Spice Production in Asia - An Overview*

Narong Chomchalow
Office of the President, Assumption University
Bangkok, Thailand

Abstract

Spices are non-leafy parts of plants used as a flavoring or seasoning. They are
used to add flavor to foods and beverages, and as herbal medicines. Asia is known as
the ‘Land of Spices’ as it is the place of origin, production, consumption and export of
most spices. Out of the world’s 70 plant species grown as spices, 13 are considered
major spices produced in Asia. They are briefly described below:
Black pepper (Piper nigrum) is the whole dried fruit of a perennial climber. India
and Indonesia together produce about half of the world’s total production of 180,000 t.
Cardamom is a group of herbaceous plants of the ginger family whose fruits are used
as spices. Small cardamom (Elettaria cardamomum) grown in India and Sri Lanka is
by far the best quality of all. Others include large cardamom (Amomum subulatum),
Bengal cardamom (A. aromaticum), Siam cardamom (A. krervanh), and bastard
cardamom (A. xanthioides). India and Sri Lanka are the major producers of
cardamoms. Cinnamon and cassia are related plants of the genus Cinnamomum
whose bark is used as a spice. Important species include the true cinnamon (C. verum),
cassia (C. cassia), Indonesian cassia (C. burmannii), Vietnamese cassia (C. loureirii),
and Indian cassia (C. tamala). India and Sri Lanka are the major producers. Chili
pepper is obtained from dried fruit of Capsicum annuum and C. frutescens. C. annuum
or sweet pepper, which is less pungent, is used to make paprika pepper for flavoring
and coloring western foods, while C. frutescens or bird pepper is more pungent and can
be made into cayenne pepper to flavor more spicy oriental hot foods. Cloves come
from unopened flower buds of Syzygium aromaticum. In Asia Indonesia, India,
Malaysia, and Sri Lanka produce clove, but greater quantities are produced in other
continents, viz. Madagascar, Tanzania and the West Indies. Coriander is the dried seed
of Coriandrum sativum, a herbaceous plant. India is the largest producer followed by
Pakistan and Thailand. Cumin (Cuminum cyminum) is an annual herb whose fruits are
pungent and highly aromatic. India and China are the main producers. Garlic (Allium
sativum) is an annual herb whose underground bulb is used as a spice. Major
producing countries are India, Korea, and Thailand. Ginger (Zingiber officinale) is a
perennial herb whose underground rhizomes, young and old, are used as a spice. India
and Thailand are the major producers. Nutmeg and mace are two spices derived from
an evergreen tree (Myristica fragrans). Indonesia produces three-quarters of the total
world output, while Grenada is second. Turmeric is the underground rhizome of
Curcuma longa. It is used as a spice, natural colorant and herbal medicine. India is
the major producer and exporter of turmeric. Vanilla comes from a pod of an orchid
plant (Vanilla planifolium) whose fragrance reveals itself after a series of successive
treatments and fermentation in the sun. Indonesia is the biggest producer in Asia, but
much smaller than Madagascar, the world’s largest producer.

* Unpublished paper presented at the IBC’s Asia Spice Markets ’96 Conference, Singapore, 27-28
May 1996.
 The paper also discusses the constraints faced by Asian spice growers which are:
(a) biotic – including diseases, pests and lack of genetic variability, (b) abiotic –
drought, flood, fire, storm, soil toxicity, (c) socio-economic – marketing, quality
control, competition with other crops and synthetics, and lack of labor/capital, and (d)
technological - lack of technologies and technology transfer.

Keywords: Flavoring, seasoning, Spice Isle, Spice Route, Spice City, black
pepper, cardamom, cinnamon, cassia, chili pepper, clove, coriander, garlic, ginger,
nutmeg, mace, turmeric, vanilla.

