OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS

TOPICS
Structure and operation of operational amplifiers
Operational amplifier applications: as an inverting, non-inverting, voltage
follower, summing, integrator, differentiator, comparator, Instrumentation,
Schmitt trigger;
Active filters (high-pass, low-pass, band (pass, reject), notch)
Gain, bandwidth, frequency response, input and output impedance.
Distortion and noise.
 OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS - INTRODUCTION
❖An operational amplifier (OP-Amp) is a circuit that can perform such mathematical
operations as addition, subtraction, integration and differentiation etc.. Hence, the
name operational amplifier.
❖An operational amplifier is a
multistage amplifier and consists of a
differential amplifier stage, a high-gain
CE amplifier stage and class B
push-pull emitter follower.
❖An operational amplifier (OP-Amp) is an integrated circuit and is widely used in
computers, as video and audio amplifiers in communication electronics as a
building block .
❖Because of their multi-purpose use, OP-Amps are used in all branches of electronics,
both digital and linear circuits.
❖The characteristics of an op-amp circuit are determined by external components and
have little dependence on temperature coefficients or manufacturing variations in the
op-amp itself.
 INTRODUCTION TO DIFFERENTIAL AMPLIFIER
The key electronic circuit in an OP-Amp is the differential amplifier.

Ordinary Amplifier Differential Amplifier

A differential amplifier is a circuit

that can accept two input signals and
amplify the difference between these
two input signals.
DA INPUTS

Common-mode signals : When the input signals to a DA are in phase and exactly
equal in amplitude, they are called common-mode signals
The common-mode signals are rejected (not amplified) by the differential amplifier.
It is because a differential amplifier amplifies the difference between the two signals
(v – v ) and for common-mode signals, this difference is zero. Note that for common-
1 2

mode operations, v = v .
1 2

Differential-mode signals. When the input signals to a DA are 180° out of phase
and exactly equal in amplitude, they are called differential-mode signals.
The differential-mode signals are amplified by the differential amplifier. It is because
the difference in the signals is twice the value of each signal. For differential-mode
signals, v1 = –v2.
SINGLE ENDED INPUT DIFFERENTIAL AMPLIFIER
INVERTING AND NON-INVERTING INPUTS
 -

+
DIFFERENTIAL INPUT
-

+
In this mode (arrangement), two opposite-
polarity (180° out of phase) signals are
applied to the inputs of DA
By superimposing both output 1 signals and -
both output 2 signals, we get the total
outputs due to differential inputs. +
 -

COMMON-MODE INPUT. +

In this mode, two signals equal in -

amplitude and having the same phase are
applied to the inputs of DA +

Note that the corresponding signals on

output 1 are of the opposite polarity and -
so are the ones on output 2. When these
are superimposed, they cancel, resulting in +
zero output voltage
 VOLTAGE GAINS OF DA
The voltage gain of a DA operating in differential mode is called differential-mode
voltage gain and is denoted by A .
DM

The voltage gain of DA operating in common-mode is called common-mode voltage gain

and is denoted by A .
CM

Ideally, a DA provides a very high voltage gain for differential-mode signals and zero
gain for common-mode signals.
However, practically, differential amplifiers do exhibit a very small common-mode gain
(usually much less than 1) while providing a high differential voltage gain (usually
several thousands).
The higher the differential gain w.r.t. the common-mode gain, the better the performance
of the DA in terms of rejection of common-mode signals.
COMMON-MODE REJECTION RATIO (CMRR)
A differential amplifier should have high differential voltage gain (A ) and
DM

very low common- mode voltage gain (A ). The ratio A /A is called

CM DM CM

Common-mode rejection ratio (CMRR) i.e.,

Very often, the CMRR is expressed in decibels (dB). The decibel measure for
CMRR is given by;
 IMPORTANCE OF CMRR
The CMRR is the ability of a DA to reject the common-mode signals. The
larger the CMRR, the better the DA is at eliminating common-mode signals.

The ability of the DA to reject

common-mode signals is one of
its main advantages. Common
mode signals are usually
undesired signals caused by
external Interference. For
example, any RF signals picked
up by the DA inputs would be
considered undesirable. The
CMRR indicates the DA’s
ability to reject such unwanted
signals.
 INTRODUCTION TO OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS
❖ An OPAMP is basically a differential amp. with single output.
❖ An OPAMP is a very high gain amplifier.
❖ It comes as an IC and is augmented with few discrete components to build analog
circuits.
❖ So, it is considered as a function block in building both linear and non-linear analog
circuits.
❖ For example, OPAMP is used to build:
❖ Linear circuits such as amplifiers, filters, equalizers, voltage to current and
current to voltage converters, and
❖ Non-linear circuits such as amplitude modulators, logarithmic amplifiers,
analog multipliers, sample and hold circuits, comparators, triangle wave and
square-waveform generators.
 INTRODUCTION TO OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS
𝑠

𝑉+
An OPAMP is basically a differential amp. with single Output.
It has one inverting input (-), one non inverting input (+) and one output.
𝑉 --
It is a diff amp as it amplifies the difference between two inputs. VO =AOL (V+ − V− )

Here, the CMRR is very high and common mode gain is very low, almost zero. 𝑠

The input given to Non-inverting input will be amplified and given out without any phase change. The input given
to inverting input will be amplified and given out with 180 deg. phase shift or inverted.
If inputs were given to both the inputs, the difference input is amplified and given out. Then, Vo = AOL (V+ - V- )
where AOL is called the open loop gain (the term "open-loop" refers to the absence of a feedback loop from the
output to the input). of the OPAMP. Normally AOL is a large value (in 741 OPAMP it is in the order of 1x105 ).
+Vs and –Vs are the positive and negative terminals of the power supply.
The output can not go above +Vs or go below –Vs . (+Vs ≥ Vo ≥ –Vs ).
OUTPUT VOLTAGE FROM OP-AMP
The output voltage from an OP-amp for a given pair of input
voltages depends mainly on the following factors:
1. The voltage gain of OP-amp. AOL
2. The polarity relationship between two inputs v+ and v-.
3. The values of supply voltages, +Vs and –Vs.
 𝑠
-

VOLTAGE GAIN OF OP-AMP.

