THE VERB

The grammatical categories of the verb

The English verb has grammatical forms determined by its categories of person,
number, tense, aspect, voice, mood.
The categories of person and number
The English verb has only one formal indicator to mark these categories, namely the
–(e)s for the 3rd person singular Present Tense, Indicative Mood. Because of the scarcity of
specific endings in the verb, these two categories are usually identified by means of the subject.
E.g. I/you work; he/she works
The category of tense
Tense and time are two distinct concepts. Time is a universal, extralinguistic concept
having three divisions: Past, Present or Future. Time can be expressed linguistically by means of
the grammatical category of tense.
By tense we understand the form of the verb whose function is to mark the time at
which an event takes place.
Events may be viewed as being simultaneous with the reference points or perfected
before these reference points.
The English verb has grammatical forms determined by its categories of person,
number, tense, aspect, voice, mood.
The categories of person and number
The English verb has only one formal indicator to mark these categories, namely the
–(e)s for the 3rd person singular Present Tense, Indicative Mood. Because of the scarcity of
specific endings in the verb, these two categories are usually identified by means of the subject.
E.g. I/you work; he/she works
The category of tense
Tense and time are two distinct concepts. Time is a universal, extralinguistic concept
having three divisions: Past, Present or Future. Time can be expressed linguistically by means of
the grammatical category of tense.
By tense we understand the form of the verb whose function is to mark the time at
which an event takes place.
Events may be viewed as being simultaneous with the reference points or perfected
before these reference points.
The category of aspect refers to the manner in which the verbal action is regarded: it
shows whether the action is complete or still in progress. There are two aspectual oppositions in
English:
1. Perfective vs. Non-perfective: perfective indicates that an event was
accomplished at/before a given point in time.
Perfective is formed of the auxiliary have + Past Participle of the verb.
2. The progressive (Continuous) vs. Simple aspect: The progressive describes an
action in progress at a given time. It is formed of the auxiliary be + the Present Participle of the
main verb. The simple aspect refers to an action which is complete.
On account of their meaning, some verbs do not normally occur in the Continuous
Aspect. For more details on the grammatical category of Aspect see the course, page (16-19)
There are two classes of verbs from the point of view of their lexical aspect: I.
Dynamic (Activity) verbs
II. State (Stative) verbs.
 I. Dynamic verbs describe actions that happen in a limited time. They are normally
used in the continuous aspect. They can be subdivided into:
1. Durative verbs, i.e. verbs denoting actions that last in time: read, write, etc.
This is a class of verbs typically used in the continuous aspect:
 the Continuous forms show that the action is in progress at a certain time;
 the Simple forms are used when the duration is irrelevant:

He is reading a book / He seldom reads books.

 the Continuous forms denote an action of limited, temporary duration;
 the simple aspect denotes unlimited, permanent duration:
I’m living with my aunt at present./My parents live in the country.
The Continuous aspect suggests an incomplete action, while the Simple forms suggest
a complete action.
I have mended the car this morning./ I have been mending the car this morning.
II. State verbs describe states which continue over a period of time.
Since they denote a permanent duration of an action they are not normally used in the
continuous forms.
They can be subdivided into:
1. Relational verbs (verbs of being and possessing): be, belong, comprise,
consist, contain, have, lack, need etc.
He has a new car.

2. Verbs denoting physical perception: feel, hear, look, notice, see, smell, taste:
I see a car coming towards us.
3. Verbs of cognition: think, believe, consider, doubt, remember, forget, expect,
guess, know, etc. They understand my problem now.

