UNDERSTANDING THE SELF

What is philosophy?

• Philosophy comes from the Greek word Philo (loving) and Sophia
(knowledge/wisdom).

• At its simplest, Philosophy means “loving knowledge” or “loving wisdom”

• The term philosophy as originally used by the Greeks meant “the pursuit of
knowledge for its own sake”

SOCRATES (I know that I don’t know)

• A Greek philosopher and one of the very few individuals who shape western
thought.

• Socrates was known for his method of inquiry in testing an idea. This is called
Socratic method whereby an idea was tested by asking a series of question to
determine underlying beliefs and the extent of knowledge to guide the person
toward better understanding.

• He believed that the goal of life is to be happy.

Socrates said existence is of two kinds

1. The visible (the body)

2. The invisible (Cannot be seen yet sensed and understood by the mind.) (soul).

Some of Socrates’ ideas were:

 The soul is immortal

 The care of the soul is the task of philosophy

 Virtue is necessary to attain happiness

PLATO (balance between mind and body)

• Plato was a student of Socrates

• He writes the Socratic dialogue where Socrates was the main character and
speaker

• Plato’s philosophical method is called “collection and division”

• In this method, the philosopher would “collect” all the generic ideas that seemed
to have common characteristic and then divide until the ideas became specific.
 • He is known for his” THEORY OF FORMS” that asserted that the physical world
is not really the real world because the ultimate reality exists beyond the physical
world

• According to Plato the soul is indeed the most divine aspect of the human being”

THE THREE PARTS OF THE SOUL ACCORDING TO PLATO ARE:

 The appetitive (sensual)- the element that enjoys sensual experiences, such as
food, drink, and sex

 The rational (reasoning)- the element that forbids the person to enjoy the sensual
experiences; the part that loves truth, hence, should rule over the other parts of the
soul through the use of reason.

 The spirited (feeling)- the element that is inclined toward reason but understands
the demands of passion; the part that loves honor and victory.

Four cardinal virtues

1. TEMPERANCE 3. COURAGE

2. WISDOM 4. JUSTICE

ST. AUGUSTINE (all knowledge leads to God)

• SAINT AUGUSTINE is a Latin Fathers of the church, one of the doctors of the
church and one of the most significant Christian thinkers.

• He held that the soul held the truth and was capable of scientific thinking.

• He believed that the human being was both a soul and body.

The aspects of the self/soul according to saint Augustine’s are

 It is able to be aware of itself

 It recognizes itself as a holistic one

 It is aware of its unity

RENE DESCARTES (I think, therefore I am)

• A French philosopher, mathematician, and scientist. He is considered the father of

modern western philosophy.

• Descartes proposed that doubt was principal tool of disciplined inquiry.

 • His method was called hyperbolical/metaphysical doubt also sometimes referred
to as methodological skepticism. (It is of one’s beliefs in order to determine which
beliefs could be ascertained as true.

His famous line was cogito ergo sum. (I think, therefore I am)

• He asserted that everything perceived by the senses could not be used as proof of
existence because human senses could be fooled

Descartes claims about the “self” are:

 It is constant; it is not prone to change; and it is not affected by time

 Only the immaterial soul remains the same throughout time

 The immaterial soul is the source of our identity.

He further asserted that this thinking entity could exist without the body because it is an
immaterial substance.

He reasoned that the soul is still distinct from the body

JOHN LOCKE
(human mind at birth is a tabula rasa, which means that knowledge is derived from
experience)

• John lock was a philosopher and physician and was one of the most influential
enlightenment thinkers.

• Locke believed that the “self” is identified with a consciousness and this “self”
consists of sameness of consciousness.

• For Locke, a person’s memories provide a continuity of experience that allows

him/ her to identify himself/herself as the same person over time, and this theory
of Locke allows to justify a defense of accountability.

• He asserted that the state of the person who cannot remember his/her behavior is
the same as the state of the person who never committed the act, which meant the
person was ignorant

DAVID HUME (all knowledge is derived from human senses)

• David Hume was a Scottish philosopher, economist, a historian during the age of
enlightenment.

• He was a fierce opponent of Descartes’ Rationalism. (Rationalism is the theory

that reason, rather than experience is the foundation of all knowledge)
 • Along with john Locke and bishop George Berkeley, was one of the three main
figureheads of the British empiricism movement. (Empiricism is the idea that the
origin of all knowledge is sense experience.)

