Weighing Your Options

Weighing Your
Options

How to Protect Your Property from

Shoreline Erosion:
A handbook for estuarine property owners in
North Carolina
Written by Seachange Consulting
for the
N.C. Division of Coastal Management -
North Carolina National Estuarine Research Reserve in association
with the
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Center for
Coastal Fisheries Habitat Research,
and
The Nicholas Institute for Environmental Policy Solutions.
Funding and support for this project was provided by CICEET, the
Cooperative Institute for Coastal and Estuarine Environmental
Technology. A partnership of the National Oceanic and
Atmospheric Administration and the University of New
Hampshire, CICEET develops tools for clean water and healthy
coasts nationwide.
June 2011
INTRODUCTION This guide focuses on
estuarine property. We’ll
Welcome to Weighing Your
introduce you to the six main
Options: How to Protect Your
erosion control options in use in
Property from Shoreline
North Carolina and give you
Erosion. If you own property on
information about the out-of-
one of North Carolina’s
pocket costs and tangible
estuaries, you can use this guide
benefits of each option. We’ll
as a tool to learn about the
also give you information about
choices you have to control your
“hidden” costs and benefits that
shoreline erosion and help
you may want to factor into your
decide which approach may be
decision-making.
right for you. In North Carolina,
we make a distinction between
waterfront property that is
located on the estuary, referred
to as estuarine, shoreline,
soundfront or riverside property,
and waterfront property located
directly on the ocean, referred to
as oceanfront. Why? State laws
and regulations addressing
estuarine and oceanfront Kite-boarding, Cape Hatteras
property, and the available
You are fortunate to have a
erosion control methods, are
piece of estuarine shoreline to
quite different.
call your own, whether it’s your
year-round residence or a
weekend getaway. And if you’ve
noticed some shoreline erosion
lately, you’re probably a little
concerned. But there are ready
solutions. Let’s start with some
preliminary steps to get a “big
picture” overview before we get
Exploring the estuary, Bogue Sound to the details.
Weighing Your Options 1

STEP 1: LOOK AT ALL THE associated with each option that
OPTIONS affect the beauty and ecological
health of the estuaries and
Main Erosion Control sounds that make coastal North
Methods Used for Carolina so special.
Shorelines in North
Carolina Estuaries
Vegetation
Oyster Reefs
Marsh Sills
Riprap
Breakwaters
Bulkheads
Nesting egret
Some of the methods used to
protect against shoreline erosion STEP 2: CONSIDER WHAT
may be familiar to you, and
YOUR ESTUARY DOES FOR
some less so. Each method has
YOU
its advantages and
disadvantages, depending upon
location and exposure – that is, North Carolina has one of the
which direction your property longest estuarine coastlines in
faces, the amount and power of the nation – close to 9,000 miles
the wind and waves it in fact, and we’re proud of that.
withstands, geography, and Besides being beautiful, our
shore type. We’ll discuss each estuaries provide jobs, offer food
alternative, using photos and and habitat for aquatic and land-
drawings to explain each loving creatures, purify our
approach and how it works to water, help temper the effects of
control erosion. We’ll also list hurricanes, and provide
property characteristics recreation for fishermen, sailors,
favorable to each option, note kite-boarders, hunters,
installation costs, and talk about swimmers and bird watchers,
other costs and benefits among many other attributes.
2 How to Protect Your Property from Shoreline Erosion

shoreline alterations in your area
can alter the balance of
ecosystems in the near-shore
environment.
Bird watching in winter, Pamlico

Sound
Estuaries also provide a source

of transportation and beautiful
real estate. And in addition to Boating in Back Sound
protecting us from storms and
wave surge, a healthy estuary STEP 3: NARROW YOUR
provides a nursery for juvenile OPTIONS
fish, offers a home and feeding
ground to birds, and feeds and Six may seem like an over-
houses innumerable shellfish, whelming number of choices,
dolphins, otters and turtles – and that’s before we count the
making it possible for us to combinations. Oyster reefs and
enjoy the aforementioned vegetation can be combined with
opportunities. all the other options. But
Together, these chances are good that you can
characteristics make up the narrow the number down pretty
“estuarine ecosystem.” The quickly. You’ll find a list of
functioning of estuarine questions in the back of the
ecosystems is largely dependent guide on a worksheet. Answer
on how people use the adjacent the questions as best you can
coastal land, and while you may before reading the guide, and
not think your individual then compare your answers with
shoreline stabilization protection the information presented as you
project will have much effect on read through the text.
the surrounding ecosystem, the
cumulative effect of all the

The Importance of Shoreline
Type
The first question asks, “What is

your type of shoreline?” In
North Carolina, the shoreline
bordering an estuary can be,
broadly, a swamp forest, a
marsh, an oyster reef, or a
sediment bank (photo examples
are on the right).
Certain protection methods
are better suited to certain types
of shoreline. For example, a low
sediment bank, which has a
continuous gentle slope below
and above the water line, can be
protected well by a marsh sill,
whereas a high sediment bank,
with a steep slope, can’t. A
swamp forest works well with
certain vegetation (i.e., cypress
trees), but since there is no bank
to stabilize, a bulkhead would
not be a good match. We’ll point
out the good matches throughout
the document.
Right column: Shoreline Types (top-

bottom): swamp forest, marsh,
oyster reef, low sediment bank, high
sediment bank.

