No

Locomotion and Movemeni

GFHAPTER

Chapter Outline
Tvpes of movements in humans
6.1.1 Amoeboid Movement 5.2.3 Cori Cycle
5.1.2 Ciliary Movement .2.4 Red Muscle Fibres and White Muscle Fibres
5.1.3 Muscular Movement 5.3 Skeletal System
2 Muscle 5.3.1 Axial Skeleton
5.2.1 ucture of Skeletal Muscle I. The Skull
Muscle Fibre II. Vertebral Column
II. Myofibril I1. Thoracic Skeleton
II. Myofilaments 5.3.2 Appendicular Skeleton
V. Muscle Proteins I. Pectoral Girdle
V Triad System Il. Bones of the Upper Limbs
4 5.2.2 The Sliding Filament Mechanism II. Pelvic Girdle
I. Excitation of a Muscle V.Bones ofthe Lower Limbs
3 Il. Formation of Cross Bridge
5.4 Joints
5.4.1 Functional Classification
4 II. The Contraction Cycle
5.4.2 Structural Classification
IV. Relaxation of Muscle
2 5.5 Disorders of Muscular and Skeletal System

1
Movement is one of the significant features of living Methods of locomotion performed by animals
2
teings. Animals and plants exhibit a wide range of vary with their habitats and the demand of the
situation. However, locomotion is generally for
movements.
search of food, shelter, mate, suitable breeding
Streaming of protoplasm in the unicellular
grounds, and favourable climatic conditions or to
organisms like Amoeba is a simple form of
escape from enemies or predators.
movement. Movement of cilia, flagella and tentacles
aeshown by many organisms. Human beings can 5.1 TYPES OF MOVEMENTS IN HUMANS
limbs, jaws, eyelids, tongue, etc. Some of the
DmOve Cells of the human body exhibit three main types
Dvements result inchange of place or location.
a
of movements, namely, amocboid, ciliary and muscular.
movements are called locomotion.
uCn voluntary 5.1.1 Amoeboid Movement
alking, running, climbing, flying, swimming are

Some specialised cells in our body like

Some forms of locomotory movements.
macrophages and leucocytes in blood exhibit
different
LOComotory structures need not be amoeboid movement. It is effected by pseudopodia
For
those affecting other types of movements. the formed by the streaming of protoplasm (as in Amoeba).
in
uple, in Paramecium, cilia help Cytoskeletal elements like microfilaments (made
and in
ment of food through cytopharynx for
of actin) are also involved in amoeboid movement.
comotion as well. Hydra can use its tentacles
5.1.2 Ciliary Movement
Waptuse
urin ES prey and also use them for locomotion.
postures
and Cilia and flagella are the outgrowths of the cell
limbs for hanges in body
lo
ocom n as well. suggest membrane (Ref. NCERT Textbook: Cell The Unit
The above observations
hatmovements and be studied of Life). Flagellar movement helps in the
locomotion cannot
swimming of spermatozoa, maintenance of water
par'a
al The
two may be
linked by stating
that
current in the canal system of sponges and in
locormotions mov
are m ovements but all
movements

locomotion of Protozoans like

e not locomotions Euglena. Ciliary
195
omotion and Movement
 Integrated Biology Vol-1a
movement occurs in most of our internal tubular Skeletal muscles are closely associated wi
organs which are lined by ciliated epithelium. The the skeletal components of the body. They have.
coordinated movements of cilia in the trachea help striped appearance under the light microse
us in removing dust particles and some of the
cope
(Fig. 5.2.2) and hence are called striated muscle
foreign substances inhaled along with the They are innervated by the nerve fibres of somati
atmospheric air. Passage of ova through the female nervous system. As their contraction is under th
e
reproductive tract is also facilitated by the ciliary voluntary control of the nervous system, skeletal
movement. In bringing about ciliary movement, muscles known as voluntary muscles. Thev
are
dynein arms act as motors utilising ATP. are primarily involved in locomotory actions and
and
maintenance of body posture.
5.1.3 Muscular Movement
Visceral muscle is located in the inner wallk
Movement of our limbs, jaws, tongue, etc, require
of hollow visceral organs of the body like the
muscular movement. The contractile property of
alimentary canal, reproductive tract, etc. It does not
muscles is effectively used for locomotion and
exhibit any striations and is smooth in appearance
other movements by human beings and majority
Hence, it is called smooth (unstriated) muscle.
of multicellular organisms. Locomotion requires a
Their activities are not under the voluntary control
perfect coordinated activity of muscular, skeletal
of the nervous system and are therefore known a
and neural systems.
involuntary muscles. They serve several functions
Together, the bones, muscles, and joints form such as the passage of food through the
digestive
an integrated system called the musculoskeletal tract and gametes through the genital tract.
system. The branch of medical science concerned
skeletal muscle
with the prevention or correction of disorders of
the musculoskeletal system is called orthopaedics
(ortho- = coTect; -pedi = child).
In this chapter, you will learn about the types
of muscles, their structure, mechanism of their
contraction, and important aspects of the skeletal
system.
muscle
5.2 MUSCLE fascicle
Muscle is a specialised tissue of mesodermal origin.
About 40-50 per cent of the body weight of a
human adult is contributed by muscles. The human myofibril
muscle
body has about 640 muscles. They have special fiber
properties like excitability,
contractility,
extensibility and elasticity. Muscular tissue Z line sarcomere\ z line
contributes to homeostasis by producing body
movements, moving substances through the body,
and producing heat to maintain normal
body thick thin
temperature. The scientific study of muscles is
myofilament myofilament
known as myology (myo- muscle; -logy
=
=
study of).
Muscles have been classified using different
criteria, namely location, appearance and nature ATA
of regulation of their activities. Based on
the
location, muscle tissue is classified into three
types: Band H Zone M Line A-I Operlap
(i) Skeletal (ii) Visceral and (ii) Cardiac.
Fig. 5.2.1 0rganisation of Skeletal Muscle
196 DOCTORS SFRIFS for Sri Chnit Chuden's
Integrated Biology Vol-IIA
skeletal muscle fibre
sarcoplasmic
reticulum
thin thick
(actin) myosin)
filaments filaments
A
myofibril

sarcomere- -sarcomere
Z line
Zone Z line M line

Tband Aband I
band-A band band
Fig.5.2.2 Myofibril
As the name
suggests, cardiac muscle is the
muscle of heart and fibre is termed
helps pumping of the blood.
in sarcoplasm (Gr. sarcos =
flesh;
Many cardiac muscle cells assemble in plasma =
thing). A skeletal muscle fibre is a

pattern to form
a
branching syncytium, formed during development by the
cardiac muscle. Based
a
on fusion of small, individual muscle cells called
appearance, cardiac muscles are striated.
They are myoblasts. A skeletal muscle fibres
involuntary in nature as the nervous is
not control their activities
system does multinucleate, with many
peripheral nuclei. A
directly. characteristic feature of the muscle fibre is the
Smooth muscle and cardiac muscle presence of a
are large number of parallelly arranged
innervated by the nerve fibres of myofilaments
autonomic or
my ofibrils in the
sarcoplasm.
nervous system.
Myofibrils are surrounded by a well-developed
5.2.1 Structure of Skeletal Muscle smooth endoplasmic reticulum called
sarcoplasmic
reticulum (SR) which is the store house of
Let us examine a skeletal muscle in detail calcium
too
ions. Mitochondria
understand the structure and mechanism of (sarcosomes) are located
between the myofibrils.
contraction. Each organised skeletal muscle in our
body . Myofibril
1s made of a number of muscle
bundles, or
fascicles held together by a common collagenous Each myofibril has dark and light bands aranged
Connective tissue layer called fascia (collagen is alternately throughout the length of the
A detailed myofibrils.
the chief
protein in the human body). Each muscle study of the myofibril reveals that the
Dundle (fascicle) contains a number of muscle fibres striated appearance is due to the
distribution pattern
of two
Fig. 5.2.1). important proteins
Actin and Myosin.
The dark bands are called
.Muscle Fibre A-bands, or
anisotropic bands. They are birefringent
in
Each muscle fibre is lined by the plasma membrane
polarized light i.e. they alter the polarized light in
Called sarcolemma. The cytoplasm of the muscle two planes.