𝑉

The maximum possible voltage gain from a given OP-amp is called open-loop voltage gain and is
denoted by the symbol AOL.
The value of AOL for an OP-amp is generally greater than 10,000.
The term open-loop indicates a circuit condition where there is no feedback path from the output to
the input of OP-amp.
The OP-amps are almost always operated with negative feedback i.e., a part of the output signal
is fed back in phase opposition to the input.
As illustrated in Fig. Ri is the input resistance and Rf is the feedback resistor. Consequently, the
voltage gain of OP-Amp is reduced.
When a feedback path is present such as Rf connection in Fig. , the resulting circuit gain is referred
to as closed-loop voltage gain (ACL).
 𝑠
-

VOLTAGE GAIN OF OP-AMP.

𝑉

The polarity relationship between v+ and v- will determine whether the OP-amp output
voltage polarity is positive or negative.
There is an easy method for it. We know the differential input voltage Vin is the difference
between the non-inverting input (v+ ) and inverting input (v-) i.e.,
vin = v+ – v-
When the result of this equation is positive, the OP-amp output voltage will be positive.
When the result of this equation is negative, the output voltage will be negative.
 𝑠
-

OPAMP SUPPLY VOLTAGES

𝑉

𝑠
The supply voltages for an OP-amp are normally equal in magnitude and opposite in sign.
e.g., ± 15V, ± 12V, ± 18V.
These supply voltages determine the limits of output voltage of OP-amp. These limits, known as
saturation voltages, are generally given by;
+ Vsat = + Vs – 2V
– Vsat = – Vs + 2V
Suppose an OP-amplifier has Vsupply = ± 15V and open-loop voltage gain AOL = 20,000. Let us
find the differential voltage Vin to avoid saturation.
Vsat = Vsupply – 2 = 15 – 2 = 13V
Therefore Vin = Vsat / 20,000 = 13/20000 = 650 µV
If the differential input voltage Vin exceeds this value in an OP-amp, it will be driven into saturation
and the device will become non-linear.
A.C. ANALYSIS OF OP-AMP a.c. equivalent circuits

Practical OP-amp.
a) Since the voltage gain (Av) of a practical OP-
amp is very high, an extremely small input
voltage (vin) will produce a large output
voltage (vout).
b) Since the input impedance (Zin) is very high, a
practical OP-amp has very small input current. very high voltage gain, very infinite voltage gain,
c) Since the output impedance (Zout) of a high input impedance infinite input impedance
practical OP-amp is very low, it means that very low output impedance. zero output impedance.
output voltage is practically independent of
the value of load connected to OP-amp.
Ideal OP-amp.
a) Since the voltage gain (Av) of an ideal OP-
amp is infinite, it means that we can set vin =
0V.
b) Since the input impedance (Zin) is infinite, an
ideal OP-amp has zero input current.
c) Since the output impedance (Zout) of an ideal OP-amp is zero, it means the output voltage does not depend on
the value of load connected to OP-amp.
 BANDWIDTH OF AN OP-AMP
Every OP-amp has a bandwidth i.e., the range of frequencies over which it will work properly.
The bandwidth of an OP-amp depends upon the closed-loop gain of the OP-amp circuit.
One important parameter is gain-bandwidth product (GBW). It is defined as :
ACL x f2 = funity = GBW
where ACL = closed-loop gain at frequency f2
funity = frequency at which the closed-loop gain is unity
(a) The higher the gain (ACL) of an OP-amp, the narrower its bandwidth.
(b) The lower the gain of an OP-amp, the wider its bandwidth.
It can be proved that the gain-bandwidth product of an OP-amp is constant. Since an OP-amp is
capable of operating as a d.c. amplifier, its bandwidth is (f2 – 0).
The gain-bandwidth product of an OP-amp is an important parameter because it can be used to
find :
(i) The maximum value of ACL at a given value of f2.
(ii) The value of f2 for a given value of ACL.
OPEN LOOP OPERATION/COMPARATOR
The magnitude of AOL is typically very large—100,000 or more for
integrated circuit op-amps., and therefore even a quite small
difference between V+ and V− drives the amplifier output nearly to
the supply voltage.
Situations in which the output voltage is equal to or greater than the supply voltage are
referred to as saturation of the amplifier.
The magnitude of AOL is not well controlled by the manufacturing process, and so it is
impractical to use an open loop amplifier as a stand-alone differential amplifier.
Without negative feedback, and perhaps with positive feedback for regeneration, an
op-amp acts as a comparator.
If the inverting input is held at ground (0 V) directly or by a resistor Rg, and the input
voltage Vin applied to the non-inverting input is positive, the output will be maximum
positive; if Vin is negative, the output will be maximum negative.
Since there is no feedback from the output to either input, this is an open loop circuit
acting as a comparator.
CLOSED LOOP OPERATION
If predictable operation is desired, negative feedback is used, by applying a portion of the
output voltage to the inverting input.
The closed loop feedback greatly reduces the gain of the circuit.
When negative feedback is used, the circuit's overall gain and response becomes determined
mostly by the feedback network, rather than by the op-amp characteristics.
If the feedback network is made of components with values small relative to the op amp's input
impedance, the value of the op-amp's open loop response AOL does not seriously affect the
circuit's performance.
The response of the op-amp circuit with its output, and feedback circuits to an input is
characterized mathematically by a transfer function; designing an op-amp circuit to have a
desired transfer function is in the realm of electronic engineering.
The transfer functions are important in most applications of op-amps, such as in analog computers.
High input impedance at the input terminals and low output impedance at the output terminal(s)
are particularly useful features of an op-amp. ACL = Vout / Vin
CLOSED LOOP OPERATION
Equilibrium will be established when Vout is just sufficient to "reach around and pull" the
inverting input to the same voltage as Vin.
The voltage gain of the entire circuit is thus 1 + Rf/Rg. As a simple example, if Vin = 1 V
and Rf = Rg, Vout will be 2 V, exactly the amount required to keep V− at 1 V. Because of
the feedback provided by the Rf, Rg network, this is a closed loop circuit.
Another way to analyze this circuit proceeds by making the following (usually valid)
assumptions:
1. When an op-amp operates in linear (i.e., not saturated) mode, the difference in
voltage between the non-inverting (+) pin and the inverting (−) pin is negligibly small.
2. The input impedance between (+) and (−) pins is much larger than other resistances in
the circuit.
CHARACTERISTICS OF OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS
Ideal op-amps
Infinite open-loop gain G = vout / vin
Infinite input impedance Rin and so zero input current
Zero input offset voltage
Infinite voltage range available at the output
Infinite bandwidth with zero phase shift and infinite slew rate
Zero output impedance Rout
Zero noise
Infinite Common-mode rejection ratio (CMRR)
Infinite Power supply rejection ratio.
These ideals can be summarized by the two "golden rules":
I. The output attempts to do whatever is necessary to make the voltage difference between the
inputs zero. (Only when the op-amp is used in a closed-loop with negative feedback )
II. The inputs draw no current.
CHARACTERISTICS OF OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS
Real op-amps
DC imperfections
 Finite gain
 Finite input impedances
 Non-zero output impedance
 Input current
 Input offset voltage
 Common-mode gain
 Power-supply rejection
 Temperature effects
 Drift
 Noise
AC imperfections
 Finite bandwidth
 Slewing
CHARACTERISTICS OF OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS
Very high voltage gain ( 1x 104 ) Ideally infinite
Very high input impedance (1M Ohm) Ideally infinite
Very low output impedance (< 200 Ω) Ideally zero
Large gain bandwidth product (1MHz) Ideally infinite
Very large CMRR (> 90 dB) Ideally infinite
E.g. OpAmp 741
11/6/2019
OP-AMP WITH NEGATIVE FEEDBACK
An OP-amp is almost always operated with negative feedback i.e., a part of the output is fed
back in phase opposition to the input.
The reason is simple. The open-loop voltage gain of an OP-amp is very high (usually greater
than 100,000). Therefore, an extremely small input voltage drives the OP-amp into its saturated
output stage. For example, assume vin = 1mV and A = 100,000. Then,
OL