You’ll notice that two shoreline within two weeks. The
types, marshes and oyster reefs, representatives from the North
are also included in our list of Carolina Division of Coastal
erosion control methods. That’s Management (DCM) who come
because they have the ability to to look at your property can be
stabilize the shoreline on their very helpful. They are a part of
own. If your property includes a DENR – the Department of
marsh, it’s partly under water at Environment and Natural
high tide or during a wind tide. Resources, and have permitting
The marsh vegetation traps the responsibilities under CAMA –
sediment washed in by the tides, the Coastal Area Management
and their dense root system Act. The permit reps have the
holds it in place. Marsh same goals you have: to keep
vegetation dies back and roots you and your property safe and
become incorporated into the the estuary healthy.
sediment, further building the
foundation for sustaining marsh
growth. Together, these self-
perpetuating processes counter
erosion by dissipating waves and
adding sediment. If you have an
oyster reef, it accumulates shell
material and traps sediment
landward of the reef, adding fill
and maintaining the shoreline.
Step 4: Understand the Permit

Process Surveying near Wilmington, N.C.
Types of Permits and Costs
Your State Representative
Marsh sills, riprap revetment,
Permitting is often viewed as a and bulkheads can require a
bureaucratic quagmire. Actually, general or a major permit; oyster
the process can be streamlined reefs and breakwaters require a
and efficient, and over and done

major permit; and vegetation can appears at the end of this guide,
require a major, minor, or with a brief explanation of what
general permit, or none at all. A they do and why they would be
general permit is used for concerned with your project.
projects that have relatively DCM permit costs run
small impacts on the between $100 and $400, and
environment, and the process additional charges may be
usually involves contact with encumbered depending on the
only DCM. A major permit is permit requirements of the
used for large projects and those agencies involved.
requiring other state or federal
permits. Doing It Yourself vs. Bringing
You may need a major permit in the Professionals – or Both
if, for example, your project will
cover vegetation that’s in the Two erosion control alternatives;
water, alter fish habitat, or vegetation and oyster reefs, lend
interfere with water quality. If themselves to being Do It
your project requires a major Yourself (DIY) projects.
permit DCM reps can provide Consider your personal situation:
help with the process. do you have more time than
Depending on the scope of your money? If so, then pay particular
project, your location, and the attention to the vegetation and
permit required, you (or your oyster reefs descriptions and see
contractor, engineer, or if they fit your project goals. The
landscaper) may need to interact other options – riprap
with as few as one or as many as revetments, marsh sills,
14 federal and state agencies, bulkheads, and breakwaters –
such as USACE (United States will probably require the
Army Corps of Engineers), services of a contractor or
North Carolina DMF (Division coastal engineer.
of Marine Fisheries), or North
Carolina DWQ (Division of
Water Quality). A list of all 14
agencies, including their
acronyms and full names,

skills you’re looking for, and
then call DCM. Ask for a
preliminary visit, and ask your
rep for a list of local contractors
– and ask your neighbors,
friends, and real estate agent for
their recommendations.
Contractors tend to specialize
in one stabilization type based
on their experience and the
Bulkhead under construction equipment they own or can
readily access. Not surprisingly,
These options can be that will be the method they
supplemented by planting recommend, and they may not
vegetation or adding hard take into account all the specifics
material that supports oyster regarding your property and the
growth, such as oyster cultch impact you choose to have on
(shell material), limestone or your estuary. Reading through
granite, so you can include some this book will help ensure you
DIY involvement if you choose. get the best stabilization method
possible for your property and
make you a more informed
client, as well as add to your
appreciation of your local
ecosystem.
If you’re already working
with a contractor, keep in mind
that experts agree that to
preserve the existing shoreline
Bulkhead with planted marsh, type and ecosystem, the location
Beaufort, NC of the erosion control method on
your property is more important
If you think you’ll need a than the actual method. So if
contractor but haven’t hired one you’re installing a bulkhead or
yet, read through this guide, note riprap revetment, the more
the kinds of experience and

landward it can be placed, the objection.”
better. Again, your DCM rep can Major permitting
size up your property and make requirements are similar but
site recommendations to support have a more stringent
your preferences. notification requirement.
Where to Find a DCM Rep
Whatever your situation, you’ll

be doing yourself a favor to get
DCM involved from the start.
Local offices and phone
numbers are listed below.
Neighboring properties with

Contact Information for
different erosion protection DCM
approaches Elizabeth City: 252-264-
3901
Being a Good Neighbor Morehead City: 252-808-
2808
Under CAMA general Washington: 252-946-6481
permitting guidelines, you must Wilmington: 910-796-7215
demonstrate to DCM that you
have contacted all adjacent For More Information
property owners and notified
them about your plans. This can Complete DCM contact
be done in two ways: submit 1) information and in-depth
signed letters of no objection; or information about the permitting
2) a certified mail return receipt process can be found at:
form. Your neighbor will have http://dcm2.enr.state.nc.us
10 days upon receipt of your
letter to submit comments to
DCM on your planned work; if
they fail to submit a response,
this is interpreted as “no

STEP 5: KNOW YOUR TIDES which means the other half of
the time, tides are higher than
Estuarine water levels are the mean high tide line. Add this
extremely variable, a result of variability to the current trend of
storm and wind events, seasonal rising sea level, and it’s a good
changes, and astronomical idea to install shoreline
cycles. For example, in North stabilization structures such as
Carolina’s estuaries, the average bulkheads and riprap as high on
water level is 7 inches higher in the shoreline as possible. This
September than in January. And will add to their longevity and
the “mean” or “normal” high help protect the natural resources
tide line indicates where the high seaward of your property.
tides reach about half the time –
Now, let’s get started finding an erosion control

option that works for you.
Boat wake from a passing vessel

VEGETATION
What is it and how does it work?
Salt tolerant plants, such as smooth cordgrass, saltmeadow cordgrass,
and needlegrass rush, are planted along the shoreline in 10–40 foot
wide patches, forming a marsh fringe. Once the marsh is established, it
is very effective at blocking wave energy—a 15-foot wide marsh can
reduce the incoming wave energy by over 50 percent. Plant roots
extend a foot or more below the surface, and further stabilize the
shoreline.
Spring High Tide