4. Verbs referring to feelings, emotions (likes and dislikes): like, love, hate, prefer,
want, wish:
I want to go to London.
Some of these verbs may be used in the Continuous aspect:
a) When the speaker wishes to emphasize a temporary action, situation, not a
permanent one:
• Be - to express a temporary state, quality or behaviour:
Ann is a good girl / Ann is being a good girl today
• Verbs denoting feelings - if they express temporary actions:
(at a party): Hello, Ann! Are you enjoying the party?
b) Verbs smell, taste, sound - to express a voluntary action on the part of the subject:
The cake tastes good. /The cook is tasting the soup
c) When the verbs are recategorized: when they refer to an activity, not a state:
- Verbs of possession (have, hold, possess) Compare:
He has a new car / He is having lunch.
- Some verbs of thinking (think, expect, consider, imagine)
- Perception verbs (see, hear):
Do you see that house over there? /The director is seeing the new applicants
 THE TENSES OF THE INDICATIVE MOOD
THE PRESENT TENSE

I. THE PRESENT SIMPLE

Form: it has the same form as the Short Infinitive except for the 3rd pers.sg. which
adds an -(e)s: -es: -s, -ss, -sh, -ch, -o,-x, -z.
I work/you work/he works
Uses and values: The present simple denotes:
1. Facts which are always true:
- general truths or laws of nature: Water boils at 100 degrees Celsius.
- permanent situations or states: She works in a bank.
2. Habitual/repeated actions: A frequency adverb (often, usually, always, etc.) is
often used:
I usually take the bus to work.
3. Momentary actions completed at the same time they are performed (in contexts
such as: announcements, stage directions, radio or TV commentaries): We accept your offer.
4. Past time reference:
• Summaries of historical events, plots of stories, use present tenses:
May 1945: The war in Europe comes to an end.
• Headlines:
Ship sinks in midnight collision.
• With ‘communication verbs’:
They tell me that you have been abroad.
5. Future time reference:
• Planned future actions, when the future action is considered part of an
already fixed programme, timetable. (official plans)
The train leaves at 8:00.
• In temporal and conditional clauses, when there is a future/ present/
imperative in the main clause:
We shall be late if you don’t hurry.
II. PRESENT CONTINUOUS (PROGRESSIVE)
Form: It is formed of the Present tense of the auxiliary be + the present Participle
of the main verb:
Uses and values:
1. Actions which are in progress at the moment of speaking
• The action can be actually in progress at the moment of speaking:
The wind is blowing (now).
• Or the action can be generally in progress but not actually happening at
the moment:
I am reading a novel by John Fowles.
 • The action can be temporary:
I’m staying in a hotel until I find a flat.
• Changing or developing situations:
More and more people are giving up smoking.
2. Future time reference:
Fixed arrangements in the near future (personal plans).
We’re going to the cinema tonight.
3. A frequently repeated action which annoys the speaker. A frequency adverb is
necessary: always, constantly, continually, all the time.

He’s always getting into trouble.

PAST TENSE SIMPLE

PAST TENSE CONTINUOUS
The simple past and the past continuous are two tenses commonly used to make general
statements about the past. Although they are both past tenses their uses are quite different.
The simple past tense is only used to say that something happened at some time in the past.
 I went to a Chinese restaurant yesterday.
The past continuous tense is mainly used to talk about past events that were in progress at a
particular point of time in the past.
 I was reading at 6 yesterday evening.
Form:

a) Regular verbs form their Past Tense by adding –ed to the short infinitive, e.g. to work →
I/you/he worked

b) Irregular verbs: sing - sang (internal vowel change); lend - lent (change in the last consonant);
cut – cut (invariable forms); go – went

Exceptions when adding 'ed' :

 when the final letter is e, only add d.
Example: love - loved
 after a short, stressed vowel, the final consonant is doubled
Example: admit - admitted
 final l is always doubled in British English (not in American English)
Example: travel - travelled
 after a consonant, final y becomes i. (but: not after a vowel)
Example: worry - he worried
but: play - he played
Exceptions when adding 'ing’ :
1. silent e is dropped (but: does not apply for -ee)
Example: come - coming
but: agree - agreeing

2. after a short, stressed vowel, the final consonant is doubled

Example: sit – sitting
3. final l is always doubled in British English (not in American English)
Example: travel – travelling
4. final ie becomes y.
Example: lie – lying
Uses and values:
1. Actions/events completed in the past at a definite time:
a) when the time/place is given:
Ann phoned me at 6 o’clock. /…as soon as she got home from school.
b) When the action clearly took place at a definite time even if this time is not mentioned:
The train was five minutes late.
c) When there is a sequence of past events (narrative use):
I got up, switched off the radio, and sat down again.
2. Habits in the past:
- The past simple is used to describe past habits or states. A time expression is necessary:
I always got up at six in those days.
Used to: is used to describe past habits, usually in contrast with the present. A time expression is
not necessary:

I used to get up at six, but now I get up at eight.