vout = A vin = (100,000)  (1 mV) = 100 V

OL

Since the output level of an OP-amp can never reach 100 V, it is driven deep into saturation and
the device becomes non-linear.
With negative feedback, the voltage gain (A ) can be reduced and controlled so that OP-amp
CL

can function as a linear amplifier.

In addition to providing a controlled and stable gain, negative feedback also provides for control
of the input and output impedances and amplifier bandwidth. The table below shows the general
effects of negative feedback on the performance of OP-amps.
EFFECTS OF NEGATIVE
FEEDBACK ON THE PERFORMANCE OF OP-AMPS
 USING AN OPAMP

Inverting Operational Amplifier with voltage Virtual Ground in the OPAMP

Shunt feedback
USING OPAMP AS A SINGLE ENDED AMPLIFIER
Vo = A Vin

If A = 105 and Supply voltage is +1.5V

and – 1.5V then;

1.5 = 105 x (±Vinmax)

Therefore, Vin max = ∓15 μV

Linear region
BLOCK SCHEMATICS OF OPAMP

OpAmp can also be used as a DC amplifier. It can be used to amplify DC signals also. Hence we can not use
coupling or bypassing capacitors, to isolate different amplifier stages each other, when it is used as a DC Amp.
 FACTS ON OPAMPS
1) The input stage of an OP-Amp is a differential amplifier (DA) and the output stage is
typically a class B push-pull emitter follower.
2) The internal stages of an OP-Amp are direct-coupled i.e., no coupling capacitors are
used. The direct coupling allows the OP-Amp to amplify d.c. as well as a.c. signals.
3) An OP-Amp has very high input impedance (ideally infinite) and very low output
impedance (ideally zero). The effect of high input impedance is that the amplifier
will draw a very small current (ideally zero) from the signal source. The effect of
very low output impedance is that the amplifier will provide a constant output
voltage independent of current drawn from the source.
4) An OP-Amp has very high open-loop voltage gain (ideally infinite); typically more
than 200,000.
5) The OP-Amps are almost always operated with negative feedback. It is because the
open- loop voltage gain of these amplifiers is very high and we can sacrifice the gain
to achieve the advantages of negative feedback including large bandwidth (BW) and
gain stability
 BLOCK SCHEMATICS OF OPAMP
❖ OP AMP has a couple of diff. Amps. The front one is with differential inputs
(Gain = A1 ). The differential outputs are again fed to another diff.Amp (Gain
= A2 ). It is followed by emitter follower (s’thing like a Common collector
amplifier with Gain = 1). This will prevent loading of differential amplifiers with
subsequent stages as it has high input impedance. Then output of it goes through
a level shifter and a output driver.
❖ From previous two transistor circuit Diff. amp base is biased at zero volts. So
collector voltage will not be at zero. So even the input does not have a DC shift,
the output has a DC shift. To remove it, a voltage level shifter is used.
❖ Driver is having high input impedance and low output impedance. We can use
a common collector like amplifier for this. So this will reduce the output
impedance of the OPAMP.
INTERNAL CIRCUITRY OF 741-TYPE OP-AMP
A P P LIC AT IO N S O F O P -A M P S
APPLICATIONS OF OPAMP
1. Inverting Amp. (with negative gain)
2. Non-inverting Amp. (with positive gain)
3. Differential Amp. (with difference amplification; only in some applications)
4. Voltage Adder (to add voltage wave forms)
5. Integrator (to integrate voltage wave forms)
6. Differentiator ( to differentiate voltage wave forms)
OPAMP AS AN INVERTING AMPLIFIER

Input is applied to the inverting input.

