MAXWELL’S EQUATIONS

The field of electrodynamics involves the study electrical and magnetic response of material
of behavior of charges in electric field and that medium. Finally we will also obtain the form
of current in the magnetic fields. The branch of Maxwell’s equations take in harmonic fields.
physics has been pursued over centuries and
huge wealth of experimental data was collected MAXWELL’S FIRST EQUATION: GAUSS’
which helped in establishing facts and laws. LAW IN ELECTROSTATICS
James Clerk Maxwell, a Scottish Physicist, in the
year 1859 visited this experimental information
Coulomb’s Law in Electrostatics
and made an attempt to understand various
The basis of electrostatics lies in the forces
laws of electrodynamics with a view to provide
between two charged bodies. According to
a coherent theoretical framework. His
Coulomb, the magnitude of force between two
theoretical effort resulted in condensing the
point charges is proportional to product of
whole knowledge of electrodynamics into four
strength of two charges and inversely
equations, which are referred to as Maxwell’s
proportional to square of distance of separation
Equations. These four Maxwell’s equations,
between them. This force always acts along the
along with the force law, describe the origin of
line joining two charges. Mathematically, the
electric and magnetic fields and also pronounce
Coulomb’s law is expressed as:
their effect on charges and currents. In fact,
 1 qQ
these equations form the basis of F= rˆ (1)
4 0 r 2
electrodynamics.
If the charge Q lies at a position in space
In this chapter, we will reach the Maxwell’s 
coordinate system defined by position vector r
equations from the basic laws of
and is surrounded by distribution of charges q1,
electrodynamics and understand their physical
q2, q3,…., qn with their positions defined by
interpretations. Further the generalized form of
position vectors r1, r2, r3,…….., rn , then total
Maxwell’s equations in material medium will
force acting on the charge Q is expressed as:
also be discussed which will include the

1
 small test charge is preferred so that it does not
 n 1 disturb the position and field of the source
F = 
Qqi
 (r − ri ) (2)
i =1 4 0 r − ri
3
charge itself. The concept of electric field is a
The equation (2) clearly informs that total force mathematical tool to associate the electric
acting on a charge due to distribution of charges effect as solely a property of source charge.

is vector sum of forces due to each charge in the  F
E = lim (3)
q →0 q
distribution. This implies that Coulomb’s force is
a two body force which is not affected by the The electric field due to a point charge q placed

presence of third body. This is also referred to as at a distance r from it is

Principle of superposition of forces. It is worth  q

E= rˆ (4)
4 o r 2
noting that the Coulomb’s force is a property of

two charges involved in the electrostatic If a charge q is placed at position defined by r

interaction. in the co-ordinate space and the electric field at


a position r ' is to be measured, then it is given
as:
Concept of Electric Field  
 1 q (r '−r )
If an isolated charge is placed at a point in the E= (5)
4 o r '−r 3
free space then it modifies the properties of the
The electric field vector has magnitude (called
space around it in such a way that any other
electric field intensity) as given above. The
charge, introduced into this space, experiences
direction of the field vector at any point is
either an attractive or repulsive force. This
tangent to the path of motion followed by the
modification of space properties is called electric
unit positive test charge placed at that point.
field. The electric field at any point in the vicinity
The electric field due to a system of discrete
of a charge is defined as the force per unit
charges at any point is given in magnitude and
charge experienced by an infinitesimally small
direction by the vector sum of the fields due to
positive charge placed at that point. The charge
each charge in the distribution. Hence the net
whose electric field is being measured is called
electric field due to system of charges
source charge while the infinitesimally small
distributed in the co-ordinate space at a point
positive test charge used to measure the electric 
defined by the position vector r is given as
field is called test charge. The infinitesimally

2
   
qi (r − ri ) charge distribution can be obtained by applying
E=  3 (6)
4 o r − ri superposition of electric fields due to different
This implies that electric field due a charge at a portions of distribution. However this procedure
given point is not influenced by the presence of is tedious and impractical in many situations. To
other charges in vicinity. This is called principle simplify this procedure, a scalar function called
of superposition of fields. electric potential is evaluated which is further
If we have a continuous charge distribution, used to obtain electric field. This excludes the
then electric field at any point is given as: complications of vector analysis involved in
(a) If the charge is uniformly distributed along a direct field evaluation using superposition
line such that  denotes the linear charge principle. Electric potential at any point is
density, then electric field is given as: defined as work done to bring a unit positive test
 1 dl charge from infinity to the considered point, in
E=
4 o r 2
(7 )
the electric field due to source charge, without
(b) If the charge is distributed uniformly over causing any acceleration. Mathematically we
some surface such that  is the surface have
charge density, then electric field at any WA
V A = lim (10)
q →0 q
point is given as:
 1 dA The electric potential due to a point charge q at
E=
4 o  r 2
(8)
distance r is
(c) If the charge is distributed uniformly in some 1 q
V= (11)
4 o r
space such that  is the volume charge
density, then electric field at any point is If we have a distribution of discrete charges in