• Hume is identified with the bundle theory wherein he describes the “self” or
person as a bundle or a collection of different perception that are moving in a very
fast and successive manner; therefore, it is in a “perpetual flux.”

• Hume asserted that the notion of the “self” could not be verified through
observation.

• He believed there is no logical justification for the existence of anything other

than what your senses experienced.

• He stressed that your perceptions are only active for as long as you are conscious.

Hume divided the mind’s perception into two groups.

1. Impressions

2. Ideas

IMMANUEL KANT (reason is the final authority of morality,

morality is achieved only when there is absence of war because of the result of
enlightenment)

• Immanuel Kant is a central figure in modern philosophy.

• Kant view of the “self” is transcendental, which means the “self” is related to a
spiritual or nonphysical realm.

• For Kant, the self is not the body. The self is outside the body, and it does not
have the qualities of the body. The body and its qualities are rooted to the “self”

• He proposed that it is knowledge that bridges the “self” and the material things
together

Two kinds of consciousness of self (rationality):

1. Consciousness of oneself and one’s psychological states in inner sense, and

2. Consciousness of oneself and one’s state by performing acts of apperception

• Apperception is the mental process by which a person makes sense of an idea by

assimilating it to the body of ideas he or she already possesses.

• He insisted that you perceive the world because there is an already an idea
residing within you.

Two components of the “self”

1. Inner self: the “self” by which you are aware of alterations in your own state.
 2. Outer self: it includes your senses and the physical world.

Kant proposed that the “self” organize information in three ways:

1. Raw perceptual input,

2. Recognizing the concept, and

3. Reproducing in the imagination.

SIGMUND FREUD (“wish fulfillment is the road to the unconscious.”)

• Sigmund Freud was one of the most influential thinkers of the 20th century.

• His important contribution, particularly in psychology, was psychoanalysis, a

practice devised to treat those who are mentally ill through dialogue.

• the “self” was an entity in itself characterized as the subject (the focal point: the
topic and doer of the action) of the physical and mental actions and experiences.

• His works in the field of psychoanalysis was groundbreaking because it answered

questions about the human psyche in a way that no one else had before him. In
psychology, the psyche is the totality of the human mind, both conscious and
unconscious.

Freud distinguish three levels of consciousness:

1. Conscious, which deals with awareness of present perceptions, feelings thoughts,

memories and fantasies at any particular moment;

2. Pre- conscious/subconscious, which is related to data that can readily be brought

to consciousness; and

3. Unconscious, which refers to data retained but not easily available to the
individual’s conscious awareness or scrutiny.

Central to Freud’s psychoanalytic theory was the proposed existence of the unconscious as:

1. A repository for traumatic repressed memories; and

2. The source of anxiety- provoking drives that is socially or ethically unacceptable

to the individual

PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY- is a personality theory based on the notion that an

individual gets motivated by unseen forces, controlled by the conscious and the rational
thought. Sigmund Freud did not exactly create the notion of the conscious versus
unconscious mind, but he certainly was responsible for making it popular, and this was one
of his main contributions to psychology

Freud further structured the psyche/mind into three parts:

1. Id. It operates on the pleasure principle. Every wishful impulse should be satisfied
immediately, regardless of the consequences. When the id achieves its demands,
you experience pleasure; when it is denied, you experience "unpleasure" or tension.
2. Ego. It operates according to the reality principle. It works out realistic ways of
satisfying the id's demands (often compromising or postponing satisfaction to avoid
negative consequences of society). The ego considers social realities and norms,
etiquette, and rules in deciding how to behave. If the ego fails to use the reality
principle, anxiety is experienced, and unconscious defense mechanisms are
employed to help ward off unpleasant feelings.
3. Superego. It incorporates the values and morals of society. The superego's
function is to control the id's impulses. It persuades the ego to choose moralistic
goals and to strive for perfection rather than simply realistic ones.

The superego consists of two systems:

1. Conscience. If the ego gives in to the id's demands, the superego may make the person
feel bad through guilt.
2. Ideal self. It is an imaginary picture of how you

According to Freud's structure of the mind, the ego and the superego function in different
levels of consciousness. There is a constant movement of memories and impulses from one
level to another. The id, on the other hand, is unaffected by reality, logic, or the everyday
world as it operates within the unconscious part of the mind.

