Strength of materials HUCUESA Note Stress

and Strain

1. Stress and Strain

1.0 Objective
 Determination of axial stress & strain of two force members and their relationship.
 Developing the relation in between axial & lateral strains.
 Computing stress & strain on a structural member created in change of temperature.
 Determination of shear stress, shear strain and their correlation

1.1 Introduction

The effect of externally applied forces can be measured in terms of the internal reacting forces in
a solid body of the members of a frame work, as described in Engineering Mechanics I.

However, at that stage no mention was made of the cross-sectional size and shape of the
members. This aspect had no effect on the forces in the members, but conversely one should be
able to describe quantitatively the way in which two members of different cross-sectional size
would react to a particular value of force. This is done through the concept of stress and strain.

1.2 Stress and Strain

1.2.1 Normal Stress and Strain

Normal Stress

Consider a prismatic bar that is loaded by axial forces P at the ends, as shown in Fig 1.1(a)
below. Note that a prismatic bar is a straight structural member having constant cross-section
throughout its length.

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the axial forces are exposed if we make an
imaginary cut at section m-n in Fig 1.1b.
In Fig.1.1b, one showing the bar before the Because this section is taken perpendicular
loads are applied and the other showing the to the longitudinal axis of the bar, it is called
elongated bar after the loads are applied. a cross-section
The internal stresses produced in the bar by
Fig. 1.1 Prismatic bar in tension.

b The part of the bar to the left of the cut can be isolated and treated as free body diagram, Fig 1.1
C. The tensile load P acts at the left hand end of this free body; at the other end are forces
representing the action of the removed part of the bar upon the part that remains. These forces
are continuously distributed over the cross-section. The intensity of force (that is, the force per
unit area) is called the stress and is commonly denoted by the Greek letter σ (Sigma).

Assuming that the stress has a uniform distribution over the cross-section as shown in Fig 1.1c, it
can be seen that its resultant is equal to the intensity σ times the cross-sectional area A of the bar.
Further more, from the equilibrium of the body shown in Fig. 1.1c; it is also evident that the
resultant must be equal in magnitude and opposite in direction to the applied load P. From these
observations the following relation can be obtained.

When the bar is stretched by the forces P, the resulting stresses are tensile stresses; if the forces
are reversed in direction, causing the bar to be compressed, we obtain compressive stresses. In as
much as the stress σ acts in a direction perpendicular to the cut surface, it is referred to as a
normal stress.
Note that it is customary to define tensile stresses as positive and compressive stresses as
negative.
In SI units stress has units of Newtons per square meter (N/m2), or Pascals (Pa).

Normal Strain

As shown in the Fig 1.1 above, an axially loaded bar undergoes a change in length, becoming
larger when in tension and shorter when in compression. The change in length is denoted by the
Greek letter  (delta). This elongation is the cumulative result of the stretching of all elements of
the material throughout the length L of the bar. The deformation of different bodies subjected to
a particular load is a function of size, and therefore comparisons are made by expressing
deformation as a non-dimensional quantity given by the change in dimension per unit of original
dimension. The non dimensional expression of deformation is termed strain.
For the prismatic bar in Fig 1.1 the strain ε is given by

Compressive strains are negative and tensile strains are positive.

1.3 Stress-Strain Relations

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The mechanical properties of materials used in engineering are determined by tests performed on
small specimens of the material. To understand the relation between stress and strain a structural
steel specimen is installed between the two large grips of a tensile- test machine and then loaded
in tension.

The normal stress σ in the test specimen is calculated by dividing the load P by the cross-
sectional area A.
The average axial strain in the bar is found from the measured elongation  between the gage
marks by dividing  by the gage length L.

Compression tests of metals are customarily made on small specimens in the shape of cubes or
circular cylinders. Both the load applied by the machine and the shortening of the specimen may
be measured.

After performing a tension or compression test and determining the stress and strain at various
magnitudes of the load, we can plot a diagram of stress versus strain. Such a stress-strain
diagram is characteristic of the material and conveys important information about the mechanical
properties and type of behavior.

Consider a structural steel, also known as mild steel or low - carbon steel. A stress - strain
diagram for a typical structural steel in tension is shown below.