A feedback resistor (Rf) is connected in between input and output.
This can be used as a voltage amplifier with negative gain.
So, this is a negative feedback amplifier. (The feedback is connected to the inverting input)
Voltage gain is totally independent of gain of the amplifier, but dependent only on the Rf & Ri
In normal Feedback Amp, Gain Af = A / (1 + Aβ) , When A is very large it is 1/ β where β = R1/Rf
The point A is said to be at virtual ground because it is at 0V but is not physically
connected to the ground (i.e. VA = 0V).
The current I1 to the inverting input is zero. Therefore, current Iin flowing through Ri entirely
flows through feedback resistor Rf. In other words, If = Iin.

The negative sign indicates that output signal is inverted as

compared to the input signal.
INVERTING AMPLIFIER PROPERTIES
i. The closed-loop voltage gain (ACL) of an inverting amplifier is the ratio of the
feedback resistance Rf to the input resistance Ri. The closed-loop voltage gain is
independent of the OP-amp’s internal open-loop voltage gain. Thus the negative
feedback stabilizes the voltage gain.
ii. The inverting amplifier can be designed for unity gain. Thus if Rf = Ri, then voltage
gain, ACL = –1. Therefore, the circuit provides a unity voltage gain with 180° phase
inversion.
iii. If R is some multiple of Ri, the amplifier gain is constant. For example, if Rf = 10 Ri,
f

then ACL = –10 and the circuit provides a voltage gain of exactly 10 along with a 180°
phase inversion from the input signal. If we select precise resistor values for Rf and
Ri, we can obtain a wide range of voltage gains. Thus the inverting amplifier
provides constant voltage gain.
 INPUT AND OUTPUT IMPEDANCE OF INVERTING AMPLIFIER
(i) Input impedance. While an OP-amp has an extremely high input impedance, the
inverting amplifier does not. The voltage source “sees” an input resistance (Ri) that is going to
virtual ground. Thus the input impedance for the inverting amplifier is Z R
The value of Ri will always be much less than the input impedance of the OP- amp. Therefore, the
overall input impedance of an inverting amplifier will also be much lower than the OP-amp input
impedance.
(ii) Output impedance. You can see from this figure that the output impedance of the inverting
amplifier is the parallel combination of Rf and the output impedance of OP-amp itself.
The presence of the negative feedback circuit reduces the output impedance of the amplifier to a
value that is less than the output impedance of OP-amp.
CONCEPT OF VIRTUAL GROUND/ VIRTUAL SHORT
When the output is small, few volts and it is not saturated,
And the input voltage is of the order of some mVor µV,
The input voltage to OPAMP is negligibly small.
For example, Av is 1x104 and the Vo is 10V
Then Vi = 1mV. i.e. the input voltage Vin could be high, but the input voltage at the input terminals of the
OPAMP is very low. Then only we get undistorted output. (if input is 1V, output will be 10,000V. As the
amplifier will not allow to rise to this high voltage, output will be clipped and distorted). So to get
undistorted output, i.e. few volts, the input should be in the order of mV.
So we have to apply Vin such that Vi is small. To get undistorted output, always input at the OPAMP is almost
zero, which means like a short circuit irrespective of whatever the voltage is applied at Vin.
To happen this, the input impedance of OPAMP should be very low, but that is not the case. It is in MOhms.
At the same time the voltage drop can be very small, it is known as a virtual ground. Or, virtual short cct.
The input current will be almost zero as few mV s across M Ohms. It is happening this way due to the
feedback applied. It allows to keep the input at very low value.
 NON INVERTING AMPLIFIER
❖ Input is given to non inverting terminal. Feedback is
applied to the negative terminal to have a stable
amplification.
❖Hence the feedback is a series feedback and
negative feedback.
❖Due to virtual short circuit condition at input terminal
of OPAMP we can derive the output to input voltage
ratio.
❖When Rf is shorted and R1 is open, Av=1. This is
called the voltage follower.
❖The voltage gain of a noninverting amplifier can be
made equal to or greater than 1.
❖ The voltage gain of a noninverting amplifier will
always be greater than the gain of an equivalent
inverting amplifier by a value of 1. If an inverting
amplifier has a gain of 150, the equivalent
noninverting amplifier will have a gain of 151.
 VOLTAGE FOLLOWER
✓The voltage follower arrangement is a special
case of noninverting amplifier where all of the
output voltage is fed back to the inverting input.
✓Note that we remove Ri and Rf from the
noninverting amplifier and short the output of the
amplifier to the inverting input.
✓The voltage gain for the voltage follower is:

✓ Thus the closed-loop voltage gain of the voltage follower is 1. The most important
features of the voltage follower configuration are its very high input impedance
and its very low output impedance.
✓ These features make it a nearly ideal buffer amplifier to be connected between high-
impedance sources and low-impedance loads.
 MULTI-STAGE OP-AMP CIRCUITS

The overall voltage gain A of this circuit is given by;

Since the overall voltage gain is positive, the circuit behaves as a noninverting amplifier.
 EFFECT OF NEGATIVE FEEDBACK ON OP-AMP IMPEDANCES
(i) Noninverting Amplifier. The expressions for the input and output
impedances on account of negative voltage feedback in noninverting amplifier are:

‘NI’ means noninverting amplifier

❖Note that negative feedback in noninverting amplifier has greatly increased the input impedance and at the
same time decreased the output impedance.
❖The increased impedance is an advantage because the amplifier will now present less of a load to its source
circuit.
❖The decreased output impedance is also a benefit because the amplifier will be better suited to drive low
impedance loads.
 EFFECT OF NEGATIVE FEEDBACK ON OP-AMP IMPEDANCES…
(ii) Inverting Amplifier. It can be shown that :

Note that the addition of negative voltage

feedback to the inverting OP-amp reduces the
input impedance of the circuit.

