are also a number of well-known
terrestrial species.
 include earthworms, sand worms, bristle worms, clam worms, fan worms, leeches 
worldwide distribution:
o marine, brackish, freshwater and terrestrial
 Annelids are eucoelomate, with a simple tube-in-a-tube body plan.
o mesoderm on inside of body wall and outside of digestive system
 The fluid that fills the coelom serves a variety of functions.
 transports gases and nutritive materials
 provides fluid for processing excretory wastes
 functions as a hydrostatic skeleton, and
 a site for gamete maturation and brooding of embryos.
Classification of phylum Annelida
a) Class – Polychaeta (Tubeworms, Clamworms, and Fanworm
b) Class Oligochaeta (e.g Earthworms)
c) Class Hirudinea(e.g. Leech)

Phylum Arthropoda: Major Characteristics

 The name Arthropoda means “jointed foot”

 Most successful of all animals
 Represents ~ 80% of animal kingdom

– Both in species and ecological distribution 

Over a million species have been identified.
 Habitat: marine, freshwater, land, arboreal, and air!
 Size:
Biggest: king crab (12 feet including legs)
Small: example: copepod 
Body divided into 3 sections;
 head
 thorax (mid-body region) and
 abdomen
 In some arthropods, such as crabs, the head is fused with the thorax, which
forms the cephalothorax.

 Has exoskeleton- The rigid outer layer of the arthropod body, composed primarily of the
carbohydrate chitin, provides protection against predators and helps prevent water loss., an

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 exoskeleton does not grow, arthropods shed their exoskeleton periodically and form a
new, larger one.
Classification
I. Subphylum Trilobita II. Subphylum Chelicerata
Class Merostomata (horse-shoe crab)
Class Arachnida (spiders, scorpions, mites and ticks)
III. Subphylum Crustacea (shrimp, lobsters, Crayfish, water fleas, copepod & sow
bugs)
1. Class Malacostraca

– Order Decapoda
– Order Isopoda
2. Class Branchiopoda
3. Class Osracoda
4. Class Maxillopoda

– Subclass Copepoda
– Subclass Thecostraca
Infraclass Cirripoda
IV. Subphylum Myriapoda

– Class Diplopoda (e.g. millipedes)

– Class Chilopoda (e.g. centipedes)
V. Subphylum Hexapoda
–Class Insecta (insects)

Classification of class insecta

I. Subclass Aperygota (No wings)
Order Thysanura – silverfish (no metamorphosis (Ametabolous))
II. Subclass Perygota (with wings)
1. Superorder Exopterygota (incomplete metamorphosis)
1. Order Isoptera (termites)
2. Order Odonata (dragonfly)
3. Order Blattaria (cockroach)
4. Order Orthoptera (grasshopper,crickets)
5. Order Mantodea (praying mantis)
6. Order Hemiptera – true bugs
7. Order Homoptera – plant lice, lacewings
2. Superorder Endopterygota (complete metamorphosis)
1. Order Lepidoptera (butterfly) - Scaly wings
2. Order Diptera (house fly, mosquito)
3. Order Coleoptera (beetle)
4. Order Hymenoptera (ants, bees, wasps)

Activities

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 1. Compare and contrast the polyp and medusa forms of cnidarians
2. Describe the structure and function of the stinging cells for which cnidarians are
named.

9.1.3 Services Provided by Invertebrates

Self-test: How do invertebrates contribute for the betterment of human

being?

Ecosystem Services provided by Invertebrates

• Pollination- many cross pollinated plants depend on insects for pollination and fruit
set. Eg Honey bees, aid in pollination of crops.
• Seed dispersal

• Natural enemies of other pests

• Decomposition

• Soil formation: Soil invertebrates include ecosystem engineers that are powerful
drivers of soil physical functions (water dynamics, aeration and protection from
erosion hazards). They play an important role in carbon cycling, as they control the
carbon sequestration process and influence greenhouse gas emission. Example, soil
insects such as ants, beetles, larval of cutworms, crickets, collumbola, make tunnels in
soil and facilitate aeration in soil. They become good manure after death and enrich
soil.