English speakers as the Moluccas, are referred to

Introduction
as the ‘Spice Islands’. It is the most popular of all
terms used to describe the land of spices although
What are Spices?
this term could be applied to Sumatra as well as
Sri Lanka, the latter also referred to as the ‘Spice
Spices are non-leafy parts (e.g. bud, fruit,
Isle’. Melaka (or Malacca), the most famous city
seed, bark, rhizome, bulb) of plants used as a
known for its spice trade, is called the “Spice
flavoring or seasoning, although many can also be
City”, while the sea route that has linked Venice,
used as a herbal medicine. A closely related term,
Arabia, Sri Lanka, India, Malaysia (Malacca),
‘herb’, is used to distinguish plant parts finding the
Moluccas, and China through spice trading since
same uses but derived from leafy or soft flowering
the 16th century, is known as the ‘Spice Route’,
parts. The two terms may be used for the same
ranking in importance next to the famous ‘Silk
plants in which the fresh leaves are used as herbs,
Road’. For the Indians who produce and export
while other dried parts are used as spices, e.g.
the majority of spices for world markets, the term
coriander, dill.
‘Spice Bowl of the World’, is applied to the State
of Kerala. Many of the world’s finest spices like
Importance of Spices
black pepper, cardamom, nutmeg, ginger and
turmeric have been produced in Munnar,
Spices have a profound influence on the
Devikulam and Peerumade, all located in Kerala.
course of human civilization. They permeate our
lives from birth to death. In everyday life, spices
succor us, cure us, relax us, and excite us. Ancient List of Spices Produced in Asia
peoples such as the Egyptian, the Arab and the
Roman made extensive uses of spices, not only to Internationally, there are about 70
add flavor to foods and beverages, but as plant species that have been grown for
medicines, disinfectants, incenses, stimulants and spices, the majority of which are in Asia.
even as aphrodisiac agents. No wonder they were Although many other species have also
sought after in the same manner gold and precious been used as spices, they are either not
metals. commercially cultivated, or have only been
collected from the wild. Table 1 shows
Spices in Asia those that are produced commercially in
countries in Asia.
The Land of Spices
Countries of Production of Major Spices
From ancient times to the present, Asia has
been well known as the ‘Land of Spices’. The Spices have been grown as traditional
Maluku Islands of Indonesia, also known to crops in some Asian countries for thousands of
years. No wonder only few countries, notably agencies, including FAO. The author has tried to
India, Indonesia and Sri Lanka, predominate give some indications of the present production of
commercial production of the major spices. major spices in Asian countries as shown in Table
However, it is difficult to obtain statistics of 2.
production from the producing countries, or from
Table 1. Plant species that are grown commercially as spices in Asia*

Common name Scientific name Part used

Anise Pimpinella anisum seed
Basil Ocimum basilicum leaf
Black pepper Piper nigrum berry
Caraway Carum carvi seed
Cardamom (large) Amomum subulatum capsule
Cardamom (small) Elettaria cardamomum capsule
Cassia Cinnamomum cassia bark
Celery Apium graveolens leaf & seed
Chili pepper Capsicum annuum fruit
Cinnamon Cinnamomum verum bark & leaf
Clove Syzygium aromaticum flower bud
Coriander Coriandrum sativum leaf & seed
Cumin Cuminum cyminum seed
Curry leaf Murraya koenigi leaf
Dill Anethum graveolens leaf & seed
Fennel Foeniculum vulgare seed
Fenugreek Triagonella foenumgraecum seed
Gamboge Garcinia cambogiana fruit
Garlic Allium sativum bulb
Ginger Zingiber officinale rhizome
Greater galanga Kaempferia galanga rhizome
Long pepper Piper longum leaf
Marjoram Marjorana hortensis leaf & stem
Mustard Brassica nigra seed
Nutmeg & Mace Myristica fragrans seed & aril
Oregano Origanum vulgare leaf
Parsley Petroselinum crispum leaf
Rosemary Rosemarinus officinalis flower/seed & leaf
Saffron Crocus sativus flower parts
Sage Salvia officinalis leaf & seed
Savory Satureja hortensis leaf
Star anise Ilicium verum fruit
Sweet flag Acorus calamus rhizome
Tamarind Tamarindus indicus fruit
Tarragon Artemisia dracunculus leaf
Thyme Thymus vulgaris leaf
 Turmeric Curcuma domestica rhizome
Vanilla Vanilla planifolia pod

* Revised from Nazeem (1995)

Table 2. Producing countries in Asia of major spices

Country BGD CPR IND INS ROK MAL PAK SRL THA VIE
Spice
Black pepper ⊗ ⊗ ⊗ ⊗ X ⊗ ⊗
Cardamom ⊗ X X ⊗ X
Cassia X ⊗
Chili pepper X X ⊗ X ⊗ X X ⊗ X
Cinnamon X X X ⊗ X X
Clove X ⊗ X X
Coriander X ⊗ ⊗ X X
Cumin X ⊗
Garlic ⊗ ⊗ X ⊗
Ginger X X ⊗ X X X ⊗ X
Nutmeg ⊗ X X X
Turmeric X X ⊗ X X
Vanilla X ⊗ X

Symbols: ⊗ Major producer

X Minor producer

Production of Major Spices in Asia grown commercially in South and Southeast Asia,
as well as Brazil and Madagascar.
It is not an easy job to select among the list In cultivation, the pepper plant is normally
of spices produced commercially in Asia as major grown with support, either on a living tree or a
spices due mainly to the lack of production post (which can be made of cement or wood). It
statistics. Based on available information, the is trimmed to the height of the post that may be
author decided to select 13 spices (as listed in about 3-4 m tall, in order to allow easy picking. It
Table 2) and provide a brief description of each in has a shallow root system with most of the feeding
the following paragraphs: roots distributed in the top 30-35 cm of soil. Two
types of branches are produced, vegetative
Black Pepper: Often referred to as the “King of (climbing) and reproductive (fruiting). The fruits
Spices”, black pepper is one of the oldest and the are borne in a cluster (spike) of 20-30 cm in
most widely used spices in the world. It is the length. Each fruit (drupe) is globose in shape and
whole dried fruit of a perennial climber, Piper 5 mm (diam.) in size. It has a pungent taste that is
nigrum Linn., a native of southern India and used in flavoring food.
 Propagation of commercially grown pepper commercially in Brazil, Madagascar, and the
proceeds through rooted cuttings. Seeds are not Federated States of Micronesia.
usually used for propagation, except in the The most severe constraint on black
breeding program. Flowering begins after about pepper cultivation is the phytophthora disease
18 months of growth. Many commercial varieties caused by Phytophthora capsici. No resistant
exist in all pepper growing countries. India and variety has been found.
Indonesia are the largest producers of black A number of pepper products have been
pepper (Table 3), together growing about half of derived, viz. white pepper, ground pepper, green
the world's total production of about 180,000 t. pepper (frozen, freeze-dried, dehydrated), pepper
Outside Asia, black pepper is produced oil and pepper oleoresin.