GILBERT RYLE (I act, therefore I am)

• He is a philosopher and professor

• He produces a critique on Descartes; idea that the mind is distinct from the body

• He wrote “the concept of mind” (1949) where he rejected the notion that mental
states are separable from physical states.

• Ryle called the distinction between mind and matter a “category- mistake”
because of its attempt to analyze the relation between “mind” and “body” as if the
two terms of the same categories.

• In Ryle's view, your actions define your own concept of “self” (who you are).
Ryle’s points against Descartes’ theory are:

 the relation between mind and body are not isolated processes

 Mental processes are intelligent acts, and are not distinct from each other

 the operation of the mind is itself an intelligent act

Ryle described this distinction between mind and body as the “dogma of the ghost in the
machine” where he explained there is no hidden entity or ghost called “soul”(also
understood as mind or self) inside a machine called “body”

PAUL CHURCHLAND
(the physical brain and not the imaginary mind gives us our sense of self)

• Paul Churchland is known for his studies on neurophilosophy and the philosophy
of mind

• His philosophy stands on a materialistic view or the belief that nothing but matter
exists. In other words, if something can be seen, felt, heard, touched. Or tasted,
then it exists. There is nothing beyond the sensory experience.

• In Churchland’s view the immaterial, unchanging soul/self does not exist because
it cannot be experienced by the senses (1989).

• Churchland’s idea is called eliminative materialism or the claim that people ‘s

common sense understanding of the mind (or folk psychology) is false, and that
certain classes of mental states which most people believe in do not exist

• He asserted the sense of “self” originated from the brain itself, and that this “self”
is a product of electrochemical signals produced by the brain
SOCIOLOGY

- Sociology is the study of human social relationships and institutions.

- “socious” meaning “companionship” and the Greek “logos” meaning “the study of”

Premodern Society

- The social norms that existed before the industrial revolution are known as premodern.
Recognize the traits of premodern societies and comprehend how widespread
industrialization led to the development of modernity

Norms

- Norms are a fundamental concept in the social sciences. They are most defined as rules
or expectations that are socially enforced.
- (Right and wrong)

Beliefs

- Beliefs are the tenets or convictions that people hold to be true.

Values

- Values are individual beliefs that motivate people to act one way or another.

Industrialization

- Industrialization is the process whereby the economy shifted from being based largely
around agriculture to being based on industry and manufacturing. (machinery)

Modernization

- the transformation from a traditional, rural, agrarian society to a secular, urban,

industrial society.

Individualism

- a social theory advocating the liberty, rights, or independent action of the individual.

Capitalism

- Capitalism is often thought of as an economic system in which private actors own and
control property in accord with their interests, and demand and supply freely set prices
in markets in a way that can serve the best interests of society. (Goal is money – can’t
be handle by the government)
 Four Factors of Production

- Land - Capital
- Labor - Entrepreneurship

Government

- An organization with the authority and power to make and enforce laws and enact
policy to control an area of land or a group of people. (Institution of surveillance –
invisible hand)

Dynamism

Change is an unpredictable, surprising change that happens in complex systems. (Change –

change is inevitable)

Social Groups

A social group consists of two or more people (interacting to each other) who regularly
interact based on mutual expectations and who share a common identity

Rational Groups

- Rational groups are formed as a matter of shared self-interest; moreover, people join
these group out of their free will.

Social Network

- A social network is a social structure that exists between actors—individuals or

organizations. (Connecti0n towards others)

Social Self Theory

- George Herbert Mead, a sociologist from the late 1800s, is well known for his theory of
the social self, which includes the concepts of 'self,' 'me,' and 'I.

Development of Self

According to George Herbert Mead, three activities develop the self: language, play, and
games.

Language develops self by allowing individuals to respond to each other through symbols,
gestures, words, and sounds. Language conveys others' attitudes and opinions toward a
subject or the person. Emotions, such as anger, happiness, and confusion, are conveyed
through language.

Play develops self by allowing individuals to take on different roles, pretend, and express
expectation of others. Play develops one's self-consciousness through role-playing. During
role-play, a person is able to internalize the perspective of others and develop an
understanding of how others feel about themselves and others in a variety of social
situations.

Game develop self by allowing individuals to understand and adhere to the rules of the
activity. Self is developed by understanding that there are rules in which one must abide by
in order to win the game or be successful at an activity.