Strains are plotted on the horizontal axis and stress on the vertical axis. The diagram begins with
a straight line from the origin 0 to point A, which means that the stress and strain are
proportional. Beyond point A, the proportionality between stress and strain no longer exists;
hence the stress at A is called the proportional limit.

Fig 1.2 Stress-strain diagram for a typical structural steel.

1.4 Hooke’s Law and Basic Elastic Theory

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The slope of the straight line from 0 to A is called the modulus of elasticity or Young's modulus
E. Because strain is non dimensional, this slope has the same units as stress. i.e. .
This relation is known as Hooke’s law.
With an increase in the load beyond the proportional limit, the strain begins to increase more
rapidly for each increment in stress. The stress-strain curve then has a smaller and smaller slope,
until, at point B, the curve becomes horizontal. Beginning at this point, considerable elongation
occurs, with no noticeable increase in the tensile force (from B to C in Fig 1.2).This phenomenon
is known as yielding of the material, and point B is called the yield point. The corresponding
stress is known as the yield stress of the steel. In the region from B to C, the material becomes
perfectly plastic, which means that it can deform without an increase in the applied load.

After undergoing the large strains that occur during yielding in the region BC, the steel begins to
strain harden. During strain hardening, the material undergoes changes in its atomic and
crystalline structure, resulting in increased resistance of the material to further deformation.
Additional elongation now requires an increase in the tensile load, and the stress-strain diagram
has a positive slope from C to D. The load eventually reaches its maximum value, and the
corresponding stress (at point D) is called the ultimate stress. Further stretching of the bar is
actually accompanied by a reduction in the load, and fracture finally occurs at a point such as E
in Fig. 1-2.Lateral contraction of the specimen occurs when it is stretched, resulting in a decrease
in the cross-sectional area. The reduction in area is too small to have a noticeable effect on the
calculated value of stress up to about point C, but beyond that point the reduction begins to alter
the shape of the diagram.

In the vicinity of the ultimate stress, the reduction in area of the bar becomes clearly visible and a
pronounced necking of the bar occurs.

1.5 Poisson’s Ratio and Volumetric Strain

Poisson’s Ratio

When a prismatic bar is loaded in tension, the axial elongation is accompanied by lateral
contraction (normal to the direction of the applied load), the final shape being dotted in Fig. 1.3
below.

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as Poisson's ratio and is denoted by the
It is found that for an elastic material the Greek letter ν (nu); thus
lateral strain is proportional to the
longitudinal strain, and is of the opposite
type.
The ratio of the strain in the lateral direction
to the strain in the axial direction is known

Fig 1.3 Axial elongation and lateral contraction of a bar in tension.

The value of ν fluctuates for different materials over a relatively narrow range. Generally, it is on
the order of 0.25 to 0.35. In extreme cases, values as low as 0.1 (some concretes) and as high as
0.5 (rubber) occur. The latter value is the largest possible.

Volumetric Strain

Because the dimensions of a bar in tension or compression are changed when the load is applied,
the volume of the bar changes too. The change in volume can be calculated from the axial and
lateral strains. Consider a small rectangular parallelepiped element of isotropic material cut from
a bar in tension. The element has side lengths a, b, and c in the x, y, and z directions,
respectively. The dashed line in the fig below shows the shape of the element after the load is
applied.

Fig. 1.4 Change of shape of an element taken from a bar in tension.

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The elongation of the element in the direction of loading is aε, where ε is the axial strain.
Because the lateral strains are - νε the lateral dimensions decrease by bνε and cνε in the y and z
directions respectively. Thus, the final dimensions of the element are a (1 + ε), b (1 - νε), and c
(1 - νε), and the final volume is

Expanding this expression will give:-

Vf = [1 +ε- 2 νε - 2 νε 2 + v2ε2 + ν2ε3]
As ε is very small compared to unity, its square and cube are negligible in comparison to ε itself.
Therefore, the final volume of the element is.
Vf = (1+ε - 2 νε)
The change in volume is, V = Vf - Vo
= (1 +ε- 2 νε) -
= ε (1 - 2ν)