Table 3. Production of black pepper in Asia1

Unit: t

Year 1992 1993 1994 1995*

Country
China 12,321 9,100 10,000 10,000
India 52,010 55,000 50,000 50,000
Indonesia 62,000 235,000 42,500 40,000
Malaysia 26,000 17,600 16,000 15,000
Sri Lanka 3,255 9,000 5,000 5,000
Thailand 10,500 9,000 10,200 10,870
Vietnam 7,830 18,500 20,000 20,000
1
Source: Yong (1995); * Estimated

Cardamom: Known as the ‘Queen of Spices’ keeps bearing for 10-15 years. Fruit which is
cardamom is also an ancient spice. It is the dried produced in cluster from the base of the plant are
fruit of many species of perennial herbs of the harvested when it turns brown, 4-5 months after
ginger family (Zingiberaceae). The most common flowering. The fruits are dried either in the sun or
species, Elettaria cardamomum, or small above fire to obtain dried seeds.
cardamom, is cultivated mainly in India and Sri Cardamom is one of the most expensive
Lanka. Other species include Amomum spices used mainly for flavoring curries, cakes,
subulatum or large cardamom, grown in northern bread, confectioneries, beverages and medicines.
India and Nepal; Amomum aromaticum or Ninety percent of world trade of cardamom is in
Bengal cardamom grown in Southeastern India; whole form although there is increasing demand for
Amomum krervanh, or Siam or Cambodian ground and encapsulated spices, spice oil and
cardamom, growing wild under forest cover in oleoresins. Stringent phytosanitary standards in
Thailand, Cambodia, Lao PDR and Vietnam; consuming countries have forced producing
Amomum globosum or Chinese cardamom countries like India, Sri Lanka, etc. to produce
grown in southern China, and Amomum other forms of spice products from cardamom.
xanthiodes or bastard cardamom grown wild Very little is known about production
under forest cover in Thailand. statistics except India that produced 3,550 and
In terms of quality, small cardamom is by far 4,250 t annually of large and small cardamoms,
the best. It is being cultivated in highlands with respectively, during the five-year period of 1984-
artificial shade or trees. The multi-stemmed shrub 94. Other Asian countries, notably Indonesia,
starts to bear fruit after about three years and Malaysia, Sri Lanka and Thailand also produce
cardamom but the amounts are quite small as ‘cassia’ derives, is the source of internationally
compared to India. Outside the region, Guatemala traded cassia oil. It occurs wild as a bush in the
is a major producer, and in the mid-eighties took mountains of southern China but is now
India’s dominant role as the largest producer of cultivated for oil production, mainly in the
cardamom. provinces of Guangxi and Guangdong. Other
commercial cassias are from Indonesia (C.
Cassia: Cassia and cinnamon are related plants burmannii), Vietnam (C. loureirii), India and Nepal (C.
whose dried barks are used as spices. They tamala), all of which come from cultivation. Most
belong to the genus Cinnamomum, a large group cassia plants are large trees, reaching a height of
of plants having essential oils and active ingredients 10-20 m. The part that is harvested for use is the
for therapeutic uses widely distributed throughout bark which can easily be stripped off the living
tropical Asia, particularly Southeast Asia, South plant, or preferably in cultivation, by cutting small-
Asia and southern China. The major sized stems for stripping off the bark. Most
Cinnamomum species of international importance Cinnamon species usually coppices well and
are C. verum (syn. C. zeylanicum) or true cinnamon; C. commercial production of the bark spices entails
cassia or cassia, Chinese cassia or “Cassia cutting the stems low down after an initial
lignea”; C. burmannii or Indonesian cassia or establishment period and harvesting the bushy re-
‘Cassia vera’; C. loureirii or Vietnamese cassia, growth stems at regular intervals thereafter. The
and C. tamala or Indian cassia. barks are stripped and formed into hollow quills of
The terms ‘cassia’ and ‘cinnamon’, being the spices. The leaves, twigs and fragments of
plants of the same genus and having similar bark are distilled to obtain cassia oil.
aromatic compounds (although with distinctive The annual world trade of cassia is between
flavor and other characteristics), are often used 20,000 to 25,000 t, of which Indonesia accounts
interchangeably. Their major uses are in bakery for two-thirds and China for most of the
goods, as seasoning for meat, fish, preserved fruits remainder. About 2,000 to 3,000 t of cassia bark
and vegetables, and in curry powders, beverages, are exported from Vietnam annually (Sial 1995).
tea, desserts, and pharmaceuticals. It is quite difficult to obtain production statistics
Within the cassia group, C. cassia, the from these producing countries shown as blanks in
specific epithet from that the common name Table 4.