Invertebrates as a Resource Example

• Source of food for humans

• Bait for fishing
• Sponges for bathing
• Corals, Conchs, Oysters and others for jewelry

• Bees as pollinators of crops: Honey bees are mass produced and transported to farms

during flowering periods to insure adequate pollination of crop plants, without

pollination fruits and vegetables from insect pollinated crops will not be produced.
• Wasps, beetles, mantids, spiders, for biocontrol

• Medicinal use of leeches: Medicinal leeches are still used to reduce bruising and

scarring after surgery

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Fig: 9.8. Medicinal uses of leech

• Target of bio-prospecting: Invertebrates could serve as a source of biochemicals

useful in medicine and other applications

• Cloth production (silk from- silkworm)

Fig: 9.9. Silk production from silk worm

Pharmacologically active Compounds from Invertebrates

• Ecteinascidin – from tunicates – tested for treatment of breast and ovarian cancers
• Topsentin – from sponges – anti-inflammatory
• Lasonolide – from sponge (Forcepia sp). – anti-tumor
• Discodermalide – from sponges (Discomermia) – anti-tumor Bryostatin – from Bryozoan
(Bugula neritina) – anti cancer
• Pseudopterosins – from octocoral (Pseudoterogorgia elisabethae) – anti-infammatory and
analgesic agents that reduce swelling and skin irritation

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• Omega Conotoxin MVIIA – extracted from cone snails (Conus magnus) – potent pain
killer
Invertebrates as Food Examples,
• Mollusca (squid, mussels, clams, oysters, scallops, snails, abalone)
• Crustacea (shrimp, lobsters, crabs, spider crabs)
• Insecta (beetles, ants, termites, grasshoppers, bees)
• Echinodermata (sea cucumbers, sea urchins)
• Cnidaria (jellyfish)
• Annelida (palolo worms)
Bait for Fishing
• Earthworms (Oligochaeta)
• Insect larvae (Neuroptera – night crawlers)
• Shrimp, etc.
Invertebrate used in Jewelry:
• Morpho butterflies
• Scarab beetles
• Rare corals
• Oysters and Conchs for pearl and mother of pear
9.2 Subphylum Vertebrates
9.2.1 Characteristics of vertebrates

i) Head with brain and skull ii) Vertebral column – during development in most (all but
Myxini), surrounding and ultimate replacement of notochord by bony or bone-like, hollow
vertebrae; also, encase brain in protective box (skull or cranium) of bone or cartilage iii).
Neural crest ectoderm – a unique set of stem cells that form near neural tube and migrate
during development, involved in forming a variety of structures.
iv) Highly developed internal organs:
• unique kidney and excretory system
• endocrine glands (make many hormones)
• specialized heart; closed circulatory system
v) Endoskeleton made of cartilage and/or bone:

 cartilage and bone are tissues with compacted collagen protein fibers
 collagen matrix laid down first (provides flexibility)
 for bone, calcium phosphate is then deposited (provides rigidity)
 better than chitin – strong but not brittle (if you get enough calcium)

9.2.2 Classification of Vertebrates

Vertebrates are diverse, there are about 53, 000 living vertebrates. They are divided into two
super classes and 9 classes.
Subphylum vertebrata Superclass Agnatha (jawless fish)
Class Myxini – hagfish
Class Pteraspidomorphi – lampreys
Superclass Gnathostomata (jawed vertebrates)
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 Class Chondrichthyes: cartilaginous fishes
Class Sarcopterygii:sarcopterygians or fleshy-finned fishes
Class Actinopterygii: ray-finned fishes
Class Amphibia – frogs, salamanders, caecilians
Class Reptilia – turtles, tuatara, lizard. Snake, crocodiles
Class Aves – birds
Class- Mammalia
1. Superclass Agnatha (grade) – jawless fishes A.
Class Myxini (clade) – hagfishes:
• the hagfishes alive today are of uncertain origin, may not be properly classified
• temperate oceans
• cannot regulate body salts
• slime glands, no vertebrae (so, craniates but not really vertebrates)
B. Class Cephalaspidomorphi: Lampreys
- Occur in both marine and fresh waters
-About half of all species are ectoparasites of fish (the others are non-feeding as adults and
live only a few months). Parasitic lampreys have a sucker-like mouth with which they attach
to fish and rasp away at them with their keratinized teeth.
The lamprey produces an anticoagulant as it feeds to maintain blood flow.
-Has only one heart , pairs of gills each with a gill opening, one kidney only and eyes
moderately developed
- Separate sexes with long larval stage and radical metamorphosis.Lampreys spawn in streams
and the larvae (ammocoetes) live and grow as filter feeders in the stream for 3-7 years before
maturing into an adult.