The reduction of Zin is the primary difference

between the inverting and the noninverting
negative feedback circuits.

Otherwise, the effects of negative voltage

feedback are identical for the two circuits.
 FAULTS IN FEEDBACK CIRCUIT

(i) Under normal conditions: Under normal conditions, the output from the amplifier is vout = ACL vin. The
waveform would be correct.
(ii) When R2 is open: If R2 opens, the feedback circuit would consist solely of R1. In this case, the gain
would drop. It is because the circuit would now act as a voltage follower. In other words, the circuit would
now be a buffer with an output voltage that is equal to the input voltage. The waveform would be correct
but we would have unity gain.
(iii) When R1 is open: When R1 opens, the entire feedback circuit would be effectively removed. This would
cause the gain of the amplifier to increase to the value of open-loop gain AOL. Clearly, the output voltage
will clip at or near the values of +V and – V. This results in the distorted output signal.
SUMMARY OF OP-AMP CONFIGURATIONS
SUMMARY OF OP-AMP CONFIGURATIONS
 ADDER /SUMMING AMPLIFIERS
❖This arrangement can be used to obtain
an output which is a linear combination of
a number of input signals.
❖A summing amplifier is an inverted OP-
amp that can accept two or more inputs.
❖The output voltage of a summing amplifier
is proportional to the negative of the
algebraic sum of its input voltages.
Hence the name summing amplifier.
❖Since a virtual ground exists at the OP
AMP input, then, and the output is proportional to the sum of the inputs.
An interesting case results when the gain of the amplifier is unity.
In that R’ = R1 = R2 = R3 Vout = – (V1 + V2 + V3)
Thus, when the gain of summing amplifier is unity, the output voltage is the algebraic sum of the input voltages.
APPLICATIONS OF SUMMING AMPLIFIERS
1. As averaging amplifier.
By using the proper input and feedback resistor values, a
summing amplifier can be designed to provide an output
voltage that is equal to the average of input voltages.
A summing amplifier will act as an averaging amplifier
when both of the following conditions are met:
1. All input resistors (R1, R2 and so on) are equal in
value. The ratio of any input
resistor to the feedback resistor
2. The ratio of any input resistor to the feedback resistor = 3 kΩ/ 1 k Ω = 3. This is equal
is equal to the number of input circuits. to the number of inputs to the
circuit.
APPLICATIONS OF SUMMING AMPLIFIERS
2. As subtractor. A summing amplifier can be used to provide an output voltage that is
equal to the difference of two voltages. Such a circuit is called a subtractor .

The voltage V1 is applied to a standard inverting amplifier that has unity gain. Because
of this, the output from the inverting amplifier will be equal to –V1. This output is then
applied to the summing amplifier (also having unity gain) along with V2. Thus output
from second OP-amp is given by; Vout = –(VA + VB) = – (– V1 + V2) = V1 – V 2
DIFFERENTIATION AND INTEGRATION
INTRODUCTION TO DERIVATIVES

It is all about slope!

How rapidly one variable changes with another
variable…
Or just rate of change any real-time physical quantity …
INTRODUCTION
TO DERIVATIVES
FINDING DERIVATIVE - DIFFERENTIATION
 IN T R OD U CT ION TO IN T EG R AT ION
Integration can be used to find areas, volumes, central points and many useful things.
But it is easiest to start with finding the area under the curve of a function like this:
What is the area under y = f(x) ?

Slices
And as the slices approach
zero in width, the answer
We could calculate the function We can make Δx a
approaches the true
at a few points and add up lot smaller and add
answer.
slices of width Δx like this (but up many small
We now write dx to mean
the answer won't be very slices (answer is
the Δx slices are
accurate): getting better):
approaching zero in width.

That is a lot of adding up!

But we don't have to add them up, as there is a "shortcut". Because ...
... finding an Integral is the reverse of finding a Derivative.
 OP-AMP INTEGRATORS AND DIFFERENTIATORS

▪A circuit that performs the mathematical integration of input signal is called an integrator.
▪The output of an integrator is proportional to the area of the input waveform over a period
of time.
▪A circuit that performs the mathematical differentiation of input signal is called a
differentiator.
▪The output of a differentiator is proportional to the rate of change of its input signal.
▪ Note that the two operations are opposite.
 INTEGRATOR

❖ The most popular application of an integrator is to produce a ramp output voltage (i.e. a linearly
increasing or decreasing voltage).
❖Because of virtual ground and infinite impedance of the OP-amp, all of the input current i flows
through the capacitor i.e. i = ic.

❖The amplifier therefore provides an output voltage proportional to the integral of the input
voltage.
❖ If the input voltage is a constant, v = V, then the output will be a ramp, Vo = - Vt/ RC.
❖ Such an integrator makes an excellent Sweep circuit for a cathode-ray-tube oscilloscope,
and is called a Miller integrator , or Miller sweep.
INTEGRATOR

and output is then a steeper ramp voltage.