Table 4. Production and export of cassia in Asia.

Unit: t
Year
Country 1992 1993 1994 Annual average of export

China 6,600-8,3001
Indonesia2 29,364 2
33,322 2
33,465 2
13,300-16,6001
Vietnam 2-3,0003
1
Estimated
2
Source: Central Bureau of Statistics, Directorate General of Estate, Jakarta (courtesy Dr. Pasril Wahid,
Director, CRIIC, Bogor)
3
Source: de Beer (1993)
Barks also find local use as a herbal medicine in
Most of cassia entering the international
China and other Southeast Asian countries.
markets is used as spice. Only small quantities of
cassia oil are exported. There is also some
Chili Pepper: Chili pepper is one of a very few
production of oleoresin for flavoring purposes.
spices that did not originate in Asia, but in the New
World. Columbus, discovering America, took it to as flavoring and coloring agent in many western
Spain in 1492 and called it pepper because he foods.
found it while searching for black pepper. As its C. frutescens, known as the bird pepper, is
pungent taste was liked by most people in the a perennial, sub-shrub that lives for 2 to 3 years.
tropics, and as it is quite adaptive to tropical While similar in appearance to C. annuum, slight
climate, it soon spread all over tropical Asia soon differences in flower characters are noticeable. Its
after its introduction in the early 16th century. fruits are usually small, narrow, and extremely
Chili pepper is a product of two related pungent. Little variability exists within the species,
species of Capsicum, namely C. annuum and C. but its fruits vary enormously in intensity of flavor
frutescens, whose active compound responsible and pungency.
for hot taste is ‘capsicin’. They are used both fresh and dried as a condiment
C. annuum is an annual herbaceous plant in most Asian countries. Ground dried fruit,
which grows to a height of 30-90 cm and bears known as cayenne pepper, are used in such dishes
many-seeded fruit usually borne singly or as curries, and several native dishes of tropical
occasionally in clusters at the nodes. Fruit is Asian people.
extremely variable in size, shape, and color As with other spices, production statistics of
(ranging from blue to green, orange, red, yellow, chili pepper are difficult to obtain (Table 5). India
violet, cream, white and black). The large-sized is by far the largest producer of chili pepper. For
fruit having no or little pungent taste are called bell this reason, it is known as the “Universal Spice of
pepper and are used as vegetable or salad. I n d i a ”
Another less pungent type having bright red (Nazeem 1995).
color, called paprika pepper after grinding, is used

Table 5. Production of chili pepper in Asia

Unit: t
Year 1992 1993 1994 1995 Aver. annual
production
Country

India 776,5001
Korea, Rep. of 171,7902 187,0432 176,2692 159,6425
Pakistan 94,8704
Thailand 181,8565

1
Source: Nazeem (1995); period: 1989-94.
2
Source: Office of Agriculture and Fisheries Statistics (Courtesy Prof. Hyung-Joon Chi, Seoul
National Univ., Seoul, Rep. of Korea).
3
Source: Ditto; period 1989-94.
4
Source: Pakistan Agriculture Information Centre (Courtesy Dr. S. Fazal Hussain, DG, PCSIR
Laboratories, Peshawar, Pakistan).
5
Source: Dept. of Agricultural Extension, Bangkok
Different terms used for both species and their uses are shown in the diagram below:

Different types of chili pepper and their uses

Chili Pepper
 C. annuum C. frutescens
(Sweet Pepper) (Bird Pepper)

Bell Pepper Paprika Pepper Cayenne Pepper

(not pungent) (less pungent) (more pungent)