Locomotion and Movement

197
 Integrated Biology ol
The light bands are called 1-bands, or isotropic In the region of A-bandwhere thick and
and tin,
bands. They are monorefringent, i.e., they do not filaments overlap, each thick filament is su
alter the plane of polarized light. In the centre of by six thin filaments and each thin filamen arrounde
each I-band is present an elastic fibre called Z-line, surrounded by three thick filaments (Fig. 5,2
or Krause's membrane, or Dobie's line. It bisects IV. Muscle Proteins
the I-band. Thin filaments are made of the proteins F-aactin
The portion of myofibril between two tropomyosin, and troponin. Thick filamenis
successive Z-lines is called sarcomere. It is the made of the protein myosin (Fig. 5.2.3).
functional unit of contraction (Fig. 5.2.2). A. Actin
Il. Myofilaments Each actin (thin) filament is made of two F-act
-acin
Two types of myofilaments are arranged as rod- (filamentous actin) molecules helically wound
like structures, parallel to each other and also to each other. Each F-actin is a polymer of monomei
the longitudinal axis of the myofibrils (Fig. 5.2.2). G-actin (globular actin) molecules. Each G-acti
Thick myofilaments (primary myofilaments) molecule of the thin filament has a binding sit

occupy the A-band, the central portion of the (active site) for myosin (Fig. 5.2.3a).
sarcomere. The thin filaments (secondary B. Tropomyosin
myofilaments) attach to the Z line and extend into Two filaments of another protein, tropomyosin also
the A band upto the edge of the H-zone. In a resting run in the groove between the F-actin molecules in
state, the edges of thin filaments on either side of the throughout its length (Fig.
thin filament 5.23
the thick filaments partially overlap the free ends C.Troponin
of the thick filaments leaving the central part of
Troponin is a complex protein distributed at regula
the thick filaments. This lighter central part of thick intervals on the tropomyosin (Fig. 5.2.3a), In te
filament (A-band) not overlapped by thin filaments resting state, a subunit of troponin masks the
is called the H-zone, or Hensen's disc. myosin-binding sites on the actin filaments.
Supporting proteins that hold the thick Troponin consists of three globular
filaments together at the centre of the H-zone polypeptide subunits: TnC, TnT and TnI (also
(A-band) form a thin fibrous membrane called the known as TpC, TpT and
Tpl). TnC (Troponin-C)
M-line, so named because it is at the middle of the is the smallest subunit of the troponin complex to
sarcomere. The dark and light bands of all the which Ca* bind. TnT (Troponin-T) binds to
myofibrils of a muscle fibre are precisely aligned tropomyosin, anchoring the troponin complex. Tnl
at identical positions, giving a striated appearance (Troponin-I) binds to actin, thus inhibiting actit
to the whole muscle fibre. myosin interaction.

Troponin
Tropomyosin
F-Actin
(a) An actin (thin) filament
Actin binding sites
ATP binding sites Head
Tail (LMM)
Cross am (HMM)
Short am
(b) Myosin monomer (Meromyosin)
Fig.5.2.3 Contractile Proteins in Thick and Thin Myofilaments
Integrated Biology Vol-lIA
D. Myosin r e t i c u l u m (SR)
is a
The sarcoplasmic
around the
h myosin (thick) f+lament is also a polymerised
Each
repeating series of
tubular networks
inAbout 200-300 monomeric proteins called myofibrils. The tubules of the
SR which run parallel
Omyosins (myosins) constitute one thick fibre are termed
mer to the long axis of the muscle
h meromyosin has two
ament. Each The dilated sacs
important longitudinal tubules (L-tubules).
parts, a globula head with a short arm and a tail called terminal
of SR close to the T-tubules are
on either side
(Fig. 5.2.3b).
cisterna. Each T tubule is flanked
relaxed muscle fibre,
The globular head with short arm (neck) is by a terminal cisterna. In a
composed of heavy meromyosin (HMM). Each most of the calcium is located
in the terminal
and the two
head has two specific binding sites, one for ATP cisternae of SR. A transverse tubule
cisternae constitute a triad
and one for actin. The head has an active ATPase adjacent terminal
enzyme and shows motor activity. Thus, myosin is (Fig. 5.2.4).
a motor protein that can convert chemical energy
in the ATP molecules into mechanical energy. Short T-tubule
arm (neck) serves as a flexible link between the Terminal Traid
head and tail. The tail made of light meromyosin LMMD. cisternae
The HMM component, i.e. the head and short -L-tubule
arm projects outwards at regular distance and angle
from each other from the surface of a polymerised
myosin filament to form eross arms between the
thick and thin filaments. Cross arms are absent in
Fig. 5.2.4 Triad
the H-zone.
5.2.2 The Sliding Filament Mechanism
Myosin molecules in striated muscles
of Muscle Contraction
aggregate tail to tail to form bipolar thick myosinn
filaments. In each thick filament, half of the myosin Mechanism of muscle contraction is best explained
molecules have their heads oriented towards one by the sliding filament theory proposed by two
Z membrane and the other half towards the other Z groups of workers (Andrew Huxley and Ralph
membrane of the same sarcomere, so as to pull thin Niedergerke, 1954; Hugh Huxley and Jean Hanson, 1954).
filaments of both the sides towards the M-line. The Sliding filament theory states that shortening
tails of all myosin molecules in an A-band are of a sarcomere takes place by the sliding of the
directed towards the M line. thin filaments over (in between) the thick filaments.
Actin and myosin, which generate force The shortening of the sarcomere is caused by an
increase in the overlap of the thick and thin
during contraction are called contractile proteins.
filaments (Fig. 5.2.5).
Troponin and tropomyosin are called regulatory
proteins because of their role in masking and. I. Excitation of a Muscle
unmasking like
the active sites. Structural proteins Muscle contraction is initiated by a signal sent by
titin and nebulin keep thick and thin filaments in the central nervous system (CNS) via a motor
neuron. A somatic motor neuron and all the skeletal
proper alignment.
muscle fibres innervated by its telodendrites
V. Triad System
constitute a motor unit. The junction between a
Numerous tubular invaginations of the plasma
motor neuron and the sarcolemma of the (skeletal)
nembrane called transverse tubules (T-
are
muscle fibre is called the neuromuscular junction
Dules. In the non-mammalian vertebrates, T- (NMJ), or motor end plate. At the NMJ, the axon
occur at the level of Z line. In the mammals,
tubules
between the A terminal divides into cluster of
T-tubules
occur at the junctions
a
synaptic end bulbs.
bands and I bands. (Fig. 5.2.6).
Locomotion and Movement 199
 Integrated Biology y
Band A Band
H Zone