Fig: 9.9. Lamp ray

2. Superclass Gnathostomata - Jawed vertebrates

There are two groups of living jawed fish
a. Class Chondrichthyes (cartilaginous fish), such as sharks, skates, rays and ratfish.
b. Class Osteichthyes (bony fish), grouped in to two: the Sarcopterygi (lob-finned fish) and
the Actinopterygi (ray-finned fish).
a) Characteristics of Class Chondrichthyes

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  may have evolved from a placoderm (or form a clade with placoderms)
 They were the first to evolve jaws (derived from first pair of gills) that greatly
enhanced their ability to feed on potential food sources.
 They also evolved paired fins – pectoral up front, pelvic behind – that allowed greater
swimming ability.
 Uses large, oily liver-for buoyancy
 have lost bone and have calcified cartilage instead
 jaw improved over that of placoderms, opens wider
 shark teeth developed from rough scales; as part of skin, are continually replaced
 built better for swimming than placoderms: more streamlined body, better fins
 sharks became dominant predators after the Devonian, have remained as such through
today.
 Scale-Rough, sand-paper like placoid scales
 Reproduction - Internal fertilization
b) Characteristics of Class Osteichthyes (bony fishes): grouped in to two: the Sarcopterygi
(lob-finned fish-e.g.. coelacanth and lungfishes) and the Actinopterygi (ray-finned fish). This
group includes the vast majority of freshwater and marine fish. These fish retain a bony
skeleton. Bony fish has the following structures:

i) Swim bladder
 internal structure filled with air (usually via gases released from blood) -used to
maintain
buoyancy
 amount of air can be adjusted, used to regulate body density and thus depth in
water
 derived from lung, a primitive structure used to breathe air ii) Lateral line
system
 found in other jawed fishes, but most prominent in bony fishes
 system of pores along body
 used to sense vibrations in water; both moving and still objects can be detected
iii) Operculum or gill cover
• allows greater diversity in food capture and preparation
• increases breathing effectiveness (throat muscles aid in breathing) can
breathe without swimming, unlike sharks.

Activities

1. State at least three major characteristic features of Gnathostomes.

2. What is the distinguishing feature of each of the fish classes?
3. Why are you not likely to see members of the super class Agnathans around?
your area?
4. Collect a fish from the aquarium or lake and attempt to classify as either
cartilaginous or bony fish.

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Amphibians (Class Amphibia)

Amphibians are cold blooded animal with moist, hairless skin through which water can pass
in and out. Nearly all amphibians live the first part of their lives in water and the second part
on land-a double life reflected in the name amphibian, which comes from the Greek words
amphi, meaning “both,” and bios, meaning “life.” Amphibians were the first animals with
backbone to adapt to life on land. They are the ancestors of reptiles, which in turn gave rise
to mammals and birds.

Scientists recognize more than 5,000 species of amphibians, all of which are members of one
of three main groups: frogs and toads, salamanders, or caecilians. Frogs and toads are the
most abundant of all amphibians, numbering more than 4,000 species. Frogs have smooth
skin and long limbs. Toads, in contrast, have warty skin and short limbs.

Amphibians’ adaptations to live on land:

• Legs. Some ancestral fish undoubtedly lived in shallow freshwater marshes and
lagoons where they could find more food and deposit eggs “out of reach” of larger
aquatic predators. For a fish even partially out of water, buoyancy would be
diminished and more muscular and leg like fins would have been an enormous
advantage.
• Cutaneous respiration and lungs. Extended visits to land would have been
problematic for fish that extract oxygen from water moving through gill slits, and this
selected for fish that could absorb more oxygen directly through their skin. Gulping air
into pouches in the gut was another solution and these pouches eventually evolved into
lungs.
• Improved vascular system. Larger muscles require more oxygen, and the heart and
circulatory system allowed greater oxygen transport between the respiratory tissue and
the body.

Activity: What adaptations allowed amphibians to move out of water?

There are three orders of amphibians:

a) Salamanders and newts (Order Caudata-Urodela)

This group includes salamanders, newts and mudpuppies. The term caudata is derived from
the Latin for tail, making this group (roughly) the “tailed-amphibians”. They typically have
slender bodies with long tails, and arms and legs of equal size. Urodelas are usually found in
or near water and often reside in moist soil under rocks or logs. The adults usually spend most
of their time on land and have a diet consisting of insects and worms and burrow in mud at the
bottom of marshes.

