10 Pragmatics

- Pragmatics is the study of what speakers mean by their utterances

- Paragmatics is the study of how we recognize what is meant even when it isn’t actually
said or written
- Pragmatics is the study of“invisible” meaning
In order to reach a correct understanding we have to use:
 the meaning of the words (lexical)
 the context in which they occur
 and some pre-existing knowledge of the world
Thus, our interpretation of meaning is not based solely on words but on what we think the writer
intended to communicate.

Context
There are different kinds of context. There is obviously the physical context, which can be the
location “out there” where we encounter words and phrases (e.g. the word BANK on a wall of a
building is understood as a financial institution).
There is also the linguistic context, also known as co-text. The co-text of a word is the set of
other words used in the same phrase or sentence. If the word bank is used with other words like
steep or overgrown, we have no problem deciding which type of bank is meant. Or, when
someone says that she has to get to the bank to withdraw some cash, the cotext tells us which
type of bank is intended

Deixis
Expressions such as tomorrow and here are technically known as deictic (/daɪktɪk/) expressions,
from the Greek word deixis, which means “pointing” via language. We use deixis to point to
people (him, them, those things), places (here, there, after this) and times (now, then, next week).
 Person deixis: Any expression used to point to a person (me, you, him, them);
 Spatial deixis: Words used to point to a locatio (here, there, beside you, near that, above
your head);
 Temporal deixis: The expression used to point to a time (now, then, last week, later,
tomorrow, yesterday).
All these deictic expressions have to be interpreted in terms of which person, place or time the
speaker has in mind. We make a broad distinction between what is close to the speaker (this,
here, now) and what is distant (that, there, then). We can also indicate whether movement is
away from the speaker (go) or toward the speaker (come). Just think about telling someone to Go
to bed versus Come to bed.

Reference
We have to define reference as an act by which a speaker (or writer) use slanguage to enable a
listener (or reader) to identify something. We can use:
 Proper nouns (Chomsky, Ahmed)
 Nouns in phrases (the cat, a writer, my friend)
 Pronouns (he, she, it)

Inference
Inferring is connecting prior knowledge to text based information to create meaning beyond what
is directly stated. Inference – any additional information used by the listener to connect what is
said to what must be meant .
 We can use names associated with things to refer to people (Where’s the caesar salad
sitting? He’s sitting by the door).
 We can use names associated with people to refer to things (Can I borrow your
Chomsky? Sure it’s on the table; We saw Shakespeare in London)

Anaphora
We usually make a distinction between introducing new referents (a puppy) and referring back to
them (the puppy, it)
We saw a funny home video about a boy washing a puppy in a small bath . The puppy started
struggling and shaking and the boy got really wet. When he let go,it jumped out of the bath and
ran away.
In this type of referential relationship,
 The 1st mention is called antecedent. (a puppy/ a boy, a small bath)
 The 2nd (subsequent) referring expression is an example of anaphora ("referring back").
(the puppy/ it/ the boy/ he/ the bath)

The connection between an antecedent & an anaphoric expression is created by use of:

 A pronoun (it)

 Repetition of the noun with the (the puppy)

 Another noun that is related to the antecedent in some way (The little dog ran out of the
room).

The connection between antecedents and anaphoric expressions is often based on inference, as in
these examples (We found a house to rent, but the kitchen was very small. I caught a bus and
asked the driver if it went near the downtown area).

Presupposition
 - Why did you arrive late? (Presupposition = you arrived late.)

- When did you stop smoking? (Presupposition 1 = the speaker supposes that you used to
smoke. Presupposition 2 = the speaker supposes that you no longer smoke.

We design our linguistic message on the basis of assumptions about what our listeners already
know. What a speaker assumes is true or known by the listener can be described as a
presupposition.

Negation test

 My car is old

 My car isn’t old

The underlying presupposition = (I have a car)/ It remains true although the two sentences have
opposite meanings. (constancy under negation)

Politeness

Face: the public self-image of a person. It refers to that emotional and social sense of self that
everyone has and expects the other sto recognize. Politeness in an interaction can be defined as
the means employed to show awareness of another person’s face.

If a speaker says something that represents a threat to another individual’s expectations,

regarding self-image, it’s described as a face-threatening act. (Give me that paper!)

When someone says an utterance that avoids a potential threat t a person’s face, it’s called face-
saving act. If you say something that lessens the possible threat to another’s face, it can be
described as a face-saving act. (Could you pass me that paper?)
Negative face: the need to be in dependent,free from imposition
A face-saving act that emphasizes a negative face will show concern about imposition:
 I’m sorry to bother you…
 I know you’re busy but...
 If you’re free,...
Positive face: the need to be connected, to be a member of the group
A face-saving act that emphasizes a person’s positive face will show solidarity and draw
attention to a common goal:
 Let’s do this together...
 You and I have the same problem, so
Speech acts
Speech acts (e.g. requesting/ commanding/ questioning/ informing)
We can define a speech act as the action performed by a speaker with an utterance (I’ ll be here
at five). You are not just speaking, you are performing the speech act of ‘promising’
Direct and indirect speech acts
We usually use certain syntactic structures with the functions listed beside them in the following
table
Structures Functions
Did you eat the pizza? Interrogative Question
Eat the pizza (please)! Imperative Command (Request)
You ate the pizza. Declarative Statement

Direct: when there’s a direct relationship between the structure (declarative, interrogative,
imperative) and its communicative function (statement, question, commnad/request.)
Indirect: Indirect relation between the structure and function.