Vegetation
Mean High Tide
Mean Tide
Needlegrass Saltmeadow Smooth
Rush Cordgrass Cordgrass Mean Low Tide
Best for property that… blows) of less than 3 miles

or, if fetch is more than 3
has low-energy shoreline miles, is protected from
waves by sandbars or
has little boat wake traffic shallow mudflats
has a gentle, wide slope if fetch exceeds 1 mile, an
(low sediment bank) oyster reef, coir log, riprap
faces a “fetch” (the distance toe, or sill may help
over water that the wind stabilize the plants (see
photos below)

Vegetation with riprap toe Vegetation with oyster toe
Vegetation with stone sill Vegetation with coir log
Out-of-pocket costs& considerations

At-a-glance: number of plants
Vegetation Planting fill and grading
Range: $7.50 (DIY) –$100
shipping
(full-service landscaper) per
linear foot / 20 ft wide landscaping fees
Average: $22 cost of coir logs, toe or sill (if
recommended)
Factors in determining cost:
need for replanting
cost of labor

Consider: Vegetation planting lends itself to a DIY project. Plants are
sold by the “plug,” measuring either about 4" x ½" and averaging $1.10
each, or 2" x ½" and averaging $0.50 each. Depending on the size of
the plug, you’ll need at least one or two cordgrass plants for every 4
square feet of property you want to plant, and one to three saltmeadow
plants for every 2 square feet. One motivated person can plant 1,000
plugs in a day; another tactic is to enlist a few semi-motivated friends
and encourage them to plant 3,000 plants in about five hours; yet
another approach is to hire local labor at the rate of $1–$3 a plug.
Planting between March and June will give the plugs time to stabilize
before winter storms and increase the likelihood of success.
However, if you require coir logs, a landscaper must install those
and a major permit is required. A coir log is interwoven fibers bound
together with biodegradable netting. The log stabilizes a site while
vegetation becomes established. They cost about $100–$150 each for a
12" x 10' log, and cost approximately $50 for installation. If you need a
riprap toe or stone sill, you’ll need a contractor to install that structure.
Maintenance: Vegetation planting may require weed control in low

salinity areas, replacement of dead and missing plants, and post-storm
inspection.
Longevity: Planted salt marshes can last for decades, although storm
events or changes in site water movement and wave energy may
shorten their lifespan. However, if plants are lost as a result of a storm
event, as long as the sediment bank remains relatively unchanged, a
replant can be done at fairly low cost. And, vegetation can often
recover on its own. Results will vary depending on a variety of site-
specific factors, including storm events, local rates of relative sea level
rise and sediment availability. Coir logs have a 6-12 year lifespan.
Permits: No permit is necessary for vegetation planting unless you
need to fill or grade your property before planting. Larger projects or
projects that will require fill or grading will require a permit, and
installing a riprap toe or sill will require a general or major permit.
Coir logs require a major permit as well.

Ecosystem costs & considerations
Ecosystem Effect of Vegetation Planting on

Service Ecosystem Value
Wave erosion and marshes dissipate wave energy,

sea level rise provide stability, and trap sediments
protection
Water quality marsh systems filter runoff and
improve water quality
Animal habitat salt marshes provide food and

protection for finfish and shellfish,
mammals and shorebirds
Carbon storage both marsh plants and the soil
beneath them store significant
amounts of carbon
Fish production marshes provide protection and
habitat for juvenile fish
adult fish prowl the edges of salt

marshes seeking prey
Ecosystem plants and animals thrive, increasing
diversity species diversity
Recreation planting a salt marsh will replace
beach area (depends if you like
beaches)
if you want a pier, it may need to be
higher in the areas where it crosses
the marsh

Sample project costs
Specifications Project #1 –Full Project #2 –

Service DIY
Landscaper
Region Pamlico Sound Swansboro
Shoreline exposure long fetch (5 miles) short fetch (1/2

mile)
Length of property 500 feet 100 feet
Width of proposed marsh 40 feet 20 feet

fringe
Cordgrass/saltmeadow/ 20/10/10 feet 13/7/0 feet
needlegrass
Fill required 1 ton none
Permit general none
In-water stabilization coir logs none
Estimated cost $25,000 $750
Possible Combinations
Vegetation landward of oyster reefs and breakwaters

Vegetation seaward of bulkheads and riprap
Marsh sills (see section below)

Did You Know?
There is a direct link
between the quantity of
cordgrass found in our
estuaries and the health of
our fisheries. Adult fishes,
such as sea trout, red
drum and flounder, prowl
the edges of marshes
feeding on shrimp, killifish
and other prey hiding
among the vegetation. Low salinity marsh, Kitty Hawk Bay
The coastal marsh is one of the most productive areas on

earth, producing up to 70,000 pounds of plant material
per acre per year.
In 2007, N.C. commercial
fishermen landed more
than 30 million pounds of
finfish, and over 32
million pounds of
shellfish, resulting in an
industry valued at $82
million per year.
Red drum fishing, Newport River

OYSTER REEFS
(also called oyster rock, sills, beds, patches and toes)
What are they and how do they work?