Used to can also describe past states:

I used to own a horse.

Would is used to describe a person’s typical activities in the past:

Every evening Jack would turn on the radio, light his pipe and fall asleep.

 Form:
The Past Continuous is formed with the Past Tense of the auxiliary be and the Present Participle
of the main verb: I was working, etc
1. It is used to describe actions still in progress:
- with a point in time it expresses an action in progress (going on) precisely at that moment:
At 12.30 yesterday we were having a walk in the park.
- with a period of time it expresses an action that continued for some time (background
description in narrative):
Yesterday morning I was writing letters.
- with another action in the simple past it expresses an action that began and probably continued
after the other (shorter) action which interrupted it:
While I was jogging, a man stopped me and asked me the time.
2. The Past Continuous can be used to describe a repeated action in the past, often an annoying
habit. A frequency adverb is necessary:

Tom was always ringing me up late at night.

3. With an adverb of future time it expresses a definite future arrangement seen from the past:

Dan was busy packing, for he was leaving the next day.

Summary

- narrative tense to describe actions that take place one after another

Example: Every morning I got up early, set off on my bike, visited the villages along the way and
talked to people.

- to describe an action which interrupts a second action

Example: When I was talking to a farmer in a village, my mobile suddenly rang.

- to talk about completed actions

Example: I spent my holidays in Wales.

 to describe two actions which are taking place simultaneously

Example: While I was cycling, my friends were probably sitting on the beach.
 to set the scene/describe an action already in progress in the past
Example: When I was talking to a farmer in a village, my mobile suddenly rang.
 to emphasise that an action or state continued for a longer time in the past
Example:It was raining so heavily at the seaside. Signal Words: Simple Past vs. Past
Progressive
Signal words can help us to recognize which tense to use in a sentence. Below is a list of signal
words for the simple past and past progressive tenses.
 Simple Past Past Progressive
Signal
Example Signal Word Example
Word
When I was
I was cycling on the cycling I saw the
when when
road when the rain started. most beautiful
sunset.

While I was
cycling my
Then I unlocked my bike and
then while friends were
set off.
hiding from the
rain.

first First I put on my trainers.

I was taking a break

suddenly and suddenly I heard a loud
crash.

PRESENT PERFECT SIMPLE

PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS
The key aspect of the present perfect simple and the present perfect progressive is that they refer
to actions that started in the past and are still ongoing in the present. This means that both tenses
can be used to answer the question "how long?" in relation to ongoing actions. However their
focus is slightly different:
The present perfect simple:
 is used with stative verbs as well as action verbs
 focuses on the result of the action
 Refers to recently completed actions or experiences that have a connection to the present
Present Perfect Simple

Form: have/has + Past participle of the main verb

I have worked, he has worked, etc.
Uses and values:
1. Recent events, without a definite time given. A time expression may emphasize recentness
(just):
He has just left.
2. Indefinite events, which happened at an unknown time in the past. No definite time is given:
Jim has had three car accidents. (up to the present)
3. Indefinite events which may have an obvious result in the present:
I’ve twisted my ankle. (That’s why I’m limping)
4. With state verbs, a state which lasts up to the present:
I’ve lived here for the past ten years.
Time expressions with Present Perfect: just, ever, never, already, yet, always, how long, so far, up
to now, recently, lately, today, this week/month.

Since (expresses a starting point in the past): I have lived here since 1990/ I have lived here
since I was born.

For (expresses the duration of an action): I’ve been here since March/ I’ve been here for three
months.

Contrasts with Past Simple: Past simple is used with time expressions which refer to definite
time (yesterday, last week).