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Fig: 9.10. Mud puppies (unusual type of salamander)

b) Frogs and toads (Order Anura)

These members of this order have the following characteristics: "Anura" comes from the Greek
words meaning no tail, making these the “tail-less amphibians”. Since their skin absorbs
oxygen most efficiently when damp and tends to lose water rapidly, remaining near water is
necessary for most frogs (and salamanders). As a defense mechanism some frogs (e.g., poison
arrow frogs) secrete potent toxins into the mucus layer of their skin. Their hind legs are longer
than front limbs; and by this they are well adapted for hopping, jumping and swimming. They
live in aquatic environment, although some are well adapted to drier habitats. Their larval also
forms are called tadpoles lacking true teeth, are usually herbivorous, and develop hind limbs
before front limbs (which is the opposite of Urodela larvae). Larvae also lack external gills,
having opercular chambers that allow water to flow over internal gills, before exiting through
a spiracle.
c) Order Gymnophiona (Caecilians). They have the following features:
-Lack legs (dig by ramming its bony head through the soft dirt)
-Members of this order are blind and legless amphibians that are shaped like worms. They
burrow in moist soil in tropical habitats of Africa and South America, feeding on soil
invertebrates such as worms and insects. Some caecilians live in moist soil that is rich in
decayed plant matter. 4. Reptiles (Class Reptilia)

There are about 6,550 living species of reptiles worldwide. Reptiles live in a wide range of
habitats, including forests, swamps, grasslands, deserts, oceans, and mountains. The name
"reptile" is generally applied to any of a group of ectodermic (cold-blooded i.e. need an
"outside" source of heat to generate adequate body heat) vertebrates in the Class Reptilian.
Reptiles must regulate their body temperature by behavior, either by basking in the sun to keep
warm or by hiding under cover to keep cool. Reptiles have dry and not slimy skin. They are
covered in scales or a shell. If they have legs, they have claws on their toes. Reptiles can be far
from water sources because their skins retain water better than that of amphibians. Reptiles lay
amniotic eggs that have a leathery shell preventing rapid water loss. Reptiles were the first
animals to fully escape a dependence upon the availability of an open body of water.
What adaptations were required for this transition?
 Thick, dry skin with scales, which was less prone to desiccation (water loss).
 Amniotic eggs were one of the most important evolutionary innovations.

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Structures of amniotic egg:
• Air cell: located in the large end of the egg.
• Yolk: the principal nutritional source for the embryo.
• Albumen: clear, cushioning protein surrounding the yolk.
• Chalazae: whitish cord-like proteins that support the yolk in the center of the albumen.
• Shell membranes: there are two of these surrounding the albumin.
• Shell: is composed mainly of protein embedded with calcium carbonate. If the hen lays
brown eggs, the brown pigments are added to the shell in the last hours of shell formation.
The shell contains several thousand pores that permit the egg to "breathe

Fig: 9. 11. Amniotic egg

 Internal fertilization. A shelled egg layed on dry land can no longer be fertilized by
sperm swimming freely in water. Internal fertilization allows sperm to swim to the
eggs in the moist interior of the female‟s body, and for fertilization to occur before the
hard shell is added around the egg.
 Breathing. Muscles of the rib cage expand and contract to pump larger quantities of
air into larger, more advanced lungs.
Classification of reptiles is still being resolved, and zoologists have been revising
the various classifications of reptiles. There are three important groups that we will
consider here:
Turtles and Tortoises (Order Chelonia): among which the body is surrounded by a
protective shell.
Lizards and Snakes (Order Squamata): Snakes evolved from a legged lizard, and
some still possess vestigial leg bones.
Crocodiles and Alligators (Order Crocodylia): In several ways crocodiles more
closely resemble birds than other reptiles, such as in building nests and caring for their
young. Possibly there was a close relationship among the dinosaur ancestors from
which crocodiles and birds descended.

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 Activity: Explain how the adaptations of early reptiles enabled these animals to live
on land?

5. Birds (Class Aves)

Birds are the direct descendents of theropod type dinosaurs, and certain key traits of birds can
be linked to anatomical features of these dinosaurs:
• Feathers are composed of the same material (keratin protein) as the scales of reptiles.
They provide efficient insulation to both hot and cold environments and form an aerodynamic
surface necessary for flight.
• Bones and skeleton adapted for flight. If you have ever carved a turkey, you have
encountered the fused collarbone called the furcula (or the „wish bone‟) and a large sternum
bone called the ‘keel’ to which the large flight muscles are attached. The bones are said to be
pneumatic (filled with air spaces) to reduce weight, and these air spaces participate in
respiratory oxygen storage.
• Endothermy or being „warm-blooded‟. Unlike modern reptiles, birds can generate
enough heat internally to regulate and maintain a constant body temperature, thus allowing
birds to inhabit habitats (think of penguins) unacceptably cold for reptiles. There is some
evidence that this trait evolved among the theropod ancestors of birds.
For terrestrial vertebrates the greatest numbers of species are found among the birds. Some
familiar birds are representatives of the major Orders, such as: Eagles and hawks,
Hummingbirds, Owls, Penguins, Pigeons, Parrots, Songbirds (robins, warblers, orioles, etc.),
Woodpecker.