Where the original volume, Vo =

The unit volume change, i.e. volumetric strain,

But

Temperature Strain

A change in the temperature of an object tends to produce a change in its dimensions. Due to this
change in dimensions, the material undergoes a uniform thermal strain εt given by the
expression.
εt =  (T)

L . t Fig 1.5 Thermal expansions of bars

In the above expression  is the coefficient of linear thermal expansion and T is the increase or
decrease in temperature.
This implies a rod of length L with temperature change T will have a change in length of
t =  L. T
Generally, increasing temperature causes expansion and thus a positive strain, while decreasing
temperature results in contraction & negative strain. An important feature about this behavior is

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that if there is no restraint on the material there can be strain unaccompanied by stress. However,
if there is any restriction on free change in size then a thermal stress will result.

The total strain, in a body experiencing thermal stress may be divided in to two components, the
strain associated with the stress, εσ, and the strain resulting from temperature change, εt. Thus,
ε = εσ + εt
Hence

1.6 Shear Stress and Strain

Shear Stress

Consider the pinned connection shown in Fig 1.6. This joint consists of a clevis A, a bracket B,
and a pin C. As the force P is applied, the bracket and the clevis press against the rivet in
bearing, and a nonuniform pressure develops against the pin (Fig. 1.6b). The average value of
this pressure is determined by the projected area of the pin into the bracket (or clevis). This is
called the bearing stress. The bearing stress in the bracket then equals σ b=P/ (t1d). Here t1 is the
thickness of the bracket and d is the diameter of the pin. Similarity, the bearing stress in the
clevis is given by
σb=P/ (2td).

c d
b
a
Fig. 1.6 Bolted
Connection in which the bolt is loaded in double shear

The force transferred as bearing on the pin is resisted by the stress developing on sections m-n
and p-q of the pin. This stress developed on a surface created due to a force tangential or parallel
to the surface (eg. V in Fig.1.6d) is called shear stress. Shear stress acts parallel to the surface. In
this example since we have two planes resisting shear the pin is said to be in double shear.

Since the pin as a whole is in equilibrium, any part of it is also in equilibrium. At each cut
section, a shear force V equivalent to P/2, as shown in Fig. 1.6c, must be developed. Thus the
shear occurs over an area parallel to the applied load. This condition is termed direct shear.

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Unlike normal stress, the distribution of shearing stresses τ across a section cannot be taken as
uniform. By dividing the total shear force V by the cross sectional area ,A, over which it acts, we
can determine the average shear stress in the section:

The figure below shows a rivet connection in which the rivet is under single shear.

Fig.1.7 Rivet in single shear

The loading arrangements shown in Figs.1.6 and 1.7 above is an example of direct shear, or
simple shear, in which the forces are created by a direct action of the forces in trying to cut
through the material. Shear stresses also arise in an indirect manner when member are subjected
to tension, torsion, and bending.
Consider a small element of a material in the form of a rectangular parallelepiped having sides a,
b, and c in the x, y, and z directions, respectively (Fig. 2.8).

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Fig. 1.8 Shear stress and strain

As is shown on the above figure the front and rear faces are assumed to be free of any stresses.
Suppose a shear stress is τ is distributed uniformly over the top face of the element. For the
element to be in equilibrium in the x direction, equal but oppositely directed shear stresses must
act on the bottom face.
Therefore the shear force: On the top face, Vtop =
Similarly, on the bottom face, Vbottom = -
These two forces form a couple having a moment about the z axis of magnitude, ,
clockwise in the figure. Equilibrium of the element requires that this moment be balanced by an
equal and opposite moment resulting from shear stresses acting on the side faces of the element.
Denoting thee stresses on the side faces as τ1:
The vertical shear forces are, V=
The counterclockwise couple becomes, V*a =
From moment equilibrium
Clock wise couple = Counter clock wise couple
=