Relaxed TTT

Z line Z line
Z line

Contracting

Maximally
Contracted +

Two Sarcomeres
Fig.5.2.5 Sliding-filamenttheory of muscle contraction
(movement of the thin filaments and the relative size of the I band and H zones)
synaptic vescles- The effect of ACh binding lasts only briet
axon of
motor mitochondria- because ACh is rapidly broken down into acez
neuron synaptic cleft- and choline by an enzyme called acetylch
acetylcholine- linesterase (AChE).
Increase in Ca* level leads to the
binding
motor énd plate
axon terminal-
Ca2 with a subunit (TnC) of troponin on act
muscle filaments thereby remove the masking of active sie
myofibril fibre
for myosin.
Il. Formation of Cross Bridge
Myosin heads hydrolyses ATP into ADP and E
(Fig. 5.2.7a). Utilising the energy from A
Fig.5.2.6 Neuromuscular Junction (NMJ) hydrolysis, the myosin head now binds to th
The synapse between a somatic motor exposed active sites on actin to form a cross brid
neuron
and a skeletal muscle fiber is called the neuro- (Fig. 5.2.7b).
muscular junction (NMJ). The I. The
region Contraction (Cross bridge) Cycle
(depression) of sarcolemma opposite the synaptic | Shortening of a muscle involves rapid contrac
end bulbs is termed the motor end plate.
cycles that move the thin filaments along the ths
Synaptic end bulbs are the neural parts of the filament.
NMJ whereas motor end plate is the muscle fibre 1, he
Power Stroke: The cross bridge pulls
part of the NMJ.
attached actin filaments towards the centre of
When a nerve
band (Fig. 5.2.7c). This is called the power stros
impulsereaches the synaptic
end bulbs, they Because the myosin heads are arranged mimer
release the neurotransmitter as
acetylcholine (ACh). It binds to ACh receptor on images on either side of the H band (antipar
the motor end plate leading to the generation of an arrangement), this action pulls the thin filamc
from both sides into the A band. The
action potential in the sarcolemma. This
propagates atached to these actins are
along T-tubules through the muscle fibre and causes also pulled inwn
thereby causing a shortening of the sarcomes
the release of calcium ions from the cisternae of
SR into the sarcoplasm. Contrac-tion. The T' bands get reduced, wn
powe
the 'A' bands retain the
(Fig. 5.2.5), AS
length P
200 vdents
DOCTORS SERIES for Sri Chaitanya Sr. AllMS
Stu
nteglale A

actin filament-
myosin filament,
ADP

a)
ATP Hydrolysis of ATP
Cross bridge
(d) Breaking of cross
bridge
(6) Formation of cross
bridge
ADP

(c) Sliding/Rotation
Fig.5.2.7 Stiding
(Stages in cross bridge Filament
troke is completed, the formation,
myosin, releases the
Theory-Contraction
rotation of head and Cycte
breaking cross ol
and P, and goes back ADP IV. Di
to its relaxed state
Relaxation of Muscle
5.2.7c). (Fig
As the action
. Breaking of Cross potentials cease, the Ca** ions are
Bridge: A new ATP binds pumped back to the sarcoplasmic cisternae
gnd the cross-bridge is broken in the resulting
(Fig. 5.2.7d). masking of actin filaments. This
3. Recovery Stroke and return of Z lines back
causes the
Formation of Cross to their original position,
Bridge: The ATP is again hydrolysed by the i.e., relaxation.
head (Fig. 5.2.7a). Utilising the energy myosin 5.2.3 Cori Cycle
hydrolysis, he myosin head now bends from ATP
and binds Repeated activation of the muscles can lead to the
to the next active site on actin to form
Fig. 5.2.7b). The conformation of the bridge
a cross accumulation of lactic acid (or
anaerobic breakdown of
lactate) due to
nOw changed to an active state so that it canmyosin
is
glycogen in them,
the power stroke. perform fatigue. Muscle fatigue is the inability of a causing
to maintain force
muscle
of contraction after
This cycle of crossbridge formation and activity. prolonged
breakage is repeated causing further sliding. The The lactic acid is carried
combined power of several cross bridge cycles the liver, where
through the blood to
it is converted into
Causes the muscle to contract. During shortening pyruvic acid
OI the muscle, i.e., contraction, the 'T bands and (pyruvate) and then to
glucose through
zones get reduced, whereas the 'A' bands retain gluconeogenesis. The glucose
can enter the
blood
and be carried to muscles and
he length (Fig. 5.2.7). It is important to note that immediately used.
In case glucose is not
E1ther thick nor thin myofilaments shorten but immediately required, it can
be used to rebuild reserve of
Slide past each other. glycogen through
Ihe glycogenesis.
ratchet-like movements of the myosin
usbound to actin produce the movement of the About 20% of the
pyruvic acid formed from
un Tilaments relative to the thick filaments (ratchet lactate in the liver is broken down in
the citric acid
Chanism). Myosin heads attach to and 'walk cycle, providing the ATP needed to convert the
t h e thin filaments (walk along mechanism). other pyruvate molecules to
glucose.
LOComotion and Movement
201
 glucose
glucose
GLYCOLYSIS GLUCONEOGENESIS glycogen
glycogen
2 ATP
BLOOD 2 pytuvate
2 pytuvate

2 lacate
2 lactate
LIVER
MUSCLE

Fig.5.2.8 Cori Cycle

The
shuffling of lactate to the liver and glucose The differences between red muscle fibres
back to muscle cells is called the Cori
ar
cycle white muscle fibres are listed in Table 5.2.1.
Fig. 5.2.8.
CHARACTERISTICS OF MUSCLE
During the recovery period, the
body's| cONTRACTION
oxygen demand remains elevated above normal
I. Muscle Twitch
resting levels. The amount of oxygen required
to restore normal, pre-exertion conditions A twitch is the brief contraction of all the
is musce
called the oxygen debt. fibres in a motor unit in response to
a single
action potential in its motor neuron. The recori
5.2.4 Red Muscle Fibres and
of a muscle contraction, called a
White Muscle Fibres myogram, is
shown in Fig. 5.2.9. A muscle twitch lasts 20 t
The reaction time of the fibres can vary in different 200 msec. This is very
muscles. Muscle contains a red coloured long compared
to the
oxygen-duration a of muscle action potential (1-2 msec
storing pigment called myoglobin. Myoglobin
releases oxygen when it is needed by the
mitochondria for ATP production. Myoglobin
content is high in some of the muscle fibres which
gives a reddish appearance. Such muscle fibres are
called the red muscle fibres. These muscles also
contain plentyof mitochondria which can utilise latent
the large amount of oxygen stored in them for ATP period
production. Hence, these muscle fibres can also
be called aerobic muscles. On the other hand, some contraction relaxation
of the muscle fibres possess very less phase phase
quantity of
myoglobin and therefore, appear pale or whitish. time of
These are the white muscle fibres. Number of stimulation time (in msec)

mitochondria are also few in them, but the amount Fig. 5.2.9 Myogram of a Twitch Contraction
of sarcoplasmic retjculum is high. They depend on A latent
single twitch candivided into a la.
be
anaerobie process for energy. They show short period, a contraction phase, and a relaX
10

term, high intensity contraction.

phase (Fig. 5.2.9).
202 DOCTORS SERIES for Sri Chaitanya Sr. AllMS Idents

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Integrated Biology Vol-HIA
Table 5.2.1 Diferen ces between Red Muscle Fibres and White Muscle Fibres

Character Red (slowoxidative) fibres White (fastglycolyticfibres)

Diameter Small Large
Myoglobin content
High Low

Capillaries Many Few

Colour Red White (pale)
Method of ATP generation Aerobic cellular respiration Anaerobic cellular respiration (glycolysis)

Mitochondria More Fewer

SR Less abundant More abundant

Glycogen stores Low High
Contraction velocity Slow Fast
Contraction Long term, low intensity Short term, high intensity

Fatigue Low High

Il.Refractory Period IV. Treppe (staircase effect)
It is the brief period of time following the second time
If a skeletal muscle is stimulated a
has
stimulation of a muscle during which the muscle ill
immediately after the relaxation phase
not respond to a second stimulus. It is a will develop a
ended, the resulting contraction
characteristic of all muscle and nerve cells. in the first
Skeletal muscle has a short refractory period of
slightlyhigher maximum tension than
contraction. (Fig. 5.2.11).
about 5 msec. Cardiac muscle has a longer
refractory period of 250-300 msec.