The time may be stated or understood: I’ve bought a new car. (Indefinite)/ I bought a new car
last week. (Definite time)

Present Perfect Continuous

Form: Have/ has + been + Present participle of the main verb:

I have been working, he has been working, etc.
Uses and values:
1. It expresses actions started in the past and continuing up to the present:
I’ve been living in this house for five years.
2. It expresses an incomplete activity:
 I’ve been cleaning the house but I still haven’t finished.
3. Resultative use: The Present Perfect Continuous indicates a recently finished action which
explains a present result:
He has been running. That’s why he’s out of breath.

Present Perfect Continuous is normally used with for, since, how long to emphasise the duration
of the action:

He has been feeling unwell for days.

Contrasts with Present Perfect Simple:

1. There may be little contrast when some state verbs are used:

How long have you lived / have you been living here?

2. There may be a contrast between completion (Present Perfect Simple) and incompletion
(Present Perfect Continuous), especially if the number of items (actions) completed is
mentioned:

I’ve ironed five shirts this morning / I’ve been ironing my shirts this morning.

Present Perfect Simple Present Perfect Continuous

duration of ongoing activities with stative verbs (how long) duration of ongoing activities
Example: with active verbs (how long)
I’ve been a receptionist for much longer. Example:
I have been working here since 2010.
focus on the result of an action focus on the duration of an action
Example: Example:
I have already written ten emails. I’ve been writing emails all day.
recently completed actions with a connection to the present temporary ongoing actions and new habits
Example: Example:
I’ve just sat down for my break. Recently, I’ve been trying to eat more healthily.
experiences (ever/never)  
Example:
I’ve never worked in such a big hotel before.
negative: not since the last occurrence (yet)  
Example:
I haven’t eaten anything yet.
 Present Perfect Simple - Signal Word Present Perfect Continuous - Signal Word

how long? How long have you been here?

for I’ve been married for six years.

since She’s been a firefighter since 2013.

alreadyI’ve already finished my homework. all day I’ve been cleaning all day.

ever Have you ever tried sushi? recently

Recently, I’ve been trying to eat healthily.
just He has only just arrived. lately Lately I’ve been doing yoga in the mornings

never I’ve never been abroad before.  

... times We have visited London several times.  

(not) yet Sorry I haven’t called yet.  

Present Perfect vs. Past Tense

Present Perfect:
a. Its time-frame is the extended now, a period of time which extends up to speech time.
b. The event occurs at some indefinite and unspecified time within the extended now.
The Perfect is nondeictic – it doesn’t ‘point’ to a specific time but relates to a relevant time.
c. The event has ‘current relevance’, that is, it is viewed as psychologically connected to the
moment of speaking.
Past Tense:
a. Its time-frame is the past, which is viewed as a separate time-frame than that of the present.
b. The event is located at a specific and definite time in the past.
c. The event is seen as psychologically disconnected from the moment of speaking.

Adjuncts of indefinite or Adjuncts of definite or specific time used with the

unspecified time used with the Past Tense
Present Perfect
sometimes, often, always, never, at yesterday
times
 twice, three times last week, last year, last month

in the last ten years an hour ago, two years ago

lately, recently, now last June, in 1066
  at 4 o’clock, at Christmas, at Easter

PAST PERFECT SIMPLE

PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUS

PAST PERFECT SIMPLE

Form: It consists of the Past Tense of the auxiliary have and the Past Participle of the main verb,
e.g. I had worked, etc.
Uses:
1. Completed action before another action in the past or before a specific time in the past.
Past Perfect Simple is used to describe a past event that took place before another past event or
before a given past moment:
Past Present Future
When I got home, my father had already left.
The secretary didn’t leave until she had finished all her work.
The children went to bed after all the guests had left.
By 5 o’clock she had already finished packing.
Kristine had never been to an opera before last night.

2. Duration before an action/moment in the past (Non-Continuous Verbs)

Continuative use: The action began before a given past moment and continued up to that past
moment. The Past Perfect Simple has this value for those verbs not used in the continuous
aspect.