OP-AMP
DIFFERENTIATOR

A differentiator produces an output voltage If the input voltage is constant, dvi/dt is zero and the
that is proportional to the rate of change of output voltage is zero. The faster the input voltage
the input voltage. changes, the larger the magnitude of the output
voltage.
Its important application is to produce a
rectangular output from a ramp input.
DIFFERENTIATOR

❖If the input signal is v = sin wt , then the output will be Vo = -RCw cos wt.
❖Thus the magnitude of the output increases linearly with increasing frequency, and
the differentiator circuit has high gain at high frequencies.
❖This results in amplification of the high-frequency components of amplifier noise,
and the noise output may completely obscure the differentiated signal.
COMPARATORS
Often we want to compare one voltage to another to see
which is larger. In this situation, a comparator may be
used.
A comparator is an OP-amp circuit without negative feedback and takes advantage of very high
open-loop voltage gain of OP-amp.
A comparator has two input voltages (noninverting and inverting) and one output voltage.
Because of the high open-loop voltage gain of an OP-amp, a very small difference voltage
between the two inputs drives the amplifier to saturation.
However, most of OP-amps have output voltages of less than ± 15V because of their d.c. supply
voltages. Therefore, a very small differential input voltage will drive the OP-amp to saturation.
This is the key point in the working of comparator.
A comparator circuit has the following two characteristics :
 (i) It uses no feedback so that the voltage gain is equal to the open-loop voltage gain (AOL) of
OP-amp.
 (ii) It is operated in a non-linear mode.
 OPEN-LOOP COMPARATOR

Given the open-loop comparator shown above with

VPOS= +12V and VNEG= -12V, plot the output
waveforms for VR = 0, +2V, and –4V, assuming vIN is a
6V peak triangle wave
The solution is shown at the right.
 In (a) the output switches symmetrically from VPOS rail to VNEG rail
as the input moves above or below GND
 In (b) the output switches between the rail voltages as the input
goes above or below +2 V
 In (c) the output switches between the rail voltages as the input
varies above or below –4 V
 The output becomes a pulse generator with adjustable pulse width
COMPARATOR CIRCUITS - AS A SQUARE WAVE GENERATOR.
A comparator can be used to produce a square wave output from a sine wave input.

Since the gain of a comparator is equal to AOL, virtually any difference voltage at the inputs will
cause the output to go to one of the voltage extremes (+ Vsat or – Vsat) and stay there until the
voltage difference is removed.
The polarity of the input difference voltage will determine to which extreme (+Vsat or – Vsat)
When the input signal goes positive, the output jumps to about + 13 V. When the input goes
negative, the output jumps to about – 13 V. The output changes rapidly from – 13 V to + 13 V
and vice-versa.
This change is so rapid that we get a square wave output for a sine wave input.
COMPARATOR CIRCUITS - AS A ZERO-CROSSING DETECTOR
When one input of a comparator is connected to ground, it is known as zero-crossing detector
because the output changes when the input crosses 0 V.

When the input signal is positive-going, the output is driven to positive maximum value (i.e. +Vsat
= + 13 V).
When the input crosses the zero axis and begins to go negative, the output is driven to negative
maximum value (i.e. – Vsat = – 13 V).
Every time the input crosses 0 V going positive, the output jumps to + 13 V. Similarly, every time
the input crosses 0 V going negative, the output jumps to – 13 V.
Since the change (+ 13 V or – 13 V) occurs every time the input crosses 0 V, we can tell when
the input signal has crossed 0 V. Hence the name zero-crossing detector.
COMPARATOR CIRCUITS - AS A LEVEL DETECTOR
When a comparator is used to compare a signal amplitude to a fixed d.c. level (reference voltage), the
circuit is referred to as a level detector.
We can modify zero-crossing detector circuit to construct level detector. This can be done by connecting a
fixed reference voltage VREF to the inverting input.

(where + V is the positive OP-amp d.c. supply voltage.)

When the input voltage is less than the reference voltage (i.e. Vin < VREF), the output goes to maximum
negative level. It remains here until Vin increases above VREF. When the input voltage exceeds the reference
voltage (i.e. Vin > VREF), the output goes to its maximum positive state. It remains here until Vin decreases
below VREF. Note that this circuit is used for non zero-level detection.
SCHMITT TRIGGER OP-AMP CIRCUIT
The open-loop comparator from the previous two slides is very
susceptible to noise on the input
 Noise may cause it to jump erratically from + rail to – rail voltages

The Schmitt Trigger circuit (at the left) solves this problem by
using positive feedback
 It is a comparator circuit in which the reference voltage is derived from a
divided fraction of the output voltage, and fed back as positive feedback.
 The output is forced to either VPOS or VNEG when the input exceeds the
magnitude of the reference voltage
 The circuit will remember its state even if the input comes back to zero (has
memory)

The transfer characteristic of the Schmitt Trigger is shown at the

left
 Note that the circuit functions as an inverter with hysteresis
 Switches from + to – rail when vIN > VPOS(R1/(R1 + R2))
 Switches from – to + rail when vIN< VNEG(R1/(R1 + R2))
SCHMITT TRIGGER OP-AMP EXAMPLE
Assume that for the Schmitt trigger circuit shown at the left,
VPOS/NEG = +/- 12 volts, R1 = R2, and vIN is a 10V peak
triangular signal. What is the resulting output waveform?
Answer:
 The output will switch between +12 and –12 volts
 The switch to VNEG occurs when vIN exceeds VPOS(R1/(R1 + R2)) = +6 volts
 The switch to VPOS occurs when vIN drops below VNEG(R1/R1 + R2)) = -6 volts
 See waveforms at left