Oyster reefs form natural breakwaters and protect shoreline property
from erosion and storm damage. They are often used in conjunction
with one of the other shoreline control types discussed in this guide,
and may be added to a pre-existing shoreline erosion project. Reefs are
built by adding material to the water, such as small bags of oyster
shells, loose oyster or clam shells, riprap, marl, or other suitable
substances. The material attracts live oyster spat, which settles and
creates a live reef. Permitting representatives will assess your site and
determine if a sill, rock, patch, bed or toe is more appropriate, and
guide you to the best material and design specifications to use.
Generally, if you live in the northern part of the state, a subtidal oyster
reef is the way to go; if you live in the central or southern region, an
intertidal reef will probably work best.
Oyster reef Barge dispersing “cultch”
Best for property that...

is on water with known oyster productivity

Out-of-pocket costs & considerations
At-a-glance: whether location of reef is
subtidal or intertidal
DIY near-shore reef, 10-ft. wide
cost of reef material:
Range per linear foot: $0.50 concrete, marl and granite
– $5.50
availability and cost of
Average: $5.00 oyster culture
Contractor, offshore reef cost of transporting material
Range per linear foot: $100 to site
– $150 rental of barge and dispersal
Average: $100 of loose cultch or bags
labor to carry bags or other
Factors in determining structures into water
cost:
labor to fill bags
access to water
Consider: The design of your oyster reef and the material used need
to be appropriate for your property type. For example, light material in
a high-energy area will be scattered, and heavy material on a site with
deep, soft mud will sink until enough material is deployed to stabilize
the site – which could be very expensive.
Rock and marl can be used for lower layers and capped with cultch to
help minimize costs. Remember, the cost of transporting them must be
factored into your costs. Also, in some situations it will make sense to
hire a barge and dispersal unit and approach the project area from the
water. In others, if there is easy access to the site from your property
for large equipment, a trailer would be the better choice
Maintenance: Assuming your site and environmental conditions are
suitable, oysters may take up to a year to cement into a living reef.

Before they do, shells may be lost or shift following a storm, and they
can be buried with normal wave action; in either event they will need to
be replaced. Once the reef is established, it is self-sustaining.
Longevity: Once established, oyster reefs are extremely durable and

may last for 50 years or longer.
Permits: Contact DCM when planning your oyster structure. You will
need DCM, USACE, DMF, and DWQ guidance and approval for any
oyster project that involves deployment of material into North Carolina
coastal waters.
Oyster reef with landward marsh

Oyster “toe” on bulkheads
Oyster cultch added to intertidal riprap and breakwaters
Oyster reef with landward marsh and spot fishing “fleet,” Gallants Channel,
Beaufort, NC

Ecosystem Effect of Oyster Reefs on Ecosystem

Service Value
Wave erosion and oyster reefs dissipate wave action, trap

sea level rise sediment and add shell material to
protection living reef
Water quality oysters filter runoff and improve water
quality
Animal habitat reefs provide habitat for shrimp, crabs,

clams, snails and worms, as well as
many finfish
Carbon storage oysters remove carbon from the water
column in forming their calcium
carbonate shells
Fish production if you live in an “approved” harvest
area, as specified by DENR based on
input from the FDA, oysters, fish, and
crab can be harvested from the reefs or
areas nearby during the open season,
usually Oct. 5 – May 15
growing areas can be permanently or
temporarily closed to harvest due to
poor water quality and public health
concerns
certain state waters are approved for
shellfish harvest, and this harvest is part
of the public trust. If you deploy oyster
cultch and oysters successfully grow on
your reef, the general public is entitled
to harvest those oysters.
(Continued)

Ecosystem costs & considerations (cont.)
Ecosystem Effect of Oyster Reefs on Ecosystem

Service Value
Fish production animal habitat attracts larger fish,

(cont.) enhancing hook-and-line fishing
Ecosystem diversity by filtering water, more light reaches

vegetation on bottom
Recreation oyster shells are sharp under foot,

reducing beach access
cleaner water results in increased

recreational use
Oyster reef with marsh

Specifications Project #1 Project #2
Region Albemarle Sound Bogue Sound

Shoreline long fetch low wave energy
exposure
Length of 208 feet 150 feet
property
Number of 20 mounds, 20 ft. n/a
mounds each, set in checker-
board pattern
Distance from 50 feet 20 feet
shoreline
Construction concrete, marl and bags of “cultch”
material loose shells
Professional marine contractor labor to fill bags; barge
help and barge operator operator to disperse bags
Estimated $25,000 + permits $3,700 + permits
Costs
Did you know?

A single adult oyster is capable of
filtering 15-35 gallons of water each
day.
Flounder, menhaden, herring,
anchovies, spadefish, striped bass,
cobia, croaker, silver perch, spot,
speckled trout, Spanish mackerel,
pinfish, butter fish, harvest fish, blue
crab, stone crab, penaeid shrimp, black drum, and several species of
mullet all spend a part of their life on Atlantic Coast oyster reefs.