He had been ill for two weeks when I learnt about it.
We had had that car for ten years before it broke down.
By the time Alex finished his studies, he had been in London for over eight years.
3. Past perfect is used with the adverbs just, hardly, barely, scarcely and no sooner, to show that
the past action was finished just a little time before another past action:
Mary told us that her brother had just left.
I had hardly/barely/scarcely entered the room when the phone rang.
I had no sooner entered the room than the phone rang.
The adverbs hardly, barely, scarcely and no sooner can also take front position in the sentence, in
which case, an inversion between subject and the auxiliary verb must take place.
Hardly/barely/scarcely had I entered the room when the phone rang.
No sooner had I entered the room than the phone rang.
4. Past perfect is used with since and for when the point of reference is past:
In 2008 he had been a teacher for ten years.
I knew she hadn’t seen him since Christmas.
5. Past perfect is used to express a Past Conditional in a Conditional Clause:
I would have given her the book if I had met her.
 
5. After wish, it was time, would rather (different subjects), as if/though, the form of Past Perfect
is used to express Unreal Past Subjunctive.
I wish/wished I hadn’t missed the train.
I would rather he hadn’t said such a thing about me.
She was speaking about the play as if she had seen it.
6. In Indirect Speech, to express a Past Tense or a Present Perfect from Direct Speech:
“ I saw this film last week,” Mary said.
Mary said she had seen that film a week before.
“ I have never visited Paris,” she explained.
She explained she had never visited Paris.

Past Perfect vs Present Perfect simple

The past perfect is often used with expressions indicating that the activity took some time, such
as: for 10 years, since 1995, all week, all the time, always, ...
When the plane landed Tim had travelled all day.
My parents moved away from Leeds. They had lived there since they got married.
In 2005 Derek started to work in Berlin. He had always planned it.
These expressions are also used with the present perfect. The difference is, however, that the
present perfect refers to events that started in the past and still continue, the past perfect
expresses events that began before a point of time (or another action) in the past and continued to
that point of time in the past.
I have been in Paris for a week. (the present perfect - I came a week ago and I am still in Paris.)
When I met Annie I had been in Paris for a week. (the past perfect - I came to Paris a week
before I met Annie and I am not there anymore.)
PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUS

Form: Had + been + the Present Participle of the main verb: I had been working, etc.
Uses:
1. The Past Perfect Continuous indicates an action which began before a point in the past,
continued right up to it and may have continued after.
The past point of time before which the action expressed by the verb may be indicated by:
- an adverbial phrase introduced by the preposition by: By that time he had been studying
English for ten years.
- a clause of time (the verb in the Past Tense): I had been waiting for my friend for an hour when
he finally turned up.
2. Resultative use: The verb in the Past Perfect Continuous occurs in Adverbial Clauses of Cause
or Reason (introduced by because) to express a previous action whose result was obvious at a
certain past time:
I was very tired when I arrived home because I’d been working hard all day.
Past Perfect Simple vs Past Perfect Continuous

For an action that can continue for a long time we can use both the simple and continuous forms
(work, run, study, travel, sleep ...). There is practically no difference in meaning, but the
continuous form is more usual in English.
Stephen was pretty tired. He had worked all day.
Stephen was pretty tired. He had been working all day.
In other cases these two forms have a completely different meaning.
Before midnight Paul had translated the article. (He finished his work.)
Before midnight Paul had been translating the article. (He did not finish it. He was still
translating at that moment.)
If we refer to a number of individual actions or actions that were repeated, we must use the past
perfect simple.
Before the lesson ended they had written three tests. (three individual completed activities)
But:
It was exhausting. They had been writing tests since the lessons started.(one uninterrupted
incomplete activity)