Activity. Why do you think that some birds are not able to fly even if they?
have wings? Describe it.

6. Mammals (Class Mammalia)

Although mammals appear to have evolved early during the Mesozoic (even before birds),
they did not rise to predominance until the ecological niches become vacant with the demise of
the dinosaurs.

General Characteristics of mammals

• Hair, like feathers of birds evolved from the scales of a reptilian ancestor and are
composed of similar proteins. Endothermy, and insulation provided by hair, allowed
mammals to be active at night and survive even bitter arctic winters.
• Mammary Glands, which secrete milk, assured a food supply during the precarious
early life of the newborn.
• Internal fetal development. Among placental mammals (the most common type) the
circulatory system of the fetus and mother become intimately intertwined within a placenta,

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where exchange of nutrients and waste products can occur. This allows long-term internal
development of the fetus.
• A single jaw bone on either side. In all other vertebrates, there is more than one bone on
each side of the jaw.
• Four chambered heart with the main artery leaving the heart curves to the left
becoming the aortic arch. (In birds it curves to the right and in all other vertebrates there
is more than one main artery leaving the heart)
• Muscular diaphragm separates the thoracic cavity from the abdominal cavity.

Classifications of Mammals-there are three subclasses of mammals:

Infraclass Eutheria: (placentals)
This group of mammals, also known as the placental is characterized by having: - A placenta -
a reproductive structure, which is housed in the uterus of the female by which the developing
embryo connects to the mother to get nutritive support. The offspring of eutherians receives
all its nutritional needs through the placenta that links it to the mother to develop into a fully
developed organism before birth. The period of development (gestation period) varies with the
species of mammal but undoubtedly longer than that in the met therians that we have just
described above. For example, the gestation period in the whales is 2 years, in mouse 21 days,
and in humans the period is 9 months. These mammals are the most abundant and diverse of
the class representing 94% of the species of mammals.

Infraclass Metatheories (Marsupial) marsupials - kangaroo, opossum, and koala

Marsupials (e.g., kangaroos) are less common and predominate in Australia, although some
(e.g., the opossum) occur in other regions. The fetus of marsupials develops in an external
pouch of the mother. Members include the kangaroos, Opossums, and koalas.
 Monodramas (e.g., the platypus) have retained the ancestral characteristic of laying
eggs.

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 Chapter Ten
Applications of Biological Sciences

Self-test
1. Describe the application of biology in different areas such as medicine, Environmental
engineering, Bio system engineering, Chemical engineering, Biosensor technology,
industries (like Food, brewery, pharmaceutical, tannery and textile) and agriculture etc.
2.Discuss the role of biological knowledge in forensic science and warfare

10.1. Application of Biology in medicine and other health sciences (Fast diagnosis tools,
drug and vaccine production, gene therapy, immuno-diagnosis, immunotherapy,
transplantation, medicinal plants, etc.)

Biotechnology contributes much towards the growing public and global health needs. It has
revolutionized mankind since its existence. It provides effective diagnostics, prevention and
treatment measures including production of novel drugs and recombinant vaccines. It gives
effective drug delivery approaches, new methods for therapeutics, nutritionally enriched
genetically modified crops and efficient methods for environmental cleanup. Accordingly, life
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quality and expectancy have been increased worldwide through the services provided by
biotechnology.

Parasitic and infectious diseases like Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome (AIDS) and
tuberculosis (TB) have been diagnosed rapidly at relatively low cost. Molecular diagnostic
tools including polymerase chain reaction (PCR), recombinant antigens and monoclonal
antibodies have been used for this purpose. Biotechnology has also offered modern diagnostic
test kits, rickettsia, bacterial and viral vaccines along with radiolabeled biological therapeutics
for imaging and analysis. Vaccination by making recombinant vaccines has the potential to
eradicate non-communicable diseases like cancer. Naked DNA vaccines, viral vector vaccines
and plant-derived vaccines are found to be most effective against a number of bacterial and
viral diseases.
Other biological offer to health science is transplantation technology. It is the process of
moving cells, tissues or organs (called transplant, graft or organ transplant) from one site of
the body to another (within or between individuals) for the purpose of replacing or repairing
damaged or diseased organs and tissues. This is analogous to spare parts in machines.