Consider the case where we start out the Schmitt Trigger circuit
with vIN = 0 and vOUT = 0 (a quasi-stable solution point for the
circuit)
 However, any small noise spike on the input will push the output either in the
+ or – direction, causing v+ to also go in the same direction, which will cause
the output to move further in the same direction, etc. until the output has
become either VPOS or VNEG.
INSTRUMENTATION AMPLIFIER
➢Instrumentation Amplifiers (In-amps) are very high gain differential amplifiers which
have a high input impedance and a single ended output.
➢Instrumentation amplifiers are mainly used to amplify very small differential signals
from strain gauges, thermocouples or current sensing devices in motor control systems
etc.
➢Unlike standard operational amplifiers in which their closed loop gain is determined
by an external resistive feedback connected between their output terminal and one
input terminal, either positive or negative, “instrumentation amplifiers” have an
internal feedback resistor that is effectively isolated from its input terminals as the
input signal is applied across two differential inputs, V1 and V2.
➢The instrumentation amplifier also has a very good common mode rejection ratio,
CMRR (zero output when V1 = V2) well in excess of 100dB at DC.
HIGH INPUT IMPEDANCE INSTRUMENTATION AMPLIFIER
 INSTRUMENTATION AMPLIFIER
Some applications, such as an oscilloscope
input, require differential amplification
with extremely high input resistance
Such a circuit is shown at the left
 A3 is a standard difference op-amp with
differential gain R2/R1
 A1 and A2 are additional op-amps with
extremely high input resistances at v1 and v2
(input currents = 0)

• Differential gain of input section:

– Due to the virtual shorts at the input of A1 and A2, we can write iA = (v2 – v1) /RA
– Also, iA flows through the two RB resistors, allowing us to write v02 – v01 = iA(RA + 2 RB)
– Combining these two equations with the gain of the A3 stage, we can obtain
vOUT = (R2/R1)(1 + [2RB/RA])(v1 – v2)
• By adjusting the resistor RA, we can adjust the gain of this instrumentation amplifier
ACTIVE FILTERS
WHAT IS A FILTER?
➢A filter is a device that passes electric signals at certain frequencies or frequency ranges
while preventing the passage of others.
➢Filter circuits are used in a wide variety of applications. In the field of telecommunication,
band-pass filters are used in the audio frequency range (0 kHz to 20 kHz) for modems and
speech processing.
➢High-frequency band-pass filters (several hundred MHz) are used for channel selection in
telephone central offices.
➢Data acquisition systems usually require anti-aliasing low-pass filters as well as low-pass
noise filters in their preceding signal conditioning stages.
➢System power supplies often use band-rejection filters to suppress the 60-Hz line frequency
and high frequency transients.
➢In addition, there are filters that do not filter any frequencies of a complex input signal, but
just add a linear phase shift to each frequency component, thus contributing to a constant time
delay. These are called all-pass filters.
 WHY ACTIVE & PASSIVE FILTERS?
➢At high frequencies (> 1 MHz), all of these filters usually consist of passive
components such as inductors (L), resistors (R), and capacitors (C). They are then called
LRC filters.
➢In the lower frequency range (1 Hz to 1 MHz), however, the inductor value becomes
very large and the inductor itself gets quite bulky, making economical production
difficult.
➢In these cases, active filters become important. Active filters are circuits that use an
operational amplifier (op amp) as the active device in combination with some
resistors and capacitors to provide an LRC-like filter performance at low frequencies.

Second-Order Passive Low-Pass Filter Second-Order Active Low-Pass Filter

INTRODUCTION TO ACTIVE FILTERS
➢The main disadvantage of Passive Filters is “Attenuation”.
➢Active Filters can amplify the signal in addition to filtering the signals.
➢Active Filters contain active components such as operational amplifiers, transistors or FET’s.
➢They draw their power from an external power source and use it to boost or amplify the output
signal.
➢Filter amplification can also be used to either shape or alter the frequency response of the
filter circuit by producing a more selective output response, making the output bandwidth of the
filter narrower or even wider.
➢Then the main difference between a “passive filter” and an “active filter” is amplification.
➢An active filter generally uses an operational amplifier (op-amp).
➢The maximum frequency response of an active filter is limited to the Gain/Bandwidth product
(or open loop gain) of the operational amplifier being used.
➢Still, active filters are generally easier to design than passive filters; they produce good
performance characteristics, very good accuracy with a steep roll-off and low noise when used
with a good circuit design.
 FUNDAMENTALS OF LOW-PASS FILTERS
The most simple low-pass filter is the passive RC low-pass
network
Its transfer function is: First-Order Passive RC Low-Pass

where the complex frequency variable, s = j+ , allows for

any time-variable signals. For pure sine waves, the damping
constant, , becomes zero and s = j .

For a normalized presentation of the transfer function, s is

referred to the filter’s corner frequency, or –3 dB frequency,
C, and has these relationships:
 FUNDAMENTALS OF LOW-PASS FILTERS
With the corner frequency of the low-pass in being fC = 1/2RC, s becomes s = sRC and the
transfer function A(s) results in:

For frequencies  >> 1, the rolloff is 20 dB/decade. For a steeper rolloff, n filter stages can
be connected in series as shown below. To avoid loading effects, op amps, operating as
impedance converters, separate the individual filter stages.

Fourth-Order Passive RC Low-Pass with Decoupling Amplifiers

 ACTIVE LOW PASS FILTER
➢Its principle of operation and frequency response
is exactly the same as those for the passive filter;
the only difference this time is that it uses an op-
amp for amplification and gain control.
➢The simplest form of a low pass active filter is to
connect an inverting or non-inverting amplifier to
the basic RC low pass filter circuit as shown.