I. All or None Law (Bowditch's Law)

A muscle fibre does not contract at all when the
intensity is subliminal (subthreshold). It contracts
to the maximum whether the stimulus has liminal
A
supra-liminal value.
(threshold) value or

However, a muscle consists of a large number Stimuli Time

of fibres with different threshold values.
Therefore,increase in intensity of stimulus Fig.5.2.11 Treppe
increases contraction of the muscle though V. Wave Summation
individual fibres obey all-or-none law (Fig. 5.2.10) Ifa second stimulus arrives before the relaxation
phase has ended, a second, more powerful
muscle fibre contraction occurs. The addition of one twitch
to another in this way is the summation of
twitches, or wave summation (Pig.5.2.12,
VI. Muscle Tone
n u r e m

The state of sustained partial contraction is called

}threshold
muscle tonus, or muscle tone. It is a sort of mild
tetanus. It is essential to maintain posture and
intensity of stimulus
-

form of the body.

Fig. 5.2.10 All or None Law
Locomotion and Movement 203
 Integrated Biology Volt
The human skeletal system consists
framework of bones and a few cartilagec
of
system has a significant role in movement. Thiy
by the body. Imagine chewing food witho shown
myogrants
bones and walking around without the limh
Bone and cartilage are specialised conned bones
L MMMA tissues. The former has a very hard matrix due nective
time (msec)
(a) single (b) wave (c) unfused d) fused calcium salts in it and the latter has slightly pliat
twitch summation tetanus tetanus piable
matrix due to chondroitin salts. The study of h
Fig. 5.2.12 A Myogram Showing Different structure and the treatment of bone
Frequencies of Stimulation
disordersi
= =
called osteology (osteo- bone; -logy study a
VIL. Isotonic and Isometric Contractions
The skeleton provides support to body pate
In an isotonic contraction (iso = equal; tonos=
protects inner delicate organs, gives posture to thebot
tension), the tension developed in the muscle
remains almost constant while the muscle offers space for the attachment of skeletal musc
changes its length. Example: Picking a book up and transforms muscle contraction into locomotion
off a table. In human beings, skeletal system is made u
In = of 206 bones and a few cartilages. The skeletons
an isometric contraction (iso equal;
metric = measure), the muscle tension rises but of infants and children have more bones and some
themuscle length remains the same as the tension of their bones fuse later in life. Cartilages provide
produced does not exceed the load. Example: support to structures like ear, nose and larynx. The
Holding a book steady using an outstretched skeleton is grouped into two principal divisions -
arm. the axial and the appendicular skeleton (Fig.
5.3.1).
5.3.1 Axial Skeleton
5.3 SKELETAL SYSTEM
Animals require a skeleton for support, protection Axial skeleton comprises 80 bones
distributed
and locomotion. Most land animals would
collapse along the main (longitudinal) axis of the body. The
if they had no skeleton to support their mass. Even skull, vertebral column, sternum and ribs constitute
an animal living in water cannot maintain its axial skeleton.
shape
without a skeleton.
I. The Skull
A hydrostatic skeleton consists of fluid held The skull is the bony framework of the head.
under pressure in a closed body compartment. This
The skull articulates with the
is the main type of skeleton in some animals like superior region
of the vertebral column with the help of two
cnidarians, nematodes, and annelids. An
exoskeleton covers and protects the body. Example occipital condyles (dicondylic skull). The skull
of exoskeleton include the chitinous exoskeleton (Fig..5.3.2) is composed of two sets of bones
of Cranial bones and facial bones, that totals to Z4
arthropods, the shells of molluscs and scales of
fishes. A bones. It also includes six
hardened internal skeleton, or auditory ossicles
endoskeleton is present in vertebrates and some and the hyoid bone.
invertebrates. In sponges, the endoskeleton consists A. Cranial Bones
Cranial bones are
of spicules and/or spongin fibers. Echinoderms 8 in number. They form u
have an endoskeleton made up of calcareous hard the
protective
outer covering,
cranium 10
ossicles in the dermis. Chordates have an brain. The eight cranial bones are the frontal
endoskeleton consisting of cartilage, bone, or a (1), parietals (2), temporals (2), occipital 0
combination of these two. sphenoid (1), and ethmoid (1).
204
DOCTORS SERIES for Sri Chaitanya Sr. AllMS
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 ated Bioiogy Vol-1lA
ntegra

-cranium
hyoid face skull

clavicle
scapula
stemum
humerus
vertebral

Column
ribs
caoals

- vertebral column
cOxa
radius sacrum
una
-coccyX

nmelacarpals femur

patella phalanges
ibia

fibuia
tarsals
metatarsals
phalanges
(a) ANTERIOR VIEW
(B) POSTERIOR VIEW
Fig. 5.3.1 Human Skeleton

frontal
parietal -sphenold
ethmoid
lacrimal
temporal nasal
maxilla
occipital bone
-Zygomatic
occipital condyle -mandible
hyoid
Fig.5.3.2 The skull (Lateral view)

ntal bone forms the forehead, anterior part or Occipital bone forms the posterior part and most
ne
floor, and the roof of the orbits. Parietal of the base of the cranium. It has foramen
magnum
tes form the within which medulla oblongata connects with the
the major portion of the sides and roof
the cranial cavity. Temporal bones form the spinal cord. The occipital bone bears two occipital
anferilateral
or parts and part of the cranial floor. condyles, one on each side of the foramen magnum.
eomotion and Movement 205
 Integrated Biology Vol
bone is present at the middle part of the C. Auditory Ossicles
Sphenoid Each middle ear contains three tiny bon.
base of the skull. It is the keystone bone of the
cranium because it articulates with all the other malleus, incus and stapes, collectively called
oones.
cranial bones. Ethmoid bone is a delicate long bone ossicles, or auditory ossicles. Malleus (ham ear
is modified articular of lower jaw. Incus (anui
present on the midline of the anterior part of the
cranial floor. modified quadrate of upper jaw. Stapes (stimun
modified hyomandibula. Stapes is the smallest hn
Sutures are immovable joints in adults that
in the human skeleton.
bone
connect most bones of the skull. The lambdoid
suture connects the occipital bone to the two parietal D.Hyoid
bones. The coronal suture attaches the frontal bone A single U-shaped bone called hyoid is presemta
to the parietal bones of either side. The sagittal the base of the buccal cavity between the lary
and the mandible. It supports the tongue
suture extends from the lambdoid suture to the nd
coronal suture, between the parietal bones. The provides attachment for some muscles of the tonge
e
the pharynx and neck. It keeps the larynx ope
squamosal suture lies between the parietal and
The hyoid bone does not articulate with any other boe
temporal bones on each side of the skull.
Il. Vertebral Column
B. Facial Bones
The facial region is made up of 14 skeletal elements Our vertebral column is formed of 26 serial
which form the front part of the skull (face) along arranged units called vertebrae and is dorsalh
with skeleton of nose, hard palate and lower jaw. placed. It extends from the base of the skullad
The 14 facial bones are the nasal (2), maxillae (2), constitutes the main framework of the trunk. The
zygomatic (2), lacrimal (2), palatine (2), inferior vertebral column articulates with skull, pectora
girdle, pelvic girdle and the ribs. The vertebral
nasal conchae (2), vomer (1), and mandible (1).
column keeps the body erect, encloses and protect
The nasal bones form the bridge of the nose.
the spinal cord, supports the head and servess
The lacrimal bones are the smallest bones of the
the point of attachment for the skul, ribs, girdles
face and form a part of the medial wall of each
and musculature of the back.
orbit. Processes of palatine bones form the posterior
The total number of vertebrae during ealy
portion of the hard palate. Inferior nasal conchae
development is 33. The adult vertebral colum
are scroll like bones that form a part of inferior
typically contains 26 vertebrae due to fusion of
lateral wall of the nasal cavity. (Superior and middle
some vertebrae during growth of the child.
nasal conchae are not separate bones but the
A. Structure of a Typical Vertebra
projections of the ethmoid bone). Vomer is a
roughly triangular bone present on the floor of nasal Each vertebra (Fig. 5.3.3) usually consists of

cavity. 1. A vertebral body (centrum)