For example, extremely thin pieces of skin could be cut free and would obtain enough
nourishment from the serum in the graft bed to stay alive while new blood vessels are being
formed. This free grafting of skin, together with the flap techniques constituted the main
therapeutic devices of the plastic surgeon in the correction of various types of defects. Skilled
manipulations of such grafts produced surprising improvements in the appearance of those
born with malformed faces and in the disfigurements resulting from severe burns. Cornea,
which structurally is a modified form of transparent skin, can also be free grafted, and corneal
grafts have restored sight to countless blind eyes.

It is extremely important that the malfunction of an organ system can be corrected with
transplantation of an organ (e.g., kidney, liver, heart, lung, or pancreas) from a donor.
However, the immune system remains the most formidable barrier to transplantation as a
routine medical treatment. The immune system has developed elaborate and effective
mechanisms to combat foreign agents. These mechanisms are also involved in the rejection of
transplanted organs, which are recognized as foreign by the recipient's immune system.
Understanding these mechanisms is important, as it aids in understanding the clinical features
of rejection and, hence, in making an early diagnosis and delivering appropriate treatment.
Knowledge of these mechanisms is also critical in developing strategies to minimize rejection
and in developing new drugs and treatments that blunt the effects of the immune system on
transplanted organs, thereby ensuring longer survival of these organs

Plants have been used as medicine since time immemorial. The FAO estimated in 2002 that
over 50,000 medicinal plants are used across the world. The WHO estimates that some 80% of
the world's population depends mainly on traditional medicine primarily of plants origin. For
standard production and utilization, WHO formulated a policy on traditional medicine in

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1991, and since then has published guidelines for them, with a series of monographs on
widely used herbal medicines.
Medicinal plants may provide three main kinds of benefit: health benefits to the people who
consume them as medicines; financial benefits to people who harvest, process, and distribute
them for sale; and society-wide benefits, such as job opportunities, taxation income, and a
healthier labor force. However, development of plants or extracts having potential medicinal
uses is blunted by weak scientific evidence, poor practices in the process of drug
development, and insufficient financing. Traditional healers, Biologist, chemical engineers
and health professionals are highly responsible to advance such huge opportunity.

10.2. The application of Biology in technology

Biological engineering, or bioengineering/bio-engineering, is the application of principles

of biology and the tools of engineering to create usable, tangible, economically viable
products. Biological engineering employs knowledge and expertise from a number of pure and
applied sciences such as mass and heat transfer, kinetics, biocatalysts, biomechanics,
bioinformatics, separation and purification processes, bioreactor design, surface science, fluid
mechanics, and polymer science. It is used in the design of medical devices, diagnostic
equipment, biocompatible materials, renewable bioenergy, ecological engineering, agricultural
engineering, and other areas that improve the living standards of societies. Examples of
bioengineering area include bacteria engineered to produce chemicals, new medical imaging
technology, portable and rapid disease diagnostic devices, prosthetics, biopharmaceuticals,
and tissue-engineered organs. Bioengineering overlaps substantially with biotechnology and
the biomedical sciences in a way analogous to how various other forms of engineering and
technology relate to various other sciences.

Bioengineers can apply their expertise to other applications of engineering and biotechnology,
including genetic modification of plants and microorganisms, bioprocess engineering, and
biocatalysts. Working with doctors, clinicians and researchers, bioengineers use traditional
engineering principles and techniques and apply them to real-world biological and medical
problems.

10.3. Application of Biology in agriculture (soil fertility, tissue culture, animal breeding
and transgenic animals, plant disease and pest management)

Food supply for the fast growing population is mainly constrained by the loss of soil fertility
and diseases of crops and animals. In addition, lack of advanced tool remains a problem. The
multiple applications of biology in agriculture have substantially improved the production and
supply of food for human as well as feed for animals. The following are some few examples
on the advancements of agricultural production involving knowledge of biology and
technology.

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Soil fertility management practices using biological knowledge include the use of organic
fertilizer, bio-fertilizers, crop rotation with legumes and the use of improved germplasm,
combined with the knowledge on how to adapt these practices to local conditions.

Plants can be propagated quickly and in large quantity by tissue culture technique. The
example is palm trees, orchids, bananas, and carrots. Using this technology large quantity of
food with desired quality can be produced in reasonably little area. Genetic Engineering has
produced seedless fruits such as watermelon, papaya, orange and grape. This will significantly
reduce the crop cycle. Moreover, farmers used to plant crops traditionally using conventional
tools. With the advancement of biology and technology, they now can plant crops in many
different cultivations ground along with more efficient cultivation methods.