Two Sides of Self: Me & I

According to Mead's theory, the self has two sides or phases: 'me' and 'I.'

The 'me' is considered the socialized aspect of the individual. The 'me' represents learned
behaviors, attitudes, and expectations of others and of society. This is sometimes referred to
as the generalized other. The 'me' is considered a phase of the self that is in the past. The
'me' has been developed by the knowledge of society and social interactions that the
individual has gained.

The 'I', therefore, can be considered the present and future phase of the self. The 'I'
represents the individual's identity based on response to the 'me.' The 'I' says, 'Okay. Society
says I should behave and socially interact one way, and I think I should act the same (or
perhaps different),' and that notion becomes self.

The 'me' and the 'I' have a didactic relationship, like a system of checks and balances. The
'me' exercises societal control over oneself. The 'me' is what prevents someone from
breaking the rules or boundaries of societal expectations. The 'I' allows the individual to still
express creativity and individualism and understand when to possibly bend and stretch the
rules that govern social interactions. The 'I' and the 'me' make up the self.

ANTHROPOLOGY

- Anthropology is the systematic study of humanity, with the goal of understanding our
evolutionary origins, our distinctiveness as a species, and the great diversity in our
forms of social existence across the world and through time.
- - “anthros” meaning “human/human being” and the Greek “logos” meaning “the
study of”
-

Implicit

- Hidden meaning / indirect, not immediately available to consciousness.

Explicit

- Bulgar / direct, immediately available to consciousness.

“The self is not static”

- Argued that the self should not be seen as a static entity that stays constant through and
through. Rather, the self has to be seen as something that is in unceasing flux, in a
constant struggle with external reality and is malleable in its dealing with society.
- People change depending on the community they belong to, other reasons are; status,
death, aging, stress,- forgetting etc.

SELF REPRESENTATION

o A self is illusory - Hume maintained that we have never had such impression;
therefore, it is impossible to have an idea of it .Thus, the idea of the self is nothing
but an illusion.
o Façade- Not showing your real self
o Independent- Individualistic culture (distinct)
o Interdependent- Related to one another/ connected

PSYCHOLOGY

- Psychology is the scientific study of the mind and behavior.

Jean Piaget

- Cognitive theory - Jean Piaget's theory of cognitive development suggests that

intelligence changes as children grow. A child's cognitive development is not just about
acquiring knowledge, the child must develop or construct a mental model of the world.
1. Schemas/ Schemes – Building block of knowledge
2. Adaptation – Assimilation (Previous knowledge) & Accommodation (New
knowledge)

Piaget’s Four Stages of Cognitive Development

Stage Age Goal

Sensorimotor Birth to 2 years old Object permanence
Preoperational 2 to 7 years old Symbolic thought
Concrete operational Ages 7 to 11 years old Logical thought
Formal operational Adolescence to adulthood Scientific reasoning
William James (1890) distinguished two understandings of the self, the self as “Me” and
the self as “I”. This distinction has recently regained popularity in cognitive science,
especially in the context of experimental studies on the underpinnings of the phenomenal
self.

o Me – self – Objective (body) Material – Things

o I – self – Subjective (emotions)
Social – Relationship/ communication

Spiritual – values, personality, characteristics

Who you want to be Ideal self Congruence (Similarities)

Who you are right now Real Self Incongruence (Differences)
 Humanistic
Innate – meaning it is something that already existing to us,
Psychology and it is inborn/natural.

Trait – Essential characteristics that will sticks to you for the rest of your life.

Eric Berne - An “ego state” is a way in which we think, feel and behave, making up our
personality at a given time.

o Parent – Voice of Authority

o Adult – Being Rational
o Child Natural child (Playful)

Little Professor (Curious child)

Adaptive (Reacts to the world)

ME AND MY FAITH

Spiritual- Relating to human or soul as opposed to material or physical things. A spiritual

person, on the other hand, places little importance on beliefs and traditions and is more
concerned with growing and experiencing the divine.

Religious- Someone who believes in God consciously adheres to the benefits to his/her
religion. Religion takes the approach of here it emphasizes building and the concept of a
punishing God.

“Different paths that lead to the same destination”

Why is Spirituality Important?

-Spiritual practices are associated with better health and well-being.

-Spiritual fellowships such as attending church or meditation groups can be a source of

social support that may provide a sense of belonging, security, and community.