given as: co-ordinate space, then electric potential due to

 1 dV them at a point in space is given as scalar sum of
E=
4 o  r2
(9)
electric potentials due to each of them at the
considered point
qi
Concept of Electric Potential V = (12)
4 o ri
If we have a discrete or continuous charge
The electric potential due to a uniform linear
distribution, then electric field due to such a
charge distribution is given as:

3
 1 dl The electric field can be related to the electric
V=
4 o  r
(13)
potential as
The electric potential due to a uniform surface   V
E = −V = −rˆ (18)
charge distribution is given as: r

1 dA V
V=
4 o  r
(14) The quantity
r
is called potential gradient.

Hence electric field can be expressed as negative

The electric potential due to a uniform volume
of potential gradient. As a result electric field
charge distribution is given as:
can also expressed in the units of volt/meter.
1 dV
V=
4 o  r
(15)

The work done to move a unit positive test Gauss’ Theorem in Electrostatics
charge from a point A to another point B in the Intensity of electric field at any point in the
electric field due to some isolated charge q is space is proportional to the number of field lines
called potential difference (VBA) between two crossing unit area of cross-section around that
points which is expressed as point in normal direction. It is also sometimes

q 1 1 referred to as electric flux density. Electric flux is

VBA = VB − V A =  −  (16)
4 0  rB rA  defined as the total number of field lines passing
The potential difference between any two through the given area in normal direction. It is
points in the electric field can also be expressed expressed mathematically as
 
as negative of line integral of electric field  =  E  da (19)
between these points. Hence we have
The electric flux is a scalar quantity having units
  q 1 1
B
VBA = VB − V A = −  E.dl =  −  (17)
A
4 0  rB rA  of Vm and dimensions [M1L3T-3A-1]. The area
vector is directed outward normal to the
The line integral is independent of path followed
surface. As a result we have
and solely depends upon the initial and final  
=0 E⊥A
positions. This indicates that the Coulomb’s
 
force is conservative in nature. As a result the  = Maximum E II A

line integral around a closed path is zero or no For a closed surface, the outward flux is
work is required to move a charged particle in a considered as positive while the inward flux is
closed path. taken to be negative.

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Gauss’ Law relates the total electric flux through various enclosed charges does not play any role
a closed surface to the net charge enclosed by it. in evaluation of total electric flux. The electric
According to the Gauss’ Law, the total electric flux due to charge lying outside a closed surface
flux linked with a closed surface is (1/ 0) times is always zero.
the net charge enclosed by the closed surface According to this law, total electric flux through
i.e., 1
a closed surface is equal to times the net
  q 0
 =  E  da =  i (20)
o charge enclosed by the surface. It can be

The electric field determination due to expressed mathematically as:

continuous charge distribution becomes difficult   q

 E  dS =  0
(21)
or even practically impossible by using
  q 1
conventional definition of electric field. In such   dS = =
E
0 0  dV
V
situations the Gauss’ law provides an easy
The above equation represents the integral
method to evaluate electric field by exploiting
form of Gauss’ law and forms the first
the symmetry of charge distribution. To
Maxwell’s equation. Using Gauss’
determine electric field due to some charge
divergence theorem, we get:
distribution, an imaginary surface is chosen such   1
that at all point on its surface, the electric field   EdV =

0  dV
V

lines are normal and possess same intensity. The Gauss’ law in differential form is expressed
This is called Gaussian Surface. The choice of as
Gaussian surface simplifies surface integral.   
E = ( 22)
The Gauss’ law assumes simple form because of 0
the fact that Coulomb’s law is an inverse square This time independent differential equation is
law. In fact Coulomb and Gauss’ laws are Maxwell’s first equation, which forms the basis
derivable from each other and hence are of all phenomena in electrostatics. The
equivalent. interesting fact is that the Gauss’ law was
The total electric flux through a closed surface preferred over Coulomb’s law of electrostatics
can be zero only if no charge is enclosed or the for forming the basis of electrostatics by James
net charge enclosed is zero. The position of Maxwell. This equation implies that source of