MEANS OF EXPRESSING FUTURITY

Observations of the Future Tense

Time is not quite the same as grammatical tense, and with that thought in mind, many
contemporary linguists insist that properly speaking, the English language has no future tense.
• "[M]orphologically English has no future form of the verb, in addition, to present and
past forms. . . . In this grammar, then, we do not talk about the future as a formal category . . .."
(Randolph Quirk et al., A Grammar of Contemporary English. Longman, 1985)
• "[W]e do not recognize a future tense for English. . . . [T]here is no grammatical category
that can properly be analyzed as a future tense. More particularly, we argue that will (and
likewise shall) is an auxiliary of mood, not tense." (Rodney Huddleston and Geoffrey K. Pullum,
The Cambridge Grammar of the English Language. Cambridge University Press, 2002)
• "There is no future tense ending for English verbs as there is in other languages . . .."
(Ronald Carter and Michael McCarthy, Cambridge Grammar of English. Cambridge University
Press, 2006)
• "English has no future tense, because it has no future tense inflections, in the way that
many other languages do, nor any other grammatical form or combination of forms that can
exclusively be called a future tense." (Bas Aarts, Oxford Modern English Grammar. Oxford
University Press, 2011)
Although English has no future tense in the strict sense (i.e., it has no verb form specific to future
meaning), we commonly refer to several structures that are used for future meaning as belonging
to the “future tense.”
There are a number of different ways of referring to the future in English. It is important to
remember that we are expressing more than simply the time of the action or event.
The forms that we choose depend on how we see the future event. The grammatical form that we
use depends on things like our mood, how we feel about the future event, how objective or
subjective or neutral we want to be, and on factors such as our sense of obligation, hope and
certainty.
Although English has no future tense in the strict sense (i.e., it has no verb form specific to future
meaning), we commonly refer to several structures that are used for future meaning as belonging
to the “future tense.” The most common of these structures begin with will or a form of the verb
be + going to.
While these verb markers tell us that the action takes place in the future, it is the aspect of the
verb that tells us how the event will be temporally structured. The combination of the future
marker and the aspect results in the verb structures that we usually call the future simple, the
future continuous (or future progressive), the future perfect, and the future perfect continuous.
Although we find it extremely difficult to drop the notion of "future tense" from our mental
vocabulary, we can say that there are several ways of expressing future time in English.

FUTURE SIMPLE

Form: the auxiliaries shall/will + the short infinitive of the main verb. Shall is used in the 1st
pers. sg/pl. (formal British English; in informal contexts, in American English it is replaced by
will). Will is used in the 2nd and 3rd pers. sg/pl.
Uses and values: The Future Simple is used to denote actions to be performed in the future (i.e.
after the present moment. Thus, the Future Simple is used for announcements of future plans,
predictions about the future): I shall/will be 20 next week. (Formal/colloquial English).
Time expressions: tomorrow, next week/month, in the future, in 2 years
1.To make a prediction about the future: She will be happy with the new car you bought
2. When we state a fact about the future: The sun will rise at 5:45 am tomorrow
3.To express a belief we have about the future: I think John Smith will win the election
4. To express what you want or are willing to do: I hope you will come to dinner tomorrow
5. To express an action that will happen at a certain time: My husband will work till 8:00 pm
tonight
Shall and will acquire modal value in some special constructions (interrogative, negative). Thus,
Shall acquires special values:
a) in the 1st pers. sg/pl. interrogative sentences:
- request for advice or suggestion: Where shall I put the books?
- making an offer: Shall I open the door?
b) in the 2nd and 3rd pers. sg/pl. shall expresses:
- the speaker’s intention to perform a certain action: They shall have my support.
- command, formal instruction: Each competitor shall wear a number.
Will expresses modal values:
a) in the 1st pers. sg/pl. will expresses unpremeditated intention, immediate decision: ‘Can
somebody help me?’ ‘I will.’
b) in the 2nd, 3rd pers. sg/pl/, interrogative sentences will expresses willingness, request,
invitation: Will you do me a favour?
c) in negative sentences will expresses absence of willingness, i.e. refusal: I won’t see him
again.
FUTURE CONTINUOUS

Form: It is formed of the Future Simple of the auxiliary be + the Present Participle of the main
verb: I shall/will be working
Uses and values:
a) It denotes an action in progress at a given time in the future:
This time next year she’ll be running her own business.
I'll be working at eight o'clock. Can you come later?
They'll be waiting for you when you arrive.
b) An action or event that is a matter of routine:
You'll be seeing John in the office tomorrow, won't you?