Contemplative practice can be broadly understood as a method to develop concentration,

deepen understanding and insight and cultivate awareness and compassion.

Examples of Contemplative practices:

1. Meditation- It can induce feelings of calm and clear-headedness, as well as

improved concentration and attention.
2. Prayer- A spiritual communion with God. Prayers may elicit a relaxation
response, along with feelings of hope, gratitude, and compassion all of which have
positive effects on overall well-being.
3. Yoga- a Hindu spiritual and ascetic discipline. Kathy. In Hindu theistic
philosophy, it teaches the suspension of all mind and body activity so that the self
may realize its distinction from the material world and attain liberation.
4. Journaling- is another (but often overlooked) contemplative practice that can help
you become aware of your inner life and feel more connected to your experience
and the world around you.

The four dimensions of religion

1. Belief;
2. Ritual;
3. Spiritual experience; and
4. Unique social forms of community.

Religious beliefs are generalized system of ideas and values that shape how members of a
religious group come to understand the world around them.
Rituals are the repeated physical gestures or activities such as prayers and mantras used to
reinforce religions teaching, elicit spiritual feelings, and Congress shippers with the higher
power. Examples of rites of passage include baptisms and weddings

Saint Thomas Aquinas is often quoted to have said “To one who has faith, no explanation
is necessary. To one without faith, no explanation is possible”

Emile Durkheim (1915-1964) emphasized that religious beliefs and practices “Unite in one
single community called a Church, all those who adhere to them”

One-way scholars have categorized religions is by classifying what or whom they hold to be
divine.

RELIGIOUS WHAT/WHO IS DEVINE EXAMPLES

CLASSIFICATION
POLYTHEISM Multiple Gods Hinduism, Ancient Greeks,
and Romans
MONOTHEISM Single God Judaism, Islam, Christianity
ATHEISM No deities Atheism, Buddhism, Taoism
ANIMISM Nonhuman beings (animals, Indigenous nature worship,
plants, natural world) Shinto

The Major Religions

1. Judaism
2. Christianity
3. Islam
4. Hinduism
5. Buddhism

Judaism- is characterized by belief in one transcendent God. The world's oldest

monotheistic religion. Founder-Abraham. God first revealed himself to a Hebrew man
named Abraham, who became known as the founder of Judaism. God-Yahweh.

Christianity- is an Abrahamic monotheistic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus
Christ, who serves as the focal point of the Christian faith. God and Founder are ONE -
Jesus Christ

Islam- is the religious faith of Muslims who worship Allah as the sole deity and believes
Muhammad is His prophet. The holy scripture of Islam is the Koran.
Founder-Muhammad. God- Allah

Hinduism- is a religion with various Gods and Goddesses. Hinduism combines the beliefs,
philosophy, and cultural practices of India. Gods- Bhrama, Vishnu and Shiva. Founder-
No founder.

Buddhism- does not believe in a devine realm or god as supernatural being, but instead
follows the wisdom of their founder Founder- Siddhartha Gautama. God-No God
Taoism- Founder-Lao Tzu. The Tao (or Dao) is the universe's way. Taoism says all living
things should live in harmony with the universe and its energy.

TWO FILIPINO SAINTS Paganism/Pagan Before Christianism

 San Lorenzo Ruiz Animism

 San Pedro Calungsod

THE CONCEPT OF “DUNGAN” AND “GINHAWA”

BABAYLAN- a priestess or shaman, a babaylan acted as a healer, spiritual leader and

medium. The babaylan perform rituals through chants or prayers for spiritual intervention to
drive spirits that cause illness or misfortune.

The babaylan explores the world of animism. Animism is the attribute soul to plants,
inanimate objects, and natural phenomena.

DUNGAN- a life force, an energy, as well as an ethereal entity. A spirit with a will of its
own that resides in the human body and provides the essence of life.

GINHAWA (breath of life)- was said to be responsible for the heart’s ability to beat. It was
believed that if “ginhawa” left the body, the person also dies.

“Ginhawa” and “Dungan” both exist in every person. Ginhawa was the breath of life while
Dungan was the conscious intellectual and emotional aspects

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE SOUL & SPIRIT OF MAN

SOUL AND SPIRIT -Two primary immaterial aspects ascribed to humanity.

ETYMOLOGY

Old English for "Soul" was 'Sawol' which meant the 'spiritual' and emotional part of a
person's, animate existence.