Study questions
1. What kinds of deictic expressions are used in this utterance (e.g. I = person deixis)?
a. We went there last summer.
Person deixis spatial deixis temporal deixis

b. I’ m busy now so you can’t stay here. Come back later.

Person Temporary Personal Spatial Spatial Temporary

2. How do we describe the pragmatic difference between the pair here and now versus there
and then?
a. Here and now refers to things close to the speaker
b. There and then refer to things not close to the speaker
When we talk about things that are near to the speaker, we use terms like here and now.
However, when we talk about things in the past, we use terms like there and then.

3. What kind of inference is involved in interpreting each of these utterances?

(a) Teacher: You can borrow my Shakespeare (teacher's book) .
Shakespeare is the author of the book and can be used to refer to a copy of that book
(b) Waiter: The ham sandwich (the person asked for the ham sandwich) left without paying.
The name of the meal can be used to refer to the person who ordered it

(c) Nurse: The hernia (the person having hernia) in room 5 wants to talk to the doctor.
The name of the medical condition is used to refer to the patient who has that medical condition

(d) Dentist: My eleven-thirty (the person reserved for eleven thirty) canceled so I had an early
lunch.
The time of an appointment is used to refer to the person with that appointment (in a business
office setting)
4. What are the anaphoric expressions in this sentence?
Dr. Foster gave Andy some medicine after he told her about his headaches and she advised him
to take the pills three times a day until the pain went away.
5. What is the technical term for the phrase an old car in its relationship with it in the
following utterance?
I have an old car, but it runs great.
antecedent - old car
anaphora - it

Answer:
The kind of car may be indicative of an indication in your life similarly. If you see an old truck -
the condition and care on that is what's important of it. If the truck was in good repair, this is
often representative for work and it's a decent sign. Seeing a beach wagon or mini-van in good
shape can indicate wanting a family. Color and care of the vehicle should be taken into
consideration.

The car has great implications for shaping ideas of power and self-possession. Take into
consideration how the car remains the second largest purchase among households, and also the
national significance to popular culture is driven home even more.

It is a decent idea to require into consideration the repairs to be made along the way - the older a
vehicle, the more it'll need some work, that's to mention, regular maintenance thanks to use like
tires, wipers - windows, brakes and battery replacement. it's an emblem of freedom, an emblem
of pioneering spirit, a standing symbol, a mark of one's wealth, and sometimes, a tragic substitute
for a home or a short lived place to get one's head.

6. What is the technical term used to describe the relationship between She and Ginny
Swisher in the following example?
She was born prematurely. She lost her parents at an early age. She grew up in poverty.
She never completed high school. Yet Ginny Swisher overcame all these disadvantages
to become one of the most successful women in America.
cataphora (antecedent - anaphora)

7. What process is involved in the connection between cooking and the special meal in the
following sentence?
The old men and women lit the fire and started cooking early in the morning so that
the special meal would be ready for their guests. (anaphora)

8. What is one obvious presupposition of a speaker who says:

(a) Your clock isn’t working. (you have a clock)
(b) Where did he find the money? (he found money / he has money)
(c) We regret buying that car. (we bought a car / we have a car)
(d) The king of France is bald. (the kings has no hair).

9. How many pragmatic markers are used in the following interaction?

MANA: Why does everyone think he's a genius, I mean, he gets things wrong like the
rest of us, doesn't he?
MAKA: Well, I don't know, he got that award last year for innovation, you know, the Brill
award, at the convention in New York, I think it was.
 I think it was 4 

10. In these examples, is the speaker appealing to positive or negative face?

(a) If you’re free, there’s going to be a party at Yuri’s place on Saturday. (Negative face)
(b) Let’s go to the party at Yuri’s place on Saturday. Everyone’s invited. (Positive face)

11. Someone stands between you and the TV set you’re watching, so you decide to say one
of the following. Identify which would be direct or indirect speech acts.
(a) Move! (Direct SA) (b) You’re in the way. (Direct SA)
(c) Could you please sit down? (Indirect SA) (d) Please get out of the way. (Direct SA)
 12. In terms of speech acts, how would you explain the unusual nature of this interaction
between a visitor to a city, with luggage, looking lost, and a man in the street outside the
railway station.
VISITOR: Excuse me. Do you know where the Ambassador Hotel is?
RESIDENT: Oh sure, I know where it is. (and walks away)
The visitor is using indirect speech "do you know where __ is"
The resident is replying to the questions as if it were direct speech and says yes then doesn't give
directions
The speech act of asking for directions is being performed by the visitor, while the speech act of
giving directions is being performed by the person standing in the street. The fact that the man in
the street did not disclose any additional information beyond the location of the Ambassador
Hotel is an unusual aspect of this exchange.
It's likely that the man on the street doesn't know the neighborhood around the train station,
which is why he can only point people in the direction of the Ambassador Hotel when they ask
him for directions there. This would be one explanation for this phenomenon. There is also the
possibility that the man in the street is not interested in assisting the tourist any further, and as a
result, he merely offers the most basic of details.
Whatever the explanation may be, this exchange is not typical because the man in the street does
not supply the visitor with any extra information, which is something that would normally occur
in the course of a conversation between two individuals.