FUTURE PERFECT SIMPLE

Form: It consists of the Future Tense of the auxiliary have + the Past Participle of the main verb:
I shall/will have worked
Uses and values:
a) It expresses an action completed before a future moment. The future moment may be indicated
by means of:
- an adverbial phrase introduced by the prepositions by, before, in;
They will have immigrated to Canada by Christmas.
She will have eaten before she arrives
- a subordinate clause of time introduced by the conjunctions before, when, by the time:
By the time we get there, the film will have started.
When the mountaineers get back to the base, they'll have been in the snowstorm for two days
How long will she have worked here by the end of this year?
b) It expresses supposition about an action performed at a previous moment:
No doubt you will have heard of this writer

FUTURE PERFECT CONTINUOUS

Form: It consists of the Future Perfect of the auxiliary be + the Present Participle of the main
verb: I shall/will have been working.
Uses and values:
It expresses an action begun before a given future moment and still going on at that future
moment. The given future moment can be expressed by:
- an adverbial phrase introduced by next, by:
By his sixtieth birthday he will have been teaching for 35 years.
- a subordinate clause of time (with the verb in the Present Tense):
When Mr. Brown retires he will have been working in the same office for 45 years.
We will have been waiting for a long time when the bus finally comes.
My little sister will have been sitting quietly for an hour when the movie finishes.
I will have been cleaning all day when you arrive, so I’ll be too tired to go out.

Other means of expressing futurity (Future Time)

Be going to
The going to – construction has two values:
- The subject’s intention (plan, decision) to perform a certain future action: ‘What are you going
to do tonight?’ ‘I’m going to stay at home’.
- Prediction (the speaker’s feeling of certainty, strong probability, and likelihood): Those dark
clouds mean it’s going to rain.
Be to + infinitive expresses the following meanings:
- an arrangement which has been planned for the future: The meeting is to begin at 8 o’clock.
- an order, instruction, command, usually an indirect one: You are to be back by 10 o’clock.
Be about to + infinitive expresses an immediate future action whose fulfilment is imminent:
Hurry up! The train is (just) about to leave.
Present Simple (with future meaning): an official plan or arrangement regarded as unalterable:
The play begins at 7 o’clock this evening.
Present Continuous (with future meaning): a future event anticipated by virtue of a personal
present plan, programme or arrangement (fixed arrangements in the near future): She’s meeting
her aunt this weekend.
Future- in -the Past Simple
Form: should/would + The Short Infinitive of the main verb
The Future in the Past is used in reporting the past words or thoughts of someone.
‘I shall see you tomorrow’ →I told him I should see him the next day.
Future- in -the Past Continuous
Form: should/would + be + The Present Participle of the main verb
‘I'll be working at eight o'clock’ →I told him I would be working at eight o'clock.
THE SEQUENCE OF TENSES