Animal breeding addresses the genetic value of livestock. Selecting for breeding animals with
superior traits in growth rate, egg, meat, milk, or wool production, or with other desirable
traits has revolutionized livestock production throughout the entire world. Animals can also be
genetically modified (transgenic animals) for valuable traits. There are many potential
applications of transgenic methodology to develop new and improved strains of livestock.
Practical applications of transgenic in livestock production include enhanced prolificacy and
reproductive performance, increased feed utilization and growth rate, improved carcass
composition, improved milk production and/or composition, modification of hair or fiber, and
increased disease resistance. Development of transgenic farm animals will allow more
flexibility in direct genetic manipulation of livestock. Gene transfer is a relatively rapid way
of altering the genome of domestic livestock. The use of these tools will have a great impact
toward improving the efficiency of livestock production and animal agriculture in a timely and
more cost-effective manner. With ever-increasing world population and changing climate
conditions, such effective means of increasing food production are promising.

Applications of animals in research are also another area of animal biotechnology. Biomedical
research involving the use of animals has been the cornerstone of medical progress for the past
several centuries, but ethical concerns about the use of vertebrates, which are more commonly
understood to be sentient animals, have led researchers, veterinarians, and others in laboratory
animal science to search for alternatives. Hence invertebrates can serve as replacements for
their vertebrate counterparts in many areas of research, testing, and education as shown in
Table below.

Table 10.1. Selected invertebrate used in developmental biology, diseases and genetic models
Model Species used
Bone morphogen proteins Drosophila
Calcium signaling Asterina pectinifera
Cilia regulation of development pathways Caenorhabditis elegans
Chromatin insulators Drosophila
Developmental glycobiology Drosophila
Formation of the nervous system Drosophila
Gene regulatory network Echinoidea

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MicroRNA function in embryogenesis C. elegans
Pattern signaling and retinal development Drosophila
Pituitary patterning Drosophila
Regulatory switches Drosophila
Semophorin in developing nervous system Caelifera (grasshopper)
Tubulogenesis Drosophila
Nitrous oxide signaling during neural Locusta, Schistocerca, Acheta, Manduca,
development Drosophila
Aging Bivalves, Drosophila, Caenorhabditis
elegans, Macrostomum lignano
(flatworm)
Hypoxia Drosophila, Daphnia magna, C. elegans
Freeze tolerance Various species of insects
Wound healing Hirudo medicinalis,
Drosophila, C. elegans
Sleep regulation Drosophila
Stem cell roles in cancer Drosophila, C. elegans
Epilepsy Drosophila, C. elegans
Mitochondria-associated diseases C. elegans
Gene regulation C. elegans, Drosophila

Pests and diseases are severe challenges for crop production. Disease in crops is adversely
reducing quantity or quality of yield. Organisms that cause infectious disease in crops include
fungi, oomycetes, bacteria, viruses, viroids, virus-like organisms, phytoplasmas, protozoa,
nematodes and parasitic plants. Different biocontrol methods are developed to combat these
diseases. Pests can also be controlled using integrated biological knowledge as described
below.

Pest control: Pest control is one of the primary applications of biology in agriculture.
Biological knowledge has developed a method to suppress or control the population of
undesirable insects, other animals or plants. This is done by introducing, stimulating or
artificially raising their natural enemies to economically unimportant levels. Among the
mechanisms used are natural ones, such as predation, parasitism or herbivory.

Creation of plants resistant to pests: Another application of biology in agriculture is the

development of plant varieties resistant to pests. Around the world, unwanted animals are a
threat to agricultural crops. These significantly reduce yield and affect almost every aspect of
the plants. Through conventional breeding, some insect resistant crops have been created.
Recently there have been great advances in biotechnology. For example, resistance to pests
and diseases of crops has increased through genetically modified plants, which implies the
reduction of chemical control of pests.

Selective breeding to improve agricultural plants and animals: Since the 18th century,
knowledge about biology has been used to carry out crossings of related species. Selective
breeding seeks to improve traits such as taste, color, disease resistance and productivity. At
the beginning of the 20th century, genetics began to be used to develop new varieties of plants

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and animals. This has brought important changes in agriculture, especially in the productivity
of some crops.

Understanding the effects of climate on crops: Biology help understand how climate change
affect crops. For example, temperature plays an important role in the different biological
processes that are critical for the development of the plant. The optimum temperature varies
for germination, growth and reproduction. These optimum temperatures must occur at certain
times in the life cycle of the plant; otherwise, the growth and development of the plant may be
affected.