Uses: - Salad - Coloring - Flavoring

- Vegetable - Flavoring (spicy hot food)
- Vegetable

Cinnamon: As stated earlier, both cinnamon and stems, as well as those obtained from pruning.
cassia, derive from the bark of Cinnamomum They are allowed to dry for a few days before
spp., and have similar properties, but cinnamon is distillation. Ground bark is becoming more
always thought to be superior in quality. The true popular as ingredient to add flavor to various
cinnamon, Cinnamomum verum, which condiments and desserts such as in cakes,
originated in Sri Lanka and south India, has been especially rich fruit cakes, biscuits, cookies and
introduced to many other countries, notably pudding.
Madagascar and Seychelles, but Sri Lanka still
contributes 80 to 90% of the world trade (Sial Clove: A native of the Moluccas, well known as
1995). Its annual production during 1993-95 ‘Spice Islands’ since colonial time, clove
were 9,600 t (1993), 10,500 t (1995) and 11,200 (Syzygium aromaticum) has been one of the
t (1995) while its exports were 8,728 t (1993), world’s most sought-after spices, causing many
9,016 t (1994) and 9,852 t (1995) (Source: voyages, adventures and battles.
Export Development Board, Colombo). As in the The clove tree is a large, evergreen tree
case of other cassias, the true cinnamon is producing flower buds that are used as spice and
obtained from the bark of small stems of cultivated medicine from time immemorial. In its native
cinnamon trees which have been cut down after an habitat, the trees grow in volcanic, loamy soil.
initial establishment period and the bushy re- Propagation is made from seeds or grafts. The
growth stems are harvested at regular intervals seeds germinate within 4 to 6 weeks. The
thereafter. In Sri Lanka, a first harvest may be seedlings can be transplanted in the field with
obtained after 3-4 years although both quality and spacing of 6-8 m apart. When the trees are about
yields improve with subsequent cuttings. The of 5 years old, they start to flower. The unopened
stems are cut during the rainy season to facilitate flower buds, borne in cluster, are to be picked
peeling of the bark. Strips of bark are then formed before the pinky-green blossoms open. This
into compound quills or sticks of 1m length. operation is rather labor-intensive since it is done
Other products of cinnamon include bark by hand picking, i.e. by brushing clusters against
oil, leaf oil, and ground cinnamon bark. Bark oil is the palm. When dried, the buds turn dark brown
produced by distillation of chips and variable and retain only one-third of their original weight.
amounts of ‘featherings’ (pieces of inner bark from Cloves are used to add flavors as well as to
twig and twisted shoots) and ‘quillings’ (broken decorate several kinds of foods such as baked
fragments of quills). Leaf oil is produced by ham. Ground cloves are used with dried fruit in
distillation of leaves left after trimming the cut cakes, steamed puddings and mincemeat. In
Indonesia, cloves are used to ‘flavor’ tobacco,
known as ‘Kretek’, to give a strong clove aroma. Cumin: Another native plant of the Middle East,
Its essential oils are used in dental treatment. cumin (Cuminum cyminum) is an annual herb
In addition to Indonesia, cloves are grown in mainly grown for its fruits which are a pungent and
India, Malaysia, and Sri Lanka, but production in highly aromatic spice. In cultivation,
the Asian countries is quite small as compared to seedlings are transplanted on to raised beds. The
that in countries in other regions, namely plants grow 30-60 cm high on very slender stems
Madagascar, Tanzania (especially in Zanzibar), and are delicate. When the plants begin to wither,
and the West Indies. Statistics of production are the stems are cut below the clusters of fruits and
available only from Sri Lanka that produced hanged in a room to dry.
1,900, 1,100, and 1,400 t in 1993 to 1995, The seeds should be warmed slightly before
respectively. During this period, the following use to increase the aroma. Two forms of cumin
amounts were exported: 1,650 (1993), 971 are prepared, whole or ground. They are used to
(1993) and 1,116 t (1995) (Source: Export flavor curries, bread, pickles, chutney, sausages
Development Board). and other meat products.
Only two countries in Asia produce cumin
Coriander: Coriander (Coriandrum sativum) is on a commercial scale. India, which produces an
a herbaceous annual plant with fan-shaped annual average of 64,889 t during the five-year
feathery leaves and clusters of pale mauve flowers. period of 1989-94 (Nazeem 1995), is the
Its aromatic leaves are used as a herb in many probably largest producer of cumin in the world.
oriental dishes and soups, but in terms of The other is China, but no production statistics is
international trade, it is mainly grown for the round, available.
aromatic seeds, which are used as a spice.
Coriander is a native of the Middle East but Garlic: Garlic (Allium sativum) is one of the
is now widely cultivated in most Asian countries. most ancient crops known to man. It was
Cultivation is done by sowing the seeds in rows 30 cultivated as early as 4,000 years ago and used as
cm apart on raised beds. The plants will grow to food, spice and medicine since then. It is an
about 30-90 cm in height. Flowering and seed set annual herb of the onion genus that includes onion,
will take place within a few weeks after seeding. leek, chive, shallot, etc. all of which possess a
Harvesting of seeds can be done by cutting the characteristic pungent aroma. It is grown from
clusters as soon as the seeds start to ripen. seeds or bulblets (also known as cloves) which are
Hang them upside-down in the room to dry, segments of the underground bulb of garlic, each
then shake them on a sheet of paper. Collect the surrounded by a thin white or pinkish sheath.
seeds and store them in airtight container away Leaves are flat and narrow, with acute apex. The
from sunlight and heat. bulbs are harvested when the above-ground parts
The seeds are used in dishes as varied as start to wilt, dried in the room and can be kept for
sauces, pickles, chutneys, cakes and some a long time.
confectionery and candy. In spiced sausages and The bulbs contain several active
meat products, coriander seeds add flavor and compounds including allicin, diallyl disulphide, allyl
pungency, making the food more spicy. propyl disulphide and other sulfur compounds, all
India is by far the largest producer of of which contribute to the unique penetrant odor of
coriander seeds, with 147,900 t produced annually garlic which has acted as a major constraint upon
(Nazeem 1995) while Thailand and Pakistan consumption.
produced 12,197 and 31,000 t, respectively in As spice, garlic is used to flavor many dishes
1995. Other Asian countries producing coriander in various forms: fresh, dried, chopped, fried,
are Bangladesh, China and Indonesia, but no mashed, ground, etc. The freshly harvested bulbs
production statistics are available. can be pickled in vinegar, syrup or brine. Ground
garlic has been produced to be used in food
industry as well as in pharmaceuticals. It can Ginger: Originating in Southeast Asia and
also be sliced. Garlic oil that is produced through cultivated in ancient China and India, and the first
steam distillation, is quite useful as antiseptic; it also spice imported into Europe, ginger, Zingiber
has anti-bacterial properties. It has been proved officinale, is now being cultivated in most tropical
that garlic inhibits the formation of cholesterol, countries. It is an erect, perennial herb growing to
suppresses blood-clotting, eases asthma, a height of 60-120 cm from thick, knobby,
prevents heart attacks and strokes, and inhibits the underground rhizomes. In cultivation, ginger
growth of cancerous tumors. normally grows as an annual on raised beds, and
Garlic is cultivated in most countries both in does not set seeds. Thus, propagation is done by
the tropic and temperate zones. In Asia, it is vegetative means from small pieces of rhizomes.
commercially grown in China, Indonesia, Young rhizomes are marketed whole soon
Pakistan, Republic of Korea, Thailand, and India. after digging for use in pickling while mature
The last three are major producers whose annual rhizomes are dried and marketed in whole as well
productions are 415,690, 382,672, and as ground form. The latter is obtained by scraping,
364,000 t, respectively (Table 6). Unfortunately, boiling and peeling and then grinding. Ground ginger
no production statistics are available from other is used in cakes, puddings, biscuits,
countries.
Table 6. Production of garlic in Asia.
Unit: t