MARSH SILLS
A marsh sill is a combination of a protective barrier placed in the water
parallel to the shoreline and a 10–30 foot wide strip of vegetation
planted (or pre-existing) on shore. Constructed of sloping stone, oyster
rock or wood, the barrier – the sill – breaks wave energy and allows the
marsh to grow, and the marsh further absorbs wave energy and
prevents erosion. Most sills have a low profile, usually rising only 6
inches above the water at high tide; this allows waves to pass over and
through it, providing nutrient-rich sediment to the marsh. The sill’s
intermittent openings allow fish to swim into the marsh and feed.
Marsh Sill
VIEW FROM SIDE

has shoreline facing a fetch of 1 to 10+ miles
has relatively shallow water
has a low sediment bank or existing marsh
is in an area experiencing moderate to heavy boat traffic and boat
wake effects

At-a-glance: stone work
Stone work & site work site work (bottom
preparation, land fill)
Price range: $75–$150 per
linear foot access to water
Average: $130 material (wood, stone,
concrete riprap, marl)
Planting (labor & plants)
labor for planting
$7.50–$100 per linear foot /
20 ft wide cost of transporting
materials to site
Average: $22
cost and type of plants
Factors in determining cost:
equipment access
Consider: In North Carolina, the Community Conservation

Assistance Program (CCAP) may provide assistance for marsh sill
projects, reimbursing landowners up to 75% of their costs up to a
maximum of $5,000. Applications are submitted through local soil and
conservation districts. For more information, visit
http://www.enr.state.nc.us/DSWC/pages/ccap_program.html.
Maintenance: Depending on construction material, a marsh sill may
require repair following a storm. Plants may have to be replanted until
the marsh is well established, even if no storms occur.
Longevity: The planted marsh associated with a sill can last for
decades, and can be replanted if needed. Granite structures are
extremely durable and may persist for 50 years or longer. Results will
vary depending on a variety of site-specific factors, including storm
events, local rates of relative sea level rise and sediment availability.
Permits: A marsh sill can require either a major or a general permit.

Stone sill with marsh

Ecosystem Service Effect of Marsh Sill on Ecosystem Value
Wave erosion and marsh sills protect existing shoreline from
sea level rise wave energy
protection
marsh sills absorb and dissipate wave
energy; marsh vegetation traps sediments,
which counters sea level rise
sills can sometimes reflect wave energy,
causing erosion issues in other locations
Water quality marsh systems filter runoff and improve
water quality
Animal habitat a sill is an immediate “condominium” for
aquatic species, often colonized by
oysters
installing a sill may cover habitat of
existing species
Carbon storage marsh is an excellent storage facility for
carbon
Fish production marsh provides a nursery for juvenile fish
Ecosystem the addition of marsh and marsh habitat

diversity attracts new species, e.g., migrating birds
a marsh maintains animal access to the
water
Recreation may increase length of dock required to
reach open water
dry beach habitat is replaced by a marsh
sill system
marshes attract migrating birds, increasing
bird-watching opportunities

Region Pamlico Sound Grapevine Bay

exposure
Length of property 150 feet 500 feet
Base width of sill 9 feet 15 feet
Distance from 20 feet 75 feet
shoreline
Construction wood limestone
material
Width of marsh 20 feet 40 feet
Area of planned 3,000 sq feet 48,000 sq feet
marsh
Permit general major
Estimated cost $3700 + permits $25,000 + permits
Marsh sill & oyster reef
Marsh sill with offshore oyster reefs

Did you know?
Studies valuing
shorefront real
estate show that
the cleaner the
body of water, the
higher the value
of the property –
and there’s a
ripple effect on
adjacent non-shorefront property, positively affecting
neighborhood property values up to 500 feet from the
water’s edge.

RIPRAP Revetment
(also called a revetment, sloping revetment and shoreline hardening)
What is it and how does it work?

Riprap forms a protective, sloping barrier between the water and land.
Usually constructed of heavy stone and lined with a permeable sheet,
riprap breaks wave energy and prevents soil from eroding. The angle of
the riprap is determined by expected wave height, but is commonly 3:1
to 1.5:1 (horizontal : vertical). The larger the expected waves, the
flatter the riprap and the heavier the stones need to be.

faces moderate to high wave energy

At-a-glance: depth of water
Price range: $90–$150 per source of stone and delivery
linear foot distance
Average: $120 size of stone
Factors in determining cost: fill
access to shoreline bedding layer
material: broken concrete; height
marl, granite distance riprap extends
Consider: Broken concrete, free of rebar, can be used as a low-cost

option as a base, then “dressed up” with granite. Granite weighs four
times as much as concrete, but the same tonnage can cost twice as
much. If you are in a high wave energy location, granite may be
necessary due to its increased weight.
Maintenance: Stones or rocks will settle and readjust with storms or

waves, and occasionally will need replacing. Limestone will be
displaced much more easily than granite.
Longevity: Riprap is durable and installations can last for several

decades, although storm events may shorten the lifespan of riprap
installations. Granite is more durable than marl.
Permits: Riprap can require either a general or a major permit

Riprap revetment with grasses and lawn

Ecosystem
Effect of Riprap on Ecosystem Value
Service
Wave erosion and if properly built, riprap can withstand
sea level rise waves in extreme conditions
protection reflected waves may cause scour or
erosion of adjacent property
Water quality material chosen for riprap should be
clean and not introduce any pollutants
into the water
if vegetation is removed or lost, there is a
loss of water-filtering function
Animal habitat can add to habitat complexity by

introducing new surface material, e.g.,
barnacles and oysters
a sloping surface causes a wider footprint
that extends further waterward, covering
more bottom habitats
Carbon storage no significant effect
Fish production reduction in habitat causes reduction in

fish population
Ecosystem diversity riprap alters the bottom habitat, replacing

soft bottom with hard, affecting plant and
animal diversity and abundance
reduces diversity and abundance of birds
and shellfish, among other species
Recreation can be used adjacent to deep water for

easy boat access
may reduce beach area

Region Pamlico Sound Wilmington area
Shoreline exposure 5 mile fetch low wave energy
Length of riprap 150 feet 500 feet
Depth of water at high 4 feet 10 feet

tide
Height of riprap 2 feet 5 feet
Construction material broken concrete; granite

marl
Permit general major
Estimated cost $13,500 $75,000
Possible Combinations Riprap & oyster reef

Riprap & bulkhead
Riprap & marsh
Did you know?