➢The amplifier is configured as a voltage-follower (Buffer) giving it a DC gain of one, Av = +1 or unity gain as
opposed to the previous passive RC filter which has a DC gain of less than unity.
➢The advantage of this configuration is that the op-amps high input impedance prevents excessive loading on
the filters output while its low output impedance prevents the filters cut-off frequency point from being
affected by changes in the impedance of the load.
➢While this configuration provides good stability to the filter, its main disadvantage is that it has no voltage
gain above one. However, although the voltage gain is unity the power gain is very high as its output
impedance is much lower than its input impedance.
ACTIVE LOW PASS FILTER WITH AMPLIFICATION
➢If a voltage gain greater than one is required we can use the following filter circuit.
➢The frequency response of the circuit will be the same as that for the passive RC filter, except
that the amplitude of the output is increased by the pass band gain, AF of the amplifier.
➢Applications of Active Low Pass Filters are in audio amplifiers, equalizers or speaker
systems to direct the lower frequency bass signals to the larger bass speakers or to reduce
any high frequency noise or “hiss” type distortion.
➢When used like this in audio applications the active low pass filter is sometimes called a “Bass
Boost” filter.
ACTIVE LOW PASS FILTER WITH AMPLIFICATION …
For a non-inverting amplifier circuit, the magnitude of the voltage gain for the filter is
given as a function of the feedback resistor ( R2 ) divided by its corresponding input
resistor ( R1 ) value and is given as:

Therefore, the gain of an active low pass filter as a function of frequency will be:
Gain of a first-order low pass filter 𝑽𝒐𝒖𝒕 𝑨𝑭
Voltage Gain (AV)= =
𝑽𝒊𝒏
𝒇 𝟐
𝟏+
Where: 𝒇𝒄

AF = the pass band gain of the filter, (1 + R2/R1)

ƒ = the frequency of the input signal in Hertz, (Hz)
ƒc = the cut-off frequency in Hertz, (Hz)
ACTIVE LOW PASS FILTER WITH AMPLIFICATION…
𝑽𝒐𝒖𝒕 𝑨𝑭
Voltage Gain (AV)= =
𝑽𝒊𝒏
𝒇 𝟐
𝟏+ 𝒇𝒄

Thus, the operation of a low pass active filter can be verified from the frequency
gain equation above as:
𝑽𝒐𝒖𝒕
· 1. At very low frequencies, ƒ < ƒc 𝑽𝒊𝒏
≅ 𝑨𝑭
𝑽𝒐𝒖𝒕 𝑨𝑭
· 2. At the cut-off frequency, ƒ = ƒc 𝑽𝒊𝒏
=
𝟐
= 0.707 𝐴𝐹
𝑽𝒐𝒖𝒕
· 3. At very high frequencies, ƒ > ƒc < 𝑨𝑭
𝑽𝒊𝒏
Thus, the Active Low Pass Filter has a constant gain AF from 0Hz to the high frequency
cut-off point,ƒC. At ƒC the gain is 0.707AF, and after ƒC it decreases at a constant
rate as the frequency increases. That is, when the frequency is increased tenfold (one
decade), the voltage gain is divided by 10.
 SECOND-ORDER LOW PASS ACTIVE FILTER
➢A first-order Low Pass Active Filter can be converted into a second order low pass filter simply by
using an additional RC network in the input path.
➢The frequency response of the second-order low pass filter is identical to that of the first-order
type except that the stop band roll-off will be twice the first-order filters.
➢When cascading together filter circuits to form higher-order
filters, the overall gain of the filter is equal to the product of
each stage. For example, the gain of one stage may be 10 and
the gain of the second stage may be 32 and the gain of a third
stage may be 100. Then the overall gain will be 32,000, (=10 x
32 x 100) or in dB 90dB (= 20dB+30dB+40dB)
➢Second-order (two-pole) active filters are important because
higher-order filters can be designed using them.
➢By cascading together first and second-order filters, filters with
an order value, either odd or even up to any value can be
constructed.
 ACTIVE HIGH PASS FILTERS
➢Active High Pass Filters, can be constructed by
reversing the positions of the resistor and capacitor in
the previous circuit.
➢Technically, there is no such thing as an active high
pass filter. Unlike Passive High Pass Filters which
have an “infinite” frequency response, the maximum
pass band frequency response of an Active High Pass
Filter is limited by the open-loop characteristics or
bandwidth of the operational amplifier being used,
making them appear as if they are band pass filters
with a high frequency cut-off determined by the
selection of op-amp and gain.
➢A first-order (single-pole) Active High Pass Filter as its name
implies, attenuates low frequencies and passes high frequency
signals.
➢It consists simply of a passive filter section followed by a non-
inverting operational amplifier.
➢The frequency response of the circuit is the same as that of the
passive filter, except that the amplitude of the signal is
increased by the gain of the amplifier
CASCADING ACTIVE HIGH PASS FILTERS
ACTIVE BAND PASS FILTER

Simple Active Band Pass Filter can be easily made by cascading together a single
Low Pass Filter with a single High Pass Filter as shown.
The cut-off or corner frequency of the low pass filter (LPF) is higher than the cut-off
frequency of the high pass filter (HPF) and the difference between the frequencies at
the -3dB point will determine the “bandwidth” of the band pass filter while
attenuating any signals outside of these points.
ACTIVE BAND
PASS FILTER
ACTIVE BAND PASS FILTER
ACTIVE BAND STOP FILTER
The band-stop filter rejects a band of frequencies, while passing all others. This is
also called a band-reject or band-elimination filter.
Like band pass filters, band-stop filters may also be classified as
 (i) wide-band and (ii) narrow band reject filters.

The narrow band reject filter is also called a notch filter. The bandwidth of the
narrow band reject filter is much smaller than that of a wide band reject filter.
 WIDE BAND REJECT FILTERS
➢ A wide band-stop filter using a
low-pass filter, a high-pass filter
and a summing amplifier is shown
in figure.
➢For a proper band reject
response, the low cut-off
frequency fL of high-pass filter
must be larger than the high cut-
off frequency fH of the low-pass
filter.
➢In addition, the pass band gain
of both the high-pass and low-
pass sections must be equal.
 NARROW BAND
STOP FILTER
➢This is also called a notch filter.
➢It is commonly used for attenuation of a
single frequency such a 50 Hz power line
frequency hum.
➢The most widely used notch filter is the
twin-T network illustrated in here.
➢Notch filters are most commonly used in
communications and biomedical
instruments for eliminating the undesired
frequencies.