Spirit- directly from Latin Spiritus' , a breathing (breath of God) hence inspiration, breath
of life.

Biblical Beliefs:

- Soul - refers to the conscious, moral, and thinking part of a person.

- Spirit- refers to holy spirit, the third party of trinity.

In Western Culture
 - Soul- can be often taken to mean someone's moral consciousness,
- Spirit- may also refer to ghost or any other supernatural beings

In Eastern Culture

- Dharma- incurs Karma.

- Karma- the sum of a person's action in this and previous states of existence.

*COMMON SPIRITS IN TAOISM - Nature and Ancestor's Spirit.

SHINTO- animistic folk religion from Japan, places an emphasis on shamanism,

particularly divination spirit possession, and faith healing.

CONFUCIANISM- Tolerates the Chinese folk recognition of the existence of animistic,

spirits, ghost and deities.

THE SOUL ACCORDING TO SOME ETHNOLINGUISTIC GROUP OF THE

PHILIPPINES

DEFINITION
LINNAWA 'Soul of the dead'' by Ifugao
KADUWA The Isneg believe that death exists in a realm called Aglalanawan. The
Kaduwa(soul) is believed to cross a pond in a ferry piloted by a kutaw
(spirit)
KANKANAEY Believes that the human person is composed of the physical body and the
Ab-abiik (soul)
KALULUWA Tagalog people’s concept of soul. Refers more to the soul of the
deceased. Soul of living person is called 'Kakambal''

4 SOUL SYSTEM OF ILOCANO

DEFINITION
KARARUA Equivalent of soul in Christian Concept.
(SOUL
PROPER)
KARKARMA Stands for natural vigor, mind and reason. It can leave the physical body
when one is frightened.
ANIWAAS Can leave the body during sleep and visits place familiar to the body

ARARIA Liberated soul of the dead. It visits relatives and friends in the physical
 world to ask for prayers

BANAG/ YBANAG ( who inhabits the province of Cagayan ,Isabela and Nueva Vizcaya)

-Has distinction between BAGGI (Body) and IKARURUWA (Soul).

-IBANAG/YBANAG believes that the soul has physical characteristics.

HANUNOO MANGYAN(MINDORO)

-Believes in the plurality of SOULS.

*KARADUWA TAWU-human soul. *KARADUWA KUTI-cat soul

*KARADUWA MANOK-chicken soul *KARADUWA HIPON-shrimp soul

*KARADUWA BABOY- pig soul

TAGBANWA OF CENTRAL AND NORTHERN PALAWAN

-Believes that people have one 'true soul' or kiyaraluwa. KIYARALUWA- is given at
birth by the God Magindusa. The secondary souls are located in both hands and feet, while
there is also one in the head just below the air whorl,(Alimpuyo)

ETHNIC TRIBES OF BUKIDNON

-believe in the Gimukod.

*TWO TYPES OF GIMUKOD ACCORDING TO THEIR CUSTOMS*

Right Hand-good soul. Associated with life, health, activity, and joy.

Left Hand-bad soul, cause of lethargy, pain and illness

RITUAL

- Ceremony or action performed in a customary way. It may be prescribed by

traditions of a community including a religious community

CEREMONY
 - Formal act or ritual. (Often set by custom or tradition )perform as observation of
an event or anniversary.

WHERE DOES RITUAL ORIGINATE?

DEFINITION
ORIGIN APPROACH The basic premise of this approach is that ritual behavior
was part of human evolution. Scholars believe that
locating the oldest cultures and cults could explain the
universal nature of rituals
FUNCTIONAL APPROACH The aim of the functional approach was to explain ritual
behavior in terms of individual and social needs
HISTORY OF RELIGIOUS Holds the view that ritual behavior is an expression of the
APPROACH sacred: it is how the material human connects with the
transcendent realm or the ultimate reality

4 CLASSIFICATIONS OF RITUALS

DEFINITION
IMITATIVE RITUALS Where the meaning of every ritual is based on some belief
system
POSITIVE AND Positive Ritual-mostly concerned with giving blessings to an
NEGATIVE RITUAL object or individual. Negative Ritual-focus on rules of
prohibition.
SACRIFICIAL RITUALS The distinct feature of this type of ritual is the total
destruction of the sacrifice as an offering to a "higher
being''.
LIFE CRISIS RITUAL The transition of one mode or stage of life into another.