Hence the magnitudes of the shear stresses on the four faces of the element are equal.
Conclusions: -
1. Shear stresses on opposite faces of an element are equal in magnitude and opposite in
direction.
2. Shear stresses on perpendicular faces of an element are equal in magnitude and direction
such that both stresses point toward or both away from, the line of intersection of the
faces.
In Fig. 1.8, since only shear stresses are acting on the faces of the element, it is said to be in pure
shear.
The above conclusions concerning the shear stresses are valid even when normal stresses also act
on the faces of the element.
Shear Strain
Due to the shear stresses the lengths of the sides of the element do not change. Instead, the shear
stresses produce a change in the shape of the element, as shown in Fig. 1.8(b). The angles
between the faces at points q and s, which were /2 before deformation, are reduced by a small
angle  to /2- (Fig. 1.8b). At the same time, the angles at p and r are increased to /2+. The
angle  is a measure of the distortion, or change in shape, of the element and is called the shear
strain. The unit of shear strain is radian. For the given coordinate system the shearing strain is
positive if the right angle between the reference lines decreases as shown in the figure 1.8b;
otherwise, the shearing strain is negative.
The properties of material in shear can be determined experimentally from direct-shear tests or
torsion tests. From the results of these tests, stress strain diagrams in shear may be plotted. These
diagrams of τ versus  are similar in shape to the tension test diagrams (σ versus ε). From the
shear diagrams, we can obtain shear properties such as the proportional limit, the yield stress,
and the ultimate stress. These properties in shear are usually about half as large as those in
tension.

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For many materials, the initial part of the shear stress strain diagram is a straight line, just as in
tension. For this linearly elastic region the shear stress and strain are directly proportional, and
we have the following equation for Hooke’s law shear.

The constant G is termed the modulus of rigidity, or shear modulus of elasticity, of the material
and is expressed in the same SI units as E- that is Pascals (Pa) (N/m2).
The moduli of elasticity in tension and shear (E and G) are related by the following equation:
in which ν is Poisson’s ratio.
Factor of Safety
In reality the exact type of load acting on a structure, the dimensions of the member, the
character of the material making up the member, etc ... can not be exactly determined. Due to
the above reasons we can't exactly determine the load resisting capacity of the member and the
exact load acting on it. To account for these uncertainties the maximum permissible stress, or
working stress which the body can with stand, and the working load are determined from a
consideration of the above factors, and the factor of safety is normally defined as;
Factor of safety with respect to ultimate stress,

Factor of safety with respect to yield stress,

Factor of safety with respect to ultimate load,

The factor of safety is normally much greater with respect to the ultimate stress than with respect
to the yield stress.

1.7 AXIAL STRESS AND STRAIN IN GENERAL CASE

a) Statically determinate Structures

When a prismatic bar of linearly elastic materials is

loaded only at the ends, the change in length ( ) is
given by:
=
But when a prismatic bar is loaded by two or more
axial loads acting at intermediate ponts along the axis,
the bar should be divided into parts of uniform loads as
shown below.

N1 –uniform load acting over AB, N1= PC+ PD -PB

N2- uniform load acting over BC, N2 = PC + PD
N3- uniform load acting over CD, N3 = PD

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, ,

The same method can be used when the bar consists several
prismatic segments , each having different axial forces ,
different dimensions and different materials, the change may be
obtained from the equation: Fig.1.9

Ni-the internal axial force on member i,

Li-are part lengths,
Ai- X- sectional area of part I Ei-young’s modulus of part i
Some times the axial force N & the X-sectional area, A, vary continuously along the axis of a
bar, as illustrated by the tapered bar of fig. below.

The internal axial force N(x) acting at this X-section may be determined from equilibrium using
either segment AC or segment CB as a free body.

N(x)
dx
b) c)
Fig.1-10
a)

b) Statically Indeterminate Structures

The reactions & internal forces of structures shown previously are determined solely from free
body diagrams & equations of equilibrium. Structures of this type are classified as statically
determinate.
Most structures are more complex and their reactions & internal forces cannot be found by
Statics alone.
As illustrated in fig. below there are two vertical reactions: RA& RB, but only one useful
equation of equilibrium ( ) since this equation contains two unknowns, it is not
sufficient for finding the reactions. Structures of this kind are classified as statically
indeterminate.

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 Equation of equilibrium
, RA + RB –P =0

 Equation of compatibility

The relationships between the forces acting on a bar

& its changes in length are known as force – displacement relations.

Fig.1-11

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