Year 1992 1993 1994 1995 Aver. annual

Country production

China
India 364,0001
Indonesia 464,6492 392,9082 382,3442 -
Korea, Rep. of 76,8904 415,6903
Pakistan 382,6725
Thailand

1
Source: Nazeem 1995, period 1989-94.
2
Source: Office of Agriculture and Fisheries Statistics, Korea.
3
Source: Ditto; period 1989-94.
4
Source: Agriculture Information Centre, Pakistan.
5
Source: Office of Agricultural Statistics, Thailand.

and candy. Preserved, candied and variability. Novel techniques, e.g. the use of
crystallized ginger is processed from the fresh, somaclonal variation, are now being attempted to
young rhizomes and is eaten as sweetmeats or as a increase variability that could be exploited to
garnish for cakes and desserts. Ginger is also used produce high-yielding, high-quality clones, and in
as herbal medicine, e.g. as a remedy for digestive particularly, to develop clones resistant to rhizome
disorders. Ginger oil is used in the production of rot and bacterial wilt.
the soft drink known as ginger ale. Few statistics on production are available.
Crop improvement programs in ginger are Major producing countries are India with an
hampered by the lack of seed set leading to limited average annual production of 156,180 t and
Thailand that produced 187,826 t in 1995. and 45,886 t in 1995 with an average annual
Republic of Korea also produces a considerable production during 6-year period (1989-94) of
quantity, viz. 47,809 t in 1992; 40,396 t in 1993; 39,935 t (Table 7).

Table 7. Production of ginger in Asia

Unit: t

Year Average annual

1992 1993 1993 1995
Country production

India 156,1801
Korea, Rep, of 47,8092 40,3962 45,8862 39,9353
Thailand 187,8264

1
Source: Nazeem (1995); period 1989-94.
2
Source: Office of Agriculture & Fisheries Statistics, Korea.
3
Ditto; Period 1989-94.
4
Source: Office of Agricultural Statistics, Thailand.