DIRECT OBJECT CLAUSE

TIME CLAUSE

THE SEQUENCE OF TENSES IN DIRECT OBJECT CLAUSES

The term "sequence of tenses" refers to the choice of the verb tense in the subordinate clause
depending on the tense of the verb in the main clause. The rule of the sequence of tenses means
that the tense in the subordinate clause is determined by the tense in the main clause and should
agree with it both logically and grammatically.
 Direct Object subordinate clauses answer the question "what?" and stand in the place of
an object after such verbs as "know, think, believe, understand, wonder, agree, say, tell,
ask, answer, remark" and phrases like "I'm sure (that); I'm afraid (that)".
 Direct Object clauses are connected to the main clause by the conjunctions "that, whether,
if" and by conjunctive adverbs and pronouns, such as "where, when, why, how, who,
what", and some others.
 Direct Object clauses are most often introduced by the conjunction "that", which is often
omitted. For example: I think that she is tired. – I think she is tired. I was sure that they
were waiting for us. – I was sure they were waiting for us. The other conjunctions and
conjunctive words introducing object clauses are not omitted.
The rules of the sequence of tenses are quite strictly observed in Direct Object subordinate
clauses and the use of the tenses in object subordinate clauses depends on the tense of the verb in
the main clause. Rule 1
If the verb in the main clause is in the present (Present Tense, Present Perfect) or in the future,
the verb in the Direct Object subordinate clause may be in any tense that conveys the meaning
correctly according to sense, logic, and general rules of the use of tenses.
I think that he lives on Rose Street.
She doesn't know whether he will agree to do it.
I don't know if she is in town.
Do you hear what I say?
I know that John has left for Chicago.
I know where she went.
I know who did it.
They don't know when he will return.
I know that he has been looking for this book for three weeks.
We know that she is sleeping now.
I have heard that Mr. Smith is going to be our new director.
He will understand that you want to help him.
I will ask him why he didn't buy that book.
Rule 2
If the verb in the main clause is in the Past Tense, the verb in the Direct Object subordinate
clause should also be used in one of the past tenses: Past Tense, Past Perfect, Future-in-the Past.
If the tense of the main clause is past, then,
a) the Past Tense in a DO clause is used to express simultaneity with the main clause.
b) the Past Perfect in a DO clause is used to express anteriority with respect to the main clause.
c) the Future-in-the Past is used to express posteriority with respect to the main clause.
I think that he works in a bank.
I thought that he worked at a bank.
I knew that she was waiting for me by the entrance.
I knew that he had already left for Rome.
She said that she had been waiting for me for a long time.
I wasn't sure that he would be at home.
I knew that she would be waiting for me by the entrance.
PRESENT TENSE PAST TENSE

Exceptions
A Past Tense in the Main clause may be followed by a Present Tense in the subordinate clause
when the subordinate clause expresses a universal truth, mathematical calculation, historical fact,
PRESENT PERFECT PAST PERFECT
moral guidelines, habitual fact or something that has not yet changed. In such cases, the tense of
the subordinate clause is not governed by the tense of Main clause.
Galileo proved that the Earth revolves around the Sun.
We learnt at school that the truth always triumphs.
Newton discovered that the force of gravity pulls all bodies to the Earth.
FUTURE FUTURE-IN-THE-PAST
Yesterday my little granddaughter learned that lions and tigers belong to the cat family.
If a subordinate clause is introduced by a conjunction of comparison such as: than, as well as,
etc. in such cases, a Past Tense in the Main clause may be followed by any tense in the
subordinate clause according to the sense intended by the speaker. Furthermore, any tense in the
Main clause can be followed by any tense in the subordinate clause.
He loved me more than he loves you.
She helps you as well as she helped me.
THE SEQUENCE OF TENSES IN TIME CLAUSES

Time clauses answer the question: When? and can be introduced by the following conjunctions:
when; after; as long as; before; hardly….when; by the time (that); during the time (that);
immediately; the moment (that); now (that); once; since; until/till; when; whenever; while
Remember!
We do not use a future form in a Time clause.
The time clause can come before or after the main clause. When it comes before, it is usually
followed by a comma. But if the main clause comes first, no comma is used.
After  she had done the shopping, Mary made lunch.
Mary made lunch after she had done the shopping.
MAIN CLAUSE TIME CLAUSE

FUTURE PRESENT TENSE

I will phone you when I get home from work.
 We’ll send you the tickets as soon as we get them.

I'm going to swim a lot while I'm on holiday.

FUTURE PRESENT PERFECT

He will get married after he has saved enough money.

MAIN CLAUSE TIME CLAUSE

PAST TENSE PAST TENSE

He visited us whenever He was free.

PAST TENSE PAST PERFECT

We went out after we had done our homework.

PAST TENSE/FUTURE-IN-THE PAST PAST TENSE

The bus driver said that he would stop the bus we got to Bucharest.
when
PAST TENSE/FUTURE-IN-THE PAST PAST PERFECT
I promised mother I would help her after I had come back from school.