The maxillae unite to form the upper jaw. They 2. A vertebral arch
bear alveoli (sockets) for the maxillary (upper) 3. Seven processes
teeth. Teeth are not bones. The palatine processes 1. Vertebral Body
of maxillae are involved in the formation of the
The vertebral body (centrum) is the thick,ds
anterior portion of the hard palate. Zygomatic bones
shaped weight-bearing anterior portion or
are called the cheek bones. Mandible, or lower
vertebra. It is the modified notochord. The bod
jawbone is a U-shaped bone. It is
the largest and of adjacent vertebrae are
strongest facial bone. It bears alveoli (sockets) for
interconnected
lgaments, but are separated by the interverteD
the mandibular (lower) teeth. It is the only movable discs. The centrum of human vertebra
skull bone (apart from the ear ossicles).
amphiplatyan.
 spinous process
lamina superior articular process Cervical vertebra

-transverse process
vertebral foramen
pedicle

body thoracic
vertebrae
Fig.5.3.3 Structure of a Vertebra
(Lumbar Vertebra)
ertebrai A r c h
Intervertebral lumber
disc vertebrae
nyo
short,
thick
processes, the pedicles project Sacrum
eriorly from the vertebral body and then unite
the flat laminae to form the vertebral
nen unite
arch
poster

t h e
Coccyx
neuralarch). The vertebral body and the vertebral
Fig.5.3.4 Vertebral column
surround a central hollow
portion called
arch (Right lateral view)
tebral
rtebra. foramen (neural canal). The vertebral
foramen
1.Cervical Vertebraae
foramina of all vertebraeform the vertebral (spinal)
The number of cervical vertebrae is seven in almost
nal. This makes the vertebral column a hollow
all mammals including human beings. First cervical
ube through which the spinal cord coming out of
vertebra (C1) is the atlas. It lacks a body and a
the foramen magnum of the cranium passes, and
spinous process. It has two superior articular facets
thus, remains protected.
that articulate with the occipital condyles. The
3.Processees second cervical vertebra (C2) is the axis. A strong,
Two transverse processes project laterally or peg-like process called the odontoid process, or
dorsolaterally on both sides from the junction of dens projects superiorly through the odontoid canal
laminae and pedicles. A single spinous process (anterior portion of the vertebral foramen) of the
(aeural spine) projects posteriorly from the junction atlas. C3 to C6 are typical cervical vertebrae. The
ofthe laminae. Depending upon their location in spinous process of the seventh vertebra (vertebra
he body, secondary modifications are seen in the
prominens) is longer and protrudes beyond the
ngth oftransverse process and the length of neural other cervical spines.
spine. The superior articular processes
two
2.Thoracic Vertebrae
prezygapophyses) of a vertebra articulate (form There are 12 thoracic vertebrae.
onts) with the two inferior articular processes They articulate
with ribs. The vertebral bodies of thoracic vertebrae
OTZygapophyses) of the vertebra immediatelyw
above them. have articular surfaces that form articulations with
the heads of the ribs. Except for T1l and T12, the
Hegions of the Vertebral Column transverse processes of thoracic vertebrae have
Vertebral column is differentiated into cervical costal facets that articulate with the tubercles of
thoracic (12), lumbar (5), sacral (5 fused the ribs.
vertebr
a n d coccygeal (4 fused vertebrae) 3. Lumbar Vertebrae
egions starting from the skull. The adult vertebral
Contains four normal curves (cervical, The five lumbar vertebrae (LI to L5) are the largest
ic, lumbar, and sacral) that provide strength, vertebrae. They withstand the most weight. They
port,
rt, and balance. Cervical and lumbar
3e con
curves providesurface for the attachment of the
large back
CUrves anteriorly whereas thoracic and sacral muscles. L5 articulates with the sacrum at the
wes are conca lumbosacral joint.
anteriorly (Fig. 5.3.4).

comotion and Movement 207

 Integrated Biology Vot
length from the first through seventh and the
The sacrum is decrease in length to the twelfth rib (
a
triangular
bone formed by the
5.3.5,
union of five sacral vertebrae
(S1-S5). The sacrum A typical rib consists of head, neck and h.
serves as a strong foundation for the
pelvic girdle. The vertebral end of the rib articulates with body
The Coccyx
vertebral column at the head, or capitulum.
the
The coccyx is formed From F
by the fusion of usually four the head, a short neck leads to the tubere
coccygeal vertebrae (Col-Co4). It is considered a (tuberculum) that contacts the transverse proce
vestige of tail. of the thoracic vertebra. Thus, it has two articulati
oces
. Thoracic Skeleton
surfaces on its dorsal end and is hence call.
tion
Thoracic vertebrae, ribs and sternum together form bicephalic (double headed). The head articulat
alled
the thoracic cage, or the rib
cage .5). The with the centrum, and tubercle articulates wit
thoracic cage protects vital
organs in the chest area transverse process of a vertebra.
and upper abdomen.
1. True Ribs
A. Sternum
The first pairs are called true ribs,
seven
Sternum (the breast bone) isflat and dagger-
a
o

vertebrosternal ribs. They reach the anterior bo

shaped bone situated on the ventral midline of
wall and are connected to the sternum by the costal
thorax. The three parts of the sternum are the
superior hexagonal disc called manubrium, the cartilages (hyaline cartilages) (Fig. 5.3.5).
central 2. False Ribs
body, and the inferior catilaginous xiphoid
process The xiphoid process does not The next five pairs of ribs (8-12) are called false
completely ossify until about age 40. The sternum ribs, because they do not attach directly to the
provides space for the attachment of the thoracic sternum.
ribs and abdominal muscles. (a) Vertebrochondral Ribs: The costal
B. Ribs cartilages of 8th, 9th and 10h pairs of nbs
There are 12 pairs of ribs. Each rib is a curved thin do not articulate directly with the sternun
flat bone connected dorsally to the vertebral column but join to each other, and then to the
and ventrally to the sternum. The ribs increase in cartilages of the 7th pair of ribs Fig 5.35