Nutmeg and Mace: Nutmeg, Myristica done either by collecting the fallen ripe fruits, or
fragrans, is an evergreen tree indigenous to the shaking the fruits into baskets attached to long
Moluccas (Maluku), a group of islands in eastern poles. The nuts are spread out to dry in the sun,
part of Indonesia. It has a yellow fleshy fruit about then the mace is removed by hand, flattened and
the size of a lime fruit. Inside the ripe fruit which dried in the sun separately. When the nuts are dry
normally splits open, the nutshell is covered by an enough for the kernel to rattle in the shells, they are
interlaced membrane, the mace; and inside the cracked open and the kernel removed.
shell, the kernel of the fruit is the nutmeg. When it In addition to Indonesia that produces three-
is harvested, the mace is bright red, but it mellows quarters of the total world output and export,
to golden yellow when dried. Both the kernel Grenada is second in rank, while other Southeast
(nutmeg) and its surrounding membrane (mace) are and South Asian countries produce small amount,
used as spices. The plant is unique among spice mainly for domestic consumption. In 1990,
crops in that it produces two separate and distinct Indonesia produced 15,000 t. The figures for
products. 1992-94 are: 17,316 (1992), 20,911 (1993), and
The trees are propagated by seeds. In 23,792 t (1994) (Source: Central Bureau of
cultivation, seeds are allowed to germinate in the Statistics, Jakarta). Sri Lanka produced 850, 790
shade and seedlings are transplanted to the fields, and 910 t during 1993 to 1995, respectively
at the spacing of 7 x 7 m where they can bear fruit (Source: Export Development Board, Colombo).
for as long as 90 years. The male and female Nutmegs are sold whole and the best way to
flowers are borne on separate plants, but will not use them is by grating the kernel progressively as it
be obvious until they flower at the age of 5-8 is needed. The spice is used to give pleasant
years. Only one male is needed for 10 female flavors to various desserts and beverages as well
trees while the rest are cut down. Shoots from a as food. Ground nutmeg is also available but is
male tree can be grafted on to female trees so that never aromatic. Mace is sold whole (called ‘blade
the latter can produce fruits. A clone can also be mace’) or ground. Blade mace is often included in
established by the use of cuttings. Harvesting is pickling spice blends. Ground mace enhances the
flavors of several desserts, and various meats, fish Turmeric is also used as a herbal medicine in
and shrimp dishes. the treatment of ulcers and liver disorders. The
Nutmeg also consists of two types of oils: anti-bacterial and antiseptic properties of turmeric
(i) the essential oil of nutmeg which accounts for 5- are well known. Recently, scientists have
15% of the nutmeg seed, and (ii) the fixed oil of discovered that turmeric is a natural protectant,
the nutmeg, sometimes called ‘nutmeg butter’, having an effective cancer chemo-preventive agent.
which accounts for 24-40% of the nutmeg seed. Curcumin and turmerin, the bioactive principles of
The essential oil is obtained by steam distillation of turmeric, are said to be mainly responsible for the
the nutmeg. It is a pale yellow liquid with a taste manifold medicinal properties of turmeric. No
and odor of nutmeg, and can be used as a natural wonder it is now known as the ‘Yellow Wonder’.
flavoring extract and as a perfume in the cosmetic India is the major producer and exporter of
industries. It is also used as a flavoring agent, turmeric with average annual production (during
replacing ground nutmeg in order to avoid leaving 1989-94) of 349,000 tons (Nazeem 1995). No
particles in foods and beverages. production statistics are available from other
The fixed oil is obtained through the use of producers which are Bangladesh, China, and
hydraulic pressure and heat or a solvent, after Thailand, except Pakistan which produced
essential oil is removed by steam distillation. 3,100 t in 1995 (Source: Pakistan
Nutmeg-fixed oil finds very little commercial use Agricultural Information Center).
except those that contain a substantial amount of
essential oil having the same odor as nutmeg. Vanilla: A native of Central America and Mexico,
vanilla is one of the flavorings discovered by early
Turmeric: A native of tropical Asia, turmeric, explorers of the New World. It was brought to
Curcuma domestica, is a perennial herb of the Europe by the Spaniards, who found the Aztecs
ginger family. In cultivation, it is grown as an using it as a flavoring for chocolate. It was
annual on raised beds for ease in harvesting its introduced to the islands of the Indian Ocean, the
rhizomes that are turmeric of commerce. The plant West Indies and the South Sea Islands in the last
is propagated by dividing suckers and by planting century. Around 1840, commercial production of
small pieces of the round orange rhizome. The vanilla started in Madagascar and the Comoros
rhizomes usually mature within 8-10 months after Island. Now 80% of the world’s crop is
planting, when the above ground parts begin to produced in Madagascar.
wilt. Manually harvested rhizomes are boiled, Delicate yet demanding, the vanilla plant can
cleaned and dried in the sun, then polished to be damaged by cold or by extreme heat. It grows
remove the external surface layer. They lose three at altitudes between sea level and about 700 m. in
quarters of their original weight during processing. light soil rich in humus and minerals, which can
Before marketing, processed rhizomes are ground come from the breakup of volcanic rocks, from
to a find powder. sandy river floods or from earth left unburned after
For many centuries, turmeric has been used forest clearance. Vanilla is fond of diffused light,
not only as a spice but as a natural colorant, the such as that afforded by the shadow of a banana