5
electric field is charge density and can estimated the magnetic field lines, at a point in space,
through spatial variation of electric field. Non- depends upon how much field lines crowd in the
zero divergence shows that the electric field is vicinity of that point. If such a magnet is
lamellar in nature. enclosed in a closed surface, the total outward
flux will be equal to the flux penetrating into the
MAXWELL’S SECOND EQUATION: surface thereby resulting in overall zero

GAUSS’ LAW IN MAGNETOSTATICS magnetic flux. The situation remains same if

many magnets are enclosed in a common
From our experience, it is well known fact that
surface. Hence it can be concluded with a
every magnet, however tiny it may be,
generality that if we have a distribution of
comprises of a north and a south pole. If the
magnets enclosed within a volume, then total
magnet is divided into two pieces, which may or
magnetic flux through the enclosing surface
may not be equal, it results in the formation of
always vanishes. This is expressed
two new magnets, each having its own north
mathematically as:
and south poles. This process of disintegration
 
of a magnet may be carried out to any extent but   dS = 0
B (23)
 
every time new magnets formed have two poles. 
 
  BdV = 0

This implies that two poles of any magnet are B=0 (24)
inseparable from each other and they always The equation (23) defines the integral form of
coexist. Hence in nature the magnets exist as Gauss’ law in magnetostatics. Similarly the time
magnetic dipoles and isolated monopoles independent differential equation (24)
(either free north or south poles) have not been represents the differential form of Gauss’ law of
observed or reported till date. magnetostatics. The vanishing divergence
If the magnetic field produced due to a magnet indicates that magnetic field is in the shape of
is viewed, then following features are observed: closed loop or solenoidal in nature. Further this
(i) outside the magnet, the field lines emerge out equation reveals that magnetic monopoles can’t
from the north pole and enter into the south exist in isolation. The physical significance of this
pole (ii) inside the magnet, the field lines equation lies in defining the fundamental
traverse from south to north pole (iii) the constitution of magnets and also the shape of
intensity of magnetic field depends on the how magnetic field lines.

6
 Faraday’s Experiment
MAXWELL’S THIRD EQUATION: FARADAY’S Micheal Faraday in 1831 performed a series of
LAW OF ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION experiments to relate time variation in the
magnetic flux through a circuit with the emf
Magnetic Flux
developed across its ends. These experiments
The magnetic field intensity, at any point in
are discussed in the text to follow:
space, is defined as the number of field lines
Coil- Magnet Experiment: A magnet was moved
crossing normally through a unit area around
relative to a stationary coil whose ends were
that point. This is also referred to as magnetic
connected to a galvanometer. The
flux density. The magnetic flux is defined as the
galvanometer showed deflection. Following
total number of field lines crossing normally
were the observations:
through a given surface. It is expressed as:
(a) The galvanometer indicated the deflection
 
 =  B  dS till there was relative motion between the
The flux has maximum value when field lines are magnet and coil.
normal (=0o) to the surface while it is zero (b) The magnitude of deflection was
when field lines graze along the surface (=90o). proportional to the relative velocity
The total magnetic flux through a closed surface between magnet and coil.
is always zero, which is referred to as Gauss’ (c) The direction of deflection in the
theorem for magnetism. galvanometer gets reversed if same pole of
The Magnetic flux has dimensions [M1L2T-2A-1]. magnet was moved away instead of
The SI unit for the magnetic flux is Weber (Wb) approaching the coil.
which is given as (d) The direction of the deflection in the
1Wb = 1Tm2. galvanometer gets reversed if the south pole
Similarly the CGS unit for the magnetic flux is of the magnet moves in same direction
Maxwell given as: relative to the coil instead of the north pole.
1Maxwell = 1Gcm2. (e) The results are exactly same in two
The two units are related as: situations i.e. if a magnet moves relative to
1Wb = 108Maxwell. stationary coil or coil moves relative to the
stationary magnet.

7
 (b) In the second, the deflection in the
Coil – Coil Experiment: In this experiment, galvanometer was observed when the
current was passed in one coil (called current in the primary coil is just switched on
primary coil) while the other coil carrying or off. This is because current in the primary
galvanometer (called secondary coil) was coil does not rise to steady value or falls to
placed closed to it. Following were the zero instantaneously but takes some finite
observations: short time interval