thoracic vertebra
2

manubrium-
true ribs
4
(vertebrostermal ribs)
- body
stemum

xiphoid process-
vertebrochondral
ribs 8
ribs
false ribs
10
costal catilage

foating ribs
(vertebral ribs)
"2
Fig.5.3.5 The Thoraciccage
208 DOCTORS SERIES for Sri Chaitanva Sr. AllMS Studen"
Integrated Biology Vol-ilA
(b) Vertebral Ribs:
Last 2
12th) of ribs are not pairs (11th and
to the connected
sternum and are
The
dorsal, flat, triangular body of scapula has a
Hence, they are called free ventrally
t slightly elevated ridge called the spine which
ventrally.
floating projects as a flat, expanded
also lack necks and ribs. They process called the
The rib cage and
tubercles (Fig. 5.3.5). acromion. The clavicle articulates with this. The
sternum cover acromion process
he vital organs such as heart
and provides space for attachment
and protect of the
muscles of the upper limb and chest. The
are also helpful in breathing lungs. The ribs Scapula also bears a small coracoid
process. Below
53.2 Appendicular Skeleton the acromion is a
depression called the glenoid
The hones of the limbs cavity which articulates with the head of
along with their humerus to form the shoulder the
constitute the appendicular skeleton.
constitua
girdles joint.
vide
Provic a connecti
between the axial Girdles B. Clavicle
B.Clavicle
nd limbs. Each girdle is formed skeleton The clavicle, or collar bone is the
anterior bone of
of two
Pectoral Girdle halves. the pectoral
girdle. Each clavicle is a long slender
bone with two curvatures. It
Pectoral girdle bones help in the articulates laterally with
pper limbs with the axial articulation of the the acromion of the
scapula and medially with the
skeleton. Each half of manubrium of the sternum.
nectoral girdle consists of a clavicle and a
(Fig. 5.3.6). scapula Il. Bones of the
Upper Limbs
The upper limbs are
adapted for freedom of
movement. Each upper limb has 30
bones:
clavicle humerus, radius and ulna, 8 carpals in the wrist, 5
metacarpals in the palm and 14 phalanges
in the
Scapula digits (Fig. 5.3.6).
A. Humerus
humerus The humerus is the
long bone of the upper arm. It
is a straight bone with a
radius
long shaft. The proximal
end of the humerus bears a
ulna rounded head that
articulates with the glenoid
cavity of the scapula to
form the shoulder
carpals joint. The shaft of the humerus
has a deltoid ridge (or
metacarpals of arm muscles.
tuberosity) for the attachment
phalanges Distally, the humerus bears a
capitulum and a trochlea that articulate with the
Fig.5.3.6 Right Upper Limb and Right Half of radius and the ulna
Pectoral Girdle (anterior view) (respectively) to form the elbow
joint.
B. Radius and Uina
The third element of vertebrate
pectoral The forearm bones are the ulna
on the medial
girdle, the coracoid is highly reduced in man, (little
finger) side and the radius on the lateral
and 1s present only by coracoid process, a small
side. Ulna is more (thumb)
projection of the scapula over the glenoid cavity. developed and has olecranon
process at its proximal end.
A. Scapula
C.Carpals
Ch scapula, or shoulder blade is a large triangular The wrist is the
proximal region of the hand. It
bone situated in the dorsal part ofthe thorax consists of eight small bones called
carpals
etween the second and the seventh ribs. arranged in two rows (Fig. 5.3.7).
OComotion and Movement
209
 Integrated Biology VolIA
The hip bones, sacrum, and pubic symnhud
radius form the bony pelvis. It supports the verteebral
is
Scaphoid- uina
capitate unate column and pelvic viscera and attaches the
trapezoid- hamate
trapezium- triqyetrum lower limbs to the axial skeleton.
pisitom
carpus V. Bones of the Lower Limbs
The lower limbs (legs) are adapted for locomotin
metacarpal
matacarpus and support. Each lower limb has 30 bones:
femur
(thigh bone), patella, tibia and fibula, 7 tarsals
in
the ankle, 5 metatarsals and 14 phalanges in the
proximal phalanx
digits (Fig. 5.3.9).
middle phalanx A. Femur
digits-
Femur is the longest and heaviest bone of the
distal phalanx body
The proximal end of the femur consists of a
rounded
head that articulates with the acetabulum of the hin
bone to form the hip (coxal) joint. The
Fig.5.3.7 Skeleton of the Hand greater
trochanter and lesser trochanter are projections
(anterior view of right hand) from the junction of the neck and shaft that
D. Metacarpals serve
as points of attachment for some
Palm is the intermediate muscles. Distally,
region of the hand. It the femur has two condyles (a lateral
condyle and
consists of five bones called
metacarpals. a medial
condyle) that articulate with the patella
E.Phalanges and the tibia to form the knee
joint (Fig. 5.3.9).
The phalanges (singular:
phalanx) are the bones B. Patella
of the digits, the distal
part of the hand. There are A small cup
shaped (triangular) bone called
14 phalanges in the five
digits of each, hand. The patella (knee cap) covers the knee joint anteriorly
thumb (pollex) has two
phalanges, and there are three (Fig. 5.3.9). It is the largest sesamoid bone.
phalanges in each of the other four digits C. Tibia and Fibula
(Fig. 5.3.7).
Tibia and fibula bones
lII. Pelvic Girdle
of the
together support the shank
leg (Fig. 5.3.9). The tibia, or shin bone, is
Pelvic girdle bones help in the articulation of the larger, medial, weight-bearing bone of the leg.
the lower limbs with the axial skeleton. The fibula is
Pelvic girdle
consists of two coxal bones, or
a
slender bone that lies parallel and
innominate lateral to the tibia.
bones. Each coxal bone (hip
bone) formed by
is D. Tarsals
the fusion of three bones
ilium, ischium and pubis
-

The ankle is the

(Fig. 5.3.8a). At the point of fusion of the above proximal region of the foot.
bones is a cavity called acetabulum to consists of seven tarsal bones The
which the (Fig. 5.3.9).
thigh bone articulates. calcaneus, or heel bone, is the largest of the tarsl
bones.
The ilium is the
largest of the three E. Metatarsals
components of the hip bone. It is the upper
that forms the sacroiliac portion The intermediate
region of the foot consists Or ve
joint. The ischium is the metatarsal bones. They distally articulate with u
lower, posterior part that we sit on. The
pubis is the phalanges of the
lower, anterior part. Between the ischium and leg (Fig. 5.3.9).
pubis
on either side is a
large opening, the obturator F.Phalanges
foramen, which is the largest foramen in The
the phalanges comprise the distal component
skeleton. The two halves of the the foot and
resemble those of the hand bou in
pelvic girdle meet
ventrally (anteriorly)to form the
pubic
number and
arrangement. toe

containing fibrous symphysis (hallux) has two

The or great D
cartilage (Fig. 5.3.8b). phalanges. The other four
toes

have three
210 phalanges each (Fig. 5.3:9).
DOCTORS SERIES for Sri
Chaitanya Sr. AllMS Stuodents
 -hip bone
ilium -sacroiliac joint
-sacrum

ischium.
coccyx
-pubis -acetabulum
obturator foramen

(a) LATERAL VIEW OF HIP BONE pubic symphysis

(b) ANTERIOR VIEW PELVIC GIRGLE
Fig.5.3.8 Pelvic Gridle
ilium 5.4.1 Functional Classification of Joints
Based on the
sacrum range of motion (amount of movement
pubis
LIschium
possible), joints can be classified into three types:
1. Synarthroses (immovable joints)
femur 2. Amphiarthroses (slightly movable or

imperfect joints)
3. Diarthroses (freely movable
patella
or perfect joints)
5.4.2 Structural Classification of Joints
tibia Based on the presence or absence of a space
fibula between the articulating bones and the type of
connective tissue that binds the bones together,
tarsals joints are classified into three types: fibrous joints,
metatarsals cartilaginous joints, and synovial joints.
phalanges
I. Fibrous Joints
Fig. 5.3.9 Right Lower Limb and
The articulating bones are held very closely
Right Half of Pelvic Girdle
together by dense irregular connective tissue. They
(anterior view) lack a synovial cavity. Fibrous joints do not allow
any movement (except syndesmoses).
5.4 JOINTS
They may be classified into three types.
AJoint, or
articulation, arthrosis is a point of
or
Ontact between two bones, between bone and A. Sutures
atilage, or between bone and teeth. A suture is fibrous joint composed of a thin layer
a

Joints are essential for all types of movements of dense irregular connective tissue. Flat skull bones
NOVing the bony parts of the body. Locomotory fuse end-to-end with the help of dense fibrous
connective tissues in the form of sutures. Sutures
Cments are no exception to this. Force occur only between bones of the skull.
81CTated by the muscles is used to carry out
Example: Coronal suture between the parietal and
ent through joints, where the joint acts
fulcrum. The ovability at these joints varies
as a
frontal bones.

pending different factors.

on B.Syndesmoses
is termed There is a greater distance between the articulating
ne scientific study of joints surfaces and more dense irregular connective tissue
rology (arthr-
Joint; -logy =
study of). The
lady
dy of motion of the uman body is called
of than in a suture. The dense irregular connective
Rnesiology (kinesi == movement). tissue is typically arranged as a membrane or

notion and Movement 211

 Integrated Biology Vol
Skeleton (206)