In addition, through the development of biotechnology and molecular biology, plant has been
genetically engineered to produce their own pesticide. So they no longer need to be spayed
manually. Among those plants are apples, pear, cabbage, broccoli, and potatoes.

10.4. Application of Biology in industries (Food, brewery, pharmaceuticals, tannery and

textile, single cell production, preservation)

Industrial biotechnology, also known as white biotechnology, is the modern use and
application of biotechnology for the sustainable production and processing of bioproducts
such as food substances, chemicals, bio-materials and fuels from renewable sources, using
living cells and/or their enzymes. Primarily, the enormous capability of microorganisms and
their enzymes are utilized for the production of food supplements such as vitamin B2, many
other pharmaceuticals such as drugs and vaccines, bioplastics such as polylactic acid, energy
carriers such as biogas and bioethanol, detergents, pulp and paper, quality textiles fibers, and
many agricultural products. Most importantly, single cell proteins (SCP) can be produced
from wide range of microorganisms. Best examples are mushroom, spirulina, yeast, green
algae. SCP technology is a promising area in alleviating food security in ever growing
population.

Food preservation is another area of industrial biotechnology which if the processes to stop
food spoilage due to microbial action. The biological methods of food preservation have
become increasingly important. These consist of adding cultures of innocuous microorganisms
of high purity to the food. The cultures have an inhibitory effect on the undesirable
decomposition microorganisms

10.5. Application of Biology in waste treatments and recycling (Bioenergy,

bioremediation, water treatment, bio mining)

Biotechnological processes are used for wastewater treatment and reuse. This area coordinates
engineers, biologists, chemists. Appropriately designed waste management system can be
utilized to remove hazardous wastes from the environment and for the production of
renewable energy such as bio-fuels and hydrogen. Particularly, for preventing environmental
pollution through environmental engineering, activated sludge process, trickling filters, bio
trickling filters, oxidation ponds, anaerobic treatment, composting units and biogas reactors

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 are used extensively among the waste treatment technologies. Bio-mining is also one area of
interest where chemical mining is substituted by microorganisms that can efficiently extract
minerals from natural ores. Note that chemical mining generates many pollutants in the
environment.

10.6. Application of Biology in forensic Science

Forensic biologists inspect crime scenes for potential sources of evidence such as blood,
saliva, and hair, and then they analyze the specimens in a laboratory, focusing on DNA
analysis. Additionally, fingerprints are also important to investigate crime and the paternity
case of a child; this is because each individual has unique fingerprints that do not change
throughout life. Based on their investigations, forensic biologists write up their findings in
technical reports and are called upon to testify in court. Finally, this data is used to investigate
the related transgression, and then these facts are put forward in the court that’s quite helpful
in order to castigate the criminal. These days 'bioinformatics is widely acceptable in the field
of forensic science because, with the help of computational tools, it became quite
uncomplicated and reliable to gather evidence regarding a particular crime scene.

10.7. Biological warfare

Self-Test
1. What is biological warfare?
2. Do you know the reason why the use of biological warfare is not allowed?

Biological warfare (BW) also known as germ warfare is the use of biological toxins or
infectious agents such as bacteria, viruses, and fungi with the intent to kill or incapacitate
humans, animals or plants as an act of war.

Biological weapons include any microorganism (such as bacteria, viruses, or fungi) or toxin
(poisonous compounds produced by microorganisms) found in nature that can be used to kill
or injure people. The act of bioterrorism can range from a simple hoax to the actual use of
these biological weapons, also referred to as agents. A number of nations have or are seeking
to acquire biological warfare agents, and there are concerns that terrorist groups or individuals
may acquire the technologies and expertise to use these destructive agents. Biological agents
may be used for an isolated assassination, as well as to cause incapacitation or death to
thousands. If the environment is contaminated, a long-term threat to the population could be
created.

Activities
1. Describe the principles behind gene therapy, immuno-diagnosis and immunotherapy
2. Discuss the principles behind transplantation incompatibility
3. What is the difference between antibiotics and vaccines in combating diseases?
4. Outline how insulin is produces at large scale
5. How does your advice the Ethiopian government to include single cell protein
technology in food security program?
6. Study a typical solid waste or waste water treatment system and describe the major
phases and their purposes
7. Have you ever heard the term “Bacterial Cement” what is it and how and where it is
applied?
8. How can fingerprints, hair and fibers, and blood evidence be used to solve a crime?
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9. Can you mention other practical application of forensic science?
10. Why biological warfare is more dangerous than other warfare?

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