bright yellow powder of the ground rhizomes being tree, and can be damaged by exposure to direct
one of the earliest known vegetable dyes. This sunlight. Finally, it needs abundant rain (from
yellow color results from the presence of a pigment 2,000 to 3,000 mm. annually) evenly distributed
called ‘curcumin’ which may be as high as 5-6%. throughout the year. Once these conditions are
As spice, turmeric is used in adding unique met, the vanilla plant requires further care. Its
flavor and color to oriental curries and various flowers, which generally open out every other day,
other dishes. It is also used in mixed pickles, have to be artificially pollinated early in the morning
particularly the mustard pickles, chutneys and when the air is still very humid. The resulting pods
Indian rice dishes. contain the aromatic compound, ‘vanillin’. They
can be harvested in eight months. Each plant can vegetatively, thus limiting the genetic variability, a
bear from 600 g to 3 kg of green vanilla pods, prerequisite for crop breeding programs. The
which have practically no scent at the time of presence of two sexes on different plants in nutmeg
harvesting. Their fragrance reveals itself after a makes it difficult to have fruit set without male
series of successive treatments, and fermentation in trees, whose presence without any yield is a
the sun. It takes 4.5 kg of green vanilla pods to drawback in plantation. The need for artificial
obtain 1 kg of fragrant finished vanilla pods. pollination in vanilla, a labor-intensive operation
Vanilla is one of the most versatile of makes it uneconomic to produce this delicate spice
flavorings. It is used commercially in the in some countries where labor is a problem.
manufacture of chocolate, ice cream, puddings
and tobacco. Abiotic Constraints: These are caused by
A few countries in Asia produce vanilla. various exogenous natural factors such as drought,
These are Indonesia which is the biggest producer flood, fire, storm, soil toxicity, etc.
in Asia, followed by China and Malaysia. As the
total world demand is quite small (around 1700 - Socio-economic Constraints: This type of
2000 t per annum), the market is quite lucrative. hindrances is caused by problems in marketing,
Madagascar, the world’s largest producer of quality control, competition with other economic
vanilla is fearing loss of its crucial vanilla trade as it crops or synthetics, lack of labor and capital
is being taken over by Indonesia, China, and investment, etc.
several island countries in the South Pacific.
However, no statistics of production are available Technological Constraints: These are problems
from any of these countries. resulting from the lack of technology transfer, or
the lack of technologies themselves. These
Constraints in technologies include the creation of superior
Asian Spice Production varieties, improved cultural practices and
processing technology.
Although most of the world’s important
spice crops originated in Asia and, as such, it is the References
legendary source, the major producer and
exporter, and also the major consumer of spices,
Agriculture and Fisheries Statistics Information
there are still a number of constraints which
Office. 1995. Agriculture and Fisheries
hamper production and/or expansion of cultivation
Statistics. 1994. Agriculture and Fisheries
to satisfy the growing worldwide demand. These
Statistics Information Office, Seoul, Rep. of
constraints can be grouped into four main
Korea.
categories: biotic, abiotic, socio-economic and
Agricultural Information Centre. 1995.
technological. They are briefly described below:
Information on Spices. Agricultural
Biotic Constraints: They are caused by biotic Information Centre, Islamabad, Pakistan.
factors mainly diseases and pests, and the lack of
genetic variability. Several devastating diseases
are well known among spice growers. Sumatra Anon. 1994. Spice auctions begin in Kandy.
disease of clove almost wiped out clove Daily News (a newspaper in Sri Lanka), 9 Jun.
production in Indonesia. Foot rot disease of black 94.
pepper has caused severe damage to growers in Central Bureau of Statistics. 1994. Estate Crops
India and elsewhere, and so far none of the Statistics. Central Bureau of Statistics,
existing genotypes have shown resistance to this Directorate General of Estate Crops, Jakarta.
disease. Many spice crops are propagated
 (courtesy Dr. Pasril Wahid, Director, Central
Research Institute for Industrial Crops, Bogor).
de Beer, J.H. 1993. Non-wood forest products
in Indochina; focus: Vietnam. FAO, Rome.
Dissanayake, M.B. 1996. Spice crops of Sri
Lanka. Islands (a newspaper in Sri Lanka), 9
Apr. 96.
Export Development Board. 1995. Production
and Export Data of Major Spices of Sri Lanka.
Export Development Board, Colombo
(courtesy Dr. R.O.B. Wijesekera, Chairman,
Ceylon Institute of Scientific and Industrial
Research, Colombo).
Gurusinghe, P.; and Kirinde, S.T.W. 1985. A
review of research on spice crops in Sri Lanka,
Newsl. MAP 2: 37-44.
Howard, E. 1993. The Spice Islands. Garuda
(In flight Magazine of Indonesian Airline), Jan.-
Feb. 93: 6-10.
Nazeeem, P.A. 1995. The Spices of India. The
Herb, Spice, and Medicinal Plant Digest 13(1):
1-5.
NRCS. 1993. Spices Biotechnology at National
Research Centre for Spices. NRCS, Calicut,
Kerala, India.
Pursglove, J.W.; Brown, E.G.; Green, C.L.; and
Bobbins, S.R.J. 1981. Spices. Vols. 1 & 2.
Longman, London.
Sial, M.I. 1995. International trade in non-wood
forest products in the Asia-Pacific. In P.B.
Durst and A. Bishop, Eds. Beyond Timber:
Social, Economic and Cultural Dimensions of
Non-Wood Forest Products in Asia and the
Pacific, pp. 109-134. RAP Publ. 1995/13,
FAO/RAP, Bangkok.
Yong, Betty O.F. 1995. Review of the 1994
pepper economy and outlook for 1995/96. Int.
Pepper News Bull. 29(3): 8-16.