Axial Skeleton (80) Appendicular Skeleton (126)

Skull Vertebral Ribs Sternum Limb Bones Girdle Bones

(29) Column (26) (24) (1) (120) (6)

Cranium Facial Bones Ear Ossicles Hyoid Upper Limbs Lower Limbs Pectoral Pelvic
(8) (14) (6) (19 (30x2) (30x2) Girdle (4) Girdle (2)
Frontal 1 Nasal -2 Malleus-2 Humerus-1 Femur-1 Scapulae-2 Coxal
Parietals -2 Maxillae 2 Incus 2 Radius-1 Patella-1 Clavicles-2 Bones-2
Occipital-1 Zygomatic-2 Stapes 2 Ulna-1 Tibia-1
Temporals - 2 Lacrimals 2 Fibula-1
Carpals-8
Sphenoid -1 Palatines2 Metacarpals-5 Tarsals-7
Ethmoid- 1 Inferior nasal Phalanges-14 Metatarsals-5
conchae-2 Phalanges-14
Vomer 1
Mandible- 1
B. Symphyses
bundle. This type of joint permits slight movement
The ends of the articulating bones are covered with
(amphiarthrosis).
hyaline cartilage, but a broad, flat disc of fibro-
Example: Interosseous membrane between tibia
cartilage connects the bones. A symphysis is a
and fibula.
slightly movable joint (amphiarthrosis). All
Another example of a syndesmosis is the symphyses occur in the midline of the body.
distal tibiofibular joint, where the anterior
tibiofibular ligament connects the tibia and fibula.
Examples:
1. The pubic symphysis between the two pubes
C. Gomphoses of the hip bones.
In this joint, a cone-shaped peg fits into a socket.
2. The intervertebral discs between the bodies
A healthy gomphosis permits no movement
of vertebrae.
(synarthrosis).
I. Synovial Joints
Example: Dentoalveolar joint (between the roots
of the teeth and their sockets in the jaw bone). Synovial joints are characterised by the presence
of a fluid-filled synovial cavity between the
. Cartilaginous Joints
The articulating bones are tightly connected by articulating bones. Because the synovial cavity
either hyaline cartilage or fibrocartilage. Synovial
allows considerable movement at a joint, al
cavity is absent. synovial joints are freely movable joins
Cartilaginous joints are of two types: (diarthroses). These joints help in locomotion and
many other movements.
synchondroses and symphyses.
A. Structure of Synovial Joints
A. Synchondroses
tne
The two bones are connected by hyaline cartilage. The articulating surfaces of the bones within
It allows no movement (synarthrosis). synovial joint are by articular cartilage
covered
on
that connects the It provides a smooth surface and reduces fricu
Example: The epiphyseal plate
epiphysis and diaphysis of a growing bone. between the bones. (Fig. 5.4.1).
DOCTORS SERIES for Sri Chaitanya Sr. AlIMs Studenie
212
1egrated B /

periosteum
5. Iypes of Movements at
articulating bone Ovements at
Synovial Joints
synovial ioints
are
described a
-synovial cavity containing naxial (occurring around one axis),
synovial fluid
articular cartilage
ocarring around two axes situated at rightbiaxial
angies
each other), or
-synoval membrane several axes). multiaxial (occurring around

fibrous membrane C. Types of

articulating bone Synovial Joints
ynovial joints are classified into six types:
P , ninge, pivot, condyloid, saddle, and ball-
and-socket.
5.4.1 Structure of 1.
Fig. a
Synovial Joint Gliding Joints (Pane Joints)
These are also known
oint is surrounded as planar joints or gliding
by a
synovial
c a p s u l e

oint
also called an two-layered
articular capsule. The
JOints. The articulating surfaces of bones are flat or
slightly curved (Fig. 5.4.2a). These joints allow back
apsule consists of an outer fibrous and forth or
side-to-side movement of all or a few
nner synovial membrane. The
capsule
nd an i n n e r
fibrous Joining elements. However, twisting is not possible.
apsule
psule consists of
ot dense irregular connective Examples: Intercarpal joints (between carpal

Üissue
and is continuous with the
periosteum. It
bones at the wrist), intertarsal
joints (between tarsal
bones at the ankle), articular
icts
IeSists stretching and prevents the dislocation of processes betweenn
fibrous capsule may thicken vertebrae.
ts. Portions of the
dthe collagen fibres become
regularly arranged
2. Hinge Joints
(Ginglymus Joints)
o form ligaments. "The inner layer of the articular The convex surface of one bone fits into the
concave surface of another bone. Hinge joints
capsule is the synovial membrane. It surrounds
produce an angular motion and permit only flexion
the synovial cavity and is composed of areolar
and extension. Hinge joints are uniarial (monaxial)
Connective tissue with elastic fibers.
(Fig. 5.4.2b).
The synovial cavity is filled with a viscous Examples: Knee joint, elbow joint, interphalangeal
gnovial fluid produced by the synovial membrane. joints (between the phalanges of the fingers and
Synovial fluid consists of hyaluronic acid, interstitial toes).
fluid and phagocytes. Hyaluronic acid is secreted 3. Pivot Joints (Trochoid Joints)
by fibroblast-like cells in the synovial membrane A relatively cylindrical. bony process rotates within
and interstitial fluid is filtered from blood plasma. a ring composed partly of another bone and partly
Synovial fluid coats and lubricates articular of ligament. A pivot joint is uniaxial and allows
Cartilage, preventing friction and damage during rotation only around its own longitudinal axis

mOvement (Fig. 5.4.1). (Fig. 5.4.2c).

Joints

Cartilaginous Joints Synovial Joints

Fibrous Joints

Synchondroses Symphyses
Sutures Syndesm oses Gomphoses

Condyloid Saddle Ball and Socket

Pivot
Gliding Hinge Joints Joints Joints
Joints Joints
Joints

Lococomotion and Movement 213

 Integrated Biology Na
Example: The atlanto-axial joint (in which the atlas Example: Carpometacarpal joint between th
along with the skull rotates around the axis), (trapezium) and metacarpal of the thumh he cay
radioulnar joints (joint allow rotation of our forearm
at the elbow and to move our hand side to side.)
The carpometacarpal joint of the t.
makes the human thumb opposable by allthumt,
4. Condyloid Joints (Ellipsoidal Joints)
The convex oval-shaped projection of one bone
it to move across the palm to lowing
contact thee othe
four fingers of the hand. The opposable th
fits into the oval-shaped depression of another is an extremely important human trait
that a
hnumb
one. A condyloid joint is biaxial (Fig. 5.4.2d)
our hand to firmly grip objects and make use of t
Examples: Atlantooccipital joint (between the atlas 6. Ball-and-Socket Joints (Spheroid Joints)
and the occipital condyles), radiocarpal (wrist)
joint, The ball-like surface of one bone ifits into a
and metacarpophalangeal joints. CU
like depression of another bone.
5. Saddle Joints
These
(Sellar Joints) multiarial (Fig. 5.4.2f)
The articular surface of one bone is
saddle-shaped, Examples: The shoulder joint (between the he
and the articular surface of the other bone fits into
of the humerus and the glenoid cavity of t
the "saddle" as a sitting
rider would sit. A saddle
scapula), the
hip joint (between the head of t
joint is biaxial (Fig. 5.4.2e)
femur and the acetabulum of the hip bone).