Worldwide, estuaries store 7,200
teragrams of carbon a year –
that’s between 3% and 7% of all
human-produced emissions.
Canoeing on Albemarle Sound

BREAKWATERS
(also called a wave break, wave fence, or hardened structure)

A breakwater is a stone structure placed in the water parallel to the
shoreline. As the name implies, it “breaks” the strength of the incoming
waves, resulting in a weaker wave reaching land, lessening erosion. For
a longer stretch of shoreline, a series of breakwaters can be set up side
by side at regular intervals, with the gap between them equal to the
length of one breakwater. Sand often fills that gap, creating a small
beach between the breakwater and the land.

experiences moderate to high wave action
experiences boat wake traffic and sand moving down the shore

Out of packet costs & considerations
At-a-glance: equipment necessary
Price range: $90–$150 per depth of water
linear foot
length and number of
Average: $120 structures
Factors in determining cost: material: granite, wood, or
vinyl
access to the water
Consider: Breakwaters require a major permit, and costs will include

environmental consultants and an engineer to design the structure. They
are generally more expensive than other hardened structures such as a
bulkhead or riprap because of the volume of stone and the cost of
installing the breakwater in open water.
Maintenance: Water can move rock, especially on Albemarle

Sound. Inspection after a storm is recommended.
Longevity: If appropriately weighted rock is used, a breakwater can

last for over 40 years.
Permits: A breakwater requires a major permit
Series of breakwaters showing “tombolo” effect

Ecosystem Service Effect of Breakwater on Ecosystem

Value
Wave erosion and the sand that accumulates and forms a
sea level rise beach landward of a breakwater is often
protection “stolen” from shorelines down drift of the
property
effectively dissipates wave energy
waves reflected from breakwaters may

cause scour or erosion of adjacent
shorelines, “tombolos” (see photo on
previous page) are formed as a result of
reflected rather than absorbed wave
energy
Water quality no significant effect
Animal habitat barnacles and oysters often settle on

breakwaters, increasing foraging areas for
fish
the “beach” that is formed from
accumulating sediment reduces fish
habitat
Fish production reduction in habitat causes reduction in

fish population
Ecosystem no significant effect
diversity
Recreation a new beach is formed (depends if you

like beaches)

Region Albemarle Sound Cedar Island

exposure
Length of 150 feet Two x 10 feet
breakwater
Depth of water at 4 feet 4 feet
high tide
Height of 2 feet 1 foot
breakwater above
high tide level
Construction stone stone
material
Permit major major
Did you know?

Estuarine wetlands can
remove 20 to 60% of metals in
the water, trap and retain 80
to 90% of sediment from
runoff and eliminate 70 to
90% of entering nitrogen.

BULKHEADS
(also called shoreline hardening, armoring, and seawall)
A bulkhead is a vertical structure, much like a solid fence, built on the

water-side of an eroding shoreline and anchored into the eroding bank.
Once erected, the gap between the bulkhead and a nearby highpoint on
the property is filled in with soil. The bulkhead holds the soil in place,
acting as a barrier between the waves and the property. It can be built
of wood, vinyl, steel, concrete or fiberglass.
Best for property that…
is exposed to high wave has significant existing

energy erosion

Out of pocket costs & considerations
At-a-glance:
Price range: $80–$1,200 per minimizing impacts on
linear foot existing seagrass, oysters, or
Average: $135 marsh
Factors in determining cost: amount of backfill required

material: wood, concrete,
access to the water
steel, fiberglass or vinyl
equipment necessary
number and complexity of
shoreline conditions – tiebacks necessary
cleanup, roots
height of wall (above “mud
length of bulkhead line”)
contractor workload if required, adding riprap in
front of bulkhead
Consider: As expected from the number of factors to consider in
building a bulkhead, the range in price is huge: $100–$1,200 per linear
foot, with residential prices about $135 / ft. As a rule, the taller the
bulkhead needs to be, the more expensive it will be.
Maintenance: Backfill must be retained for the bulkhead to function.
Cracks and holes in the bulkhead will allow soil to escape, weakening
the bulkhead’s support and leading to possible collapse. Periodic
inspections are recommended. Wood is the most difficult material to
repair.
Longevity: Longevity depends on type of construction and local site
conditions, particularly storm events. The usual lifespan for bulkheads
varies between 10 and 40 years, with wood falling at the lower end of
the range, concrete in the middle, and vinyl/fiberglass at the upper end.
With proper construction and maintenance, an average lifespan of 30
years can be expected.

Permits: A bulkhead can require a general or major permit. There are
restrictions on the distance from your shoreline you can build a
bulkhead and the amount of fill allowed, as well as limits on placement,
especially if your site has existing seagrass, oysters or marsh.

Ecosystem Effect of Bulkhead on Ecosystem
Service Value
Wave erosion if properly built bulkheads provide
and sea level protection from waves in extreme conditions
rise protection
wave energy is reflected rather than
absorbed, reflected waves may cause bottom
scour and loss of vegetation
if vegetation is removed: natural buffer to
ease waves and stabilize sediments
eliminated
Water quality if bulkhead base is in the intertidal zone,
there is an opportunity to plant vegetation
that can provide effective filtering and
improve water quality
if vegetation is removed: loss of marsh
filtering capacity and reflected wave energy
may increase re-suspension of sediments
into water column
Animal habitat interruption of corridor between terrestrial
and aquatic habitat
loss of shallow water habitat
Fish production barnacles and oysters often settle on

bulkheads, increasing fish foraging areas

Ecosystem costs & considerations (cont.)
Ecosystem stops the natural creation of wetlands

diversity
bulkheads reflect incoming wave energy,

and depending on the setting may cause
scouring of the bottom of the bulkhead; as a
result, vegetation and many aquatic
organisms cannot become established in
front of a bulkhead, reducing diversity.
Recreation easy access to deep water
Vinyl bulkhead

Region Wrightsville Ocracoke
Shoreline high wave energy long fetch

exposure
Length of 150 feet 50 feet
bulkhead
Depth of water at 6 feet 4 feet
high tide
Height of 5 feet 2 feet
bulkhead above
high tide level
Construction fiberglass wood
material
Permit Major General
Bulkhead Combinations
Bulkhead & waterward

marsh
Bulkhead & riprap
Bulkhead & oyster toe
Vinyl bulkhead with waterward marsh

Did you know?
“We think of fish as living
throughout the oceans, but most of
the action happens close to shore
where the food is.” More than 90
percent of North Carolina’s
commercial and recreational
seafood species, such as shrimp,
flounder and crabs, depend on
estuarine waters to provide
protective habitat and food.
Recreational fishing in North Carolina produced
revenues totaling $1.2 billion in 2006

PUTTING IT ALL TOGETHER
Choosing the best shoreline erosion control option for your
property is an important decision. This booklet has been
designed to provide you with an overview of your
alternatives so that you can make informed decisions about
your choices. In addition to reducing property loss, erosion
control methods also have ecological consequences, cost
factors and aesthetic implications.
Now that you’ve read the handbook, you have a solid

foundation of information. You can speak with
representatives from the North Carolina Division of Coastal
Management and/or your contractor about issues of
concern, and work with them to select the most appropriate
erosion control method for your property.
By taking an interest in your shoreline, you are helping to

protect the exceptional beauty of North Carolina’s estuaries
and preserve it for generations to come.

STATE AND FEDERAL AGENCIES POTENTIALLY
INVOLVED WITH YOUR EROSION CONTROL
CONSTRUCTION, AND AREA OF OVERSIGHT
North Carolina
Department of Administration, State Property Office (NCDOA –

SPO): manages the state’s submerged lands
Department of Cultural Resources, Division of Archives and
History (NCDCR – Archives & History): protects historic
properties and archaeological sites
Department of Commerce, Division of Community Assistance
(NC Commerce – DCA): assists local governments with growth
management
Department of Transportation, Division of Highways (NCDOT):
protects state wetlands and waterways through the Highway
Stormwater Program and the Ecosystem Enhancement Program
Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR):
serves as the lead stewardship agency for the preservation and
protection of North Carolina's natural resources. Through its
natural resource divisions, DENR works to protect fish, wildlife
and wilderness areas. Divisions within DENR include:
• Division of Coastal Management (DCM): responsible for the
environmental health of 20 coastal counties, DCM regulates
development, helps plan for future growth, and manages the
state's coastal reserves
• Division of Environmental Health (DEH): oversees shellfish
harvests and recreational water quality
• Division of Water Quality (DWQ): regulates and manages
water quality throughout the state, including aquatic habitat

• Division of Land Resources (DLR): oversees development
within North Carolina while preventing pollution by
sedimentation
• Division of Marine Fisheries (DMF): promotes health of
marine fish by regulating habitat, bottom, wetlands, water
column, and submerged aquatic vegetation, and regulates oyster
production
• Division of Water Resources (DWR): examines hydrology
and promotes ecological integrity of streams
• Wildlife Resources Commission (WRC): manages hunting,
boating, fishing and wildlife conservation
United States
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA): oversees protection of

public water supplies and the protection and propagation of a
balanced, indigenous population of shellfish, fish and wildlife, and
allows recreational activities
Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS): manages habitat and resource
conservation
National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS): promotes habitat
conservation and sustaining marine fisheries
Army Corps of Engineers (USACE; ACE; the Corps): helps
preserve and restore wetlands and estuaries, reduce shore erosion
and restore beach habitat and oyster beds

WORKSHEET
Answer these questions as best you can. You’ll learn a lot about your
property and you’ll identify the characteristics that make it better
suited to certain erosion control options. Then, as you’re reading
through the handbook, you can compare the information about your
property with the suitability of each alternative.
1. WHAT IS YOUR SHORELINE TYPE? (SEE PHOTOS ON

PAGE 4)
Swamp Forest (are there cypress gum trees?) __________________

Marsh (are there salt water-tolerant plants?) ___________________
Oysters (do you have oyster reefs?) ___________________________
Sediment Banks (is there no vegetation?) ______________________
• Low sediment bank (is there a gentle slope above the water
line, less than 3 feet over 5 yards?) ________________________
• High sediment bank (is there a steep slope above the water
line, more than 3 feet over 5 yards?) _______________________
Combination (e.g., swamp is upland from a marsh; marsh is landward
of an oyster reef) _______________________________
2. DO YOU KNOW WHAT IS CAUSING THE EROSION?
Yes____ No _____
If yes:
Boat wake_____ storms ______ wind tides _____
gradual effects _____ other cause (describe) __________________
3A. WHAT DIRECTION(S) DOES YOUR SHORELINE FACE?

N__ NE__ E__ SE__ S__ SW__ W__ NW__

3b. In eastern North Carolina, the direction of strong winds is fairly
predictable. If you marked N, SW, NE, W, or S as your answer to
3a, put a big circle around it and pay attention to question 4. The
combination of exposure to strong wind and “high fetch” can direct you
to certain erosion control alternatives.
4. HOW MUCH “FETCH” DOES THE PROPERTY FACE?

(i.e., how much water does the wind blow over before it reaches your
property?)
a) less than ½ mile (low fetch) ____
b) more than ½ mile but less than 2 miles (medium fetch) ____
c) more than 2 miles (high fetch) ____
5. HOW MUCH WAVE ENERGY IS HITTING THE SHORELINE?

(i.e., how high do the waves come up the shoreline above the usual high
tide mark?)
a) from boat traffic ____________ feet

occasionally? __________
frequently? ____________
b) during a storm _______________ feet

occasionally? __________
frequently? ____________
Note: Properties with long fetch plus deep water will usually
experience high wave energy; properties with a long fetch but shallow
water, vegetation or sandbars directly in front of the shoreline usually
experience moderate wave energy.

6. What is the length of the shoreline that needs
protecting?_______ feet
7. WHAT ARE YOUR NEIGHBORS DOING?
a) to the left ________________________________________

b) to the right _______________________________________
8. WHAT BODY OF WATER DOES YOUR PROPERTY TOUCH?

_____________________________________________
9. WHAT IS THE SLOPE OF YOUR PROPERTY?

a) gentle _____
b) steep ______
10. Which of the following activities are important to

you?
Fishing_____ Swimming____
Hunting_____ Boating____
Bird watching_____ Nature____
11. WHICH OF THE FOLLOWING ESTUARY SERVICES ARE MOST
IMPORTANT TO YOU?
Pollution control____ Migratory bird habitat____

Fish production and habitat____ Water quality____
Wildlife habitat____ Surge and flood protection____
12. HOW LONG DO YOU PLAN TO BE AT THIS PROPERTY?

NOTES

For more information, visit the following
organizations online:
NC DCM: http//:dcm2.enr.state.nc.us/
NOAA / National Estuary Research Reserve System (NERRS):
http://www.nerrs.noaa.gov/
NOAA Center for Coastal Fisheries and Habitat Research:
www.ccfhr.noaa.gov
North Carolina Coastal Federation (NCCF): http://www.nccoast.org/
CICEET: http://ciceet.unh.edu/
Credits:
P. 11, coir log: Photo used courtesy of the Partnership for the
Delaware Estuary.
P. 42. Rowan Jacobsen and Michael Beck, “Where Oysters Grew
on Trees.” New York Times, July 24, 2010.
Pp. 2, 4c, 5, 7, 9, 16, 20, 32, 41 and 42: Photos courtesy of
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration/Department of
Commerce.
Pp. 4-5, 7-8, 10, 11a, 15a, 18, 22, 26-28, 30, 36, 37 and 40:
Photos courtesy of DENR.
All other photos property of the authors and protected by
copyright.
Thank you to all the North Carolina contractors, marine engineers,

real estate agents, landscapers, barge operators, state and federal
government employees, scientists, coastal consultants, economists,
developers, insurance agents and estuarine property owners who
contributed their time, knowledge and experience to this guide.
Any errors or misrepresentations of our communications are the
sole responsibility of the authors.

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Weighing Your

How to Protect Your Property from

Weighing Your Options 1

2 How to Protect Your Property from Shoreline Erosion

Bird watching in winter, Pamlico

Estuaries also provide a source

Weighing Your Options 3

The first question asks, “What is

Right column: Shoreline Types (top-

4 How to Protect Your Property from Shoreline Erosion

Step 4: Understand the Permit

Weighing Your Options 5

6 How to Protect Your Property from Shoreline Erosion

Weighing Your Options 7

Where to Find a DCM Rep

Whatever your situation, you’ll

Neighboring properties with

8 How to Protect Your Property from Shoreline Erosion

Now, let’s get started finding an erosion control

Boat wake from a passing vessel

Weighing Your Options 9

Spring High Tide

Best for property that… blows) of less than 3 miles

10 How to Protect Your Property from Shoreline Erosion

Vegetation with stone sill Vegetation with coir log

Out-of-pocket costs& considerations

Weighing Your Options 11

Maintenance: Vegetation planting may require weed control in low

12 How to Protect Your Property from Shoreline Erosion

Ecosystem Effect of Vegetation Planting on

Wave erosion and marshes dissipate wave energy,

Animal habitat salt marshes provide food and

adult fish prowl the edges of salt

Weighing Your Options 13

Specifications Project #1 –Full Project #2 –

Shoreline exposure long fetch (5 miles) short fetch (1/2

Width of proposed marsh 40 feet 20 feet

Permit general none

In-water stabilization coir logs none

Estimated cost $25,000 $750

Vegetation landward of oyster reefs and breakwaters

14 How to Protect Your Property from Shoreline Erosion

The coastal marsh is one of the most productive areas on

Weighing Your Options 15

What are they and how do they work?

Oyster reef Barge dispersing “cultch”

Best for property that...

16 How to Protect Your Property from Shoreline Erosion

Weighing Your Options 17

Longevity: Once established, oyster reefs are extremely durable and

Oyster reef with landward marsh

18 How to Protect Your Property from Shoreline Erosion

Ecosystem Effect of Oyster Reefs on Ecosystem

Wave erosion and oyster reefs dissipate wave action, trap

Animal habitat reefs provide habitat for shrimp, crabs,

Weighing Your Options 19

Ecosystem Effect of Oyster Reefs on Ecosystem

Fish production animal habitat attracts larger fish,

Ecosystem diversity by filtering water, more light reaches

Recreation oyster shells are sharp under foot,