(a) Plane Joint (b) Hinge Joint

humerus radius

carpals
uina
(c) Pivot Joint
(d) Condyloid Joint

metacarpal
dens
atlas-
axis
phalanx
(e) Saddle Joint
(f) Ball-and-Sockot Joint

hipe bone-
first head of
metacarpal- femur in
acetabulum
trapezium-
femur-

Fig. 5.4.2 Types of Synovial Joints

214
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rated
R O L EOFF
AMUSCLES AND BONES IN
MOVEMENT racting calf muscle provides effort distall
in
organ occurs due to the The body functions
as resistance
exer ing
ovementof an

pulling
used by the force generated
Detween the fulerum and effort (Fig. 5.5.1D).
bones
by The
h e

IScles. Movement takes effort is between the fulcrum and

place
racting u

tra which act as fulcrum Place eSIStance (load) in third-class levers. The
joints of the
and joints lever. exing movements of the elbow of forearm are
the
bones
function as lever, Dased on the principle of third class lever. Here,
ch you have studied in physics. Levers
fhct

pout
wh.

e d into three
categorized into
e elbow-joint acts as fulcrunm and the distal part
types according to the Ot hand provides resistance. The contracting
the fulcrum, the
fulcrum
ffort, and the
xgions
of
oning o f a l the three types of
load. bicepsmuscles attached near the elbow joint exert
erved in the human skeleton,
levers ne etfort in between fulcrum and resistance
Fig. 5.5.1c).
he fulculcrum is betwe the effort and
the
pSSslance
doad) in first-class levers. The joint
5.5 DisORDERS OF MUScULAR AND
the first vertebra (atlas) and
occipital SKELETAL SYSTEM
skull (atlantooccipital joint) exhibits the 5.5.1 Myasthenia Gravis
e
erample
of first class lever, in which joint is
the Myasthenia gravis (mys- = muscle; -aisthesis
lerum, ontraction of ack muscle is the effort, Sensation) is an auto immune disorder that causes
pdfacial part of the skull on raised head acts as
heresistance (ig. 5.5.1a).
chronic, progressive damage of the neuromuscular
Junction leading to fatigue, weakening and paralysis
The resistance ad) is between the fulcrum of skeletal muscle.
the effort in second-class levers. Human Myasthenia gravis is caused by a defect in the
uresting on toes is the example of second transmission of nerve impulses to muscles.
uss lever, as the toe forms the fulcrum and Normally when impulses travel down the nerve,
thenerve endings release a neurotransmitter

E Effort
Fulcrum
L-Load of
Resistance

a) FIRST (b) SECOND CLASS LEVER (c) THIRD CLASS LEVER

CLASS LEVER
Fig. 5.5.1 Types of Levers

Vcomotion and Movement 215

 Integrated Biology
5.5.4 Arthritis
Substance called acetylcholine (ACh). ACh travels
Arthritis is the inflammation of ioint.
through the neuromuscular junct ion (NMJ) and
binds to ACh receptors which are activated and are swollen, stiff, and painful.
oints. The
generate a muscle contraction. In myasthenia I. The Rheumatoid Arthritis
gravis, inappropriate antibodies produced by the
The rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is.
is an autOM
mmune system block the receptors for ACh at the disease in which the immune system ofa
NMJ which prevents the muscle contraction from attacks its own cartilage and joint lini
OCcurring. Thus, muscles become increasingly characterized by inflammation of the
weaker, fatigue more easily, and may eventually causes swelling, pain, and loss of functio
cease to function.
RA is diagnosed by the
5.5.2 Muscular Dystrophy prese
rheumatoid factor (a type of immunoglobulk
It is the
progressive degeneration of skeletal muscle In rheumatoid arthritis, the synovial
alin
mostly due to genetic disorder. The term muscular
produces an abnormal granulation tissue
men men
dystrophy (dys- = difficult; -trophy =nourishment) sue, c
refers to a group of diseases that cause pannus that adheres to the surface of the e
progressive
weakness and degeneration of skeletal muscle and causes its erosion. As a result, the fibrouCartil
are attached with the bones and
fibres. It may occur due to
genetic or nutritional become asie
disorders. The most common form of making the joints immovable.
muscular
dystrophy is Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD). treatment concentrates on reduction of
Its
In DMD, the gene that codes for the and inflammation by heat treatment
protein and phis
dystrophin is mutated. So, little or no dystrophin is therapy and, in extreme cases, replacement of
present in the sarcolemma. Without the
reinforcing damaged joints.
effect of dystrophin, the
sarcolemma tears easily Il. Osteoarthritis
during muscle contraction, causing
muscle fibres Osteoarthritis (OA) is a degenerative
to rupture and die. joint disee
characterised by the degeneration of the
arici
The affected individuals are normal
up to the cartilage and proliferation of new bones. It is
age of 2-5 years. Later, the muscles of known 'wear-and-tear' arthritis and is the m
hips, thighs, as
shoulders, arms and legs are affected leaving the common type of arthritis and is the most comm
child crippled (unable to
walk). Respiratory or reason for
hip-replacement and knee-replacemz
cardiac failure usually causes death
by age 20. Surgery.
Muscular atrophy (a- without, -trophy
=
=
Osteoarthritis results from a
nourishment) is a wasting away of muscles. It may factors like combination
be due to lack of ageing, obesity, irritation of the jors
or due to
physical activity (disuse atrophy) muscle weakness, and wear and abrasion.
disruption of nerve supply to muscle a
Table 5.5.1 lists the
(denervation atrophy) differences betna
osteoarthritis and rheumatoid arthritis.
5.5.3 Tetany
Rapid spasms (wild contractions) 5.5.5 Gout
in muscle due to It is the
low Ca2 in body fluid. inflammation of joints due to accumu
of uric acid
Tetany is a state of sustained muscle crystals. It caused either au
contraction that excessive formation of uric
occurs usually due to low blood acid, or inabiny
calcium excrete it. Uric acid
(hypocalcemia) resulting from factors gets deposited in jom
such monosodium salt.
hypoparathyroidism
as

vitamin D. It
or
deficiency of Uric acid is a waste product produceu durl
is characterized by spasms of the hands
and feet, cramps, the metabolism of nucleic acid (DNA RNA
spasm of the larynx, and and
overactive neurological reflexes. subunits. A person who eite
suffers from gien
216 produces excessive amounts of uric or is
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Table 5.5.1 Differen ce between Osteoarth ritis and Rheumatoid Arthritis

Rheumatoid Arthritis Osteoarthritis

Type of disorder
Inflammatory Degenerati ve
Site of initial dama ge Articular cartilage
Synovial membrane
Age Thirties Late middle age or in old people
or any age
Type ofjoints affected Joints of hands and feet Large, weight bearing joints
Number of joints affected Often single
Multiple
able to excrete as much as normal. The result is a occurs vwhen bone resorption
Osteoporosis
htild-up of uric acid in the blood. This excess acid (formation)
(breakdown) outpaces bone deposition
then reacts with sodium to form a salt called sodium calcium from the body.
mainly due to depletion of
urate. Crystals of this salt accumulate in soft tissues cause
Decreased levels of oestrogen is
a common

such as the kidneys and in the cartilage of the ears, Other causes include
in post-menopausal w o m e n .
and joints. imbalances of
prolonged cortisone therapy,
Gout mostoften affects the joints of the feet, hormones like thyrocalcitonin, parathyroid,
especially at the base of the big toe. If the disorder deficiencies of calcium and vitamin D.
is untreated, the ends of the articulating bones fuse, bone mineral
Osteoporosis is diagnosed by a

and the joint becomes immovable. density (BMD) test.

Treatment consists of pain relief drugs followed
administration of drugs to keep uric acid levels Osteoporosis primarily affects middle-aged
by Older
low. and elderly people, mostly women. women

suffer from osteoporosis more often than men for

5.5.6 Osteoporosis
two reasons: (1) Women's bones are less massive
Osteoporosis is an age-related disorder
than men's bones; (2) production of oestrogens in
characterised by decreased bone mass, micro-
architectural deterioration of the bone, and women declines dramatically at menopause.
and susceptibility to Oestrogens and testosterone stimulate osteoblast
increased porosity, fragility,
activity and synthesis of bone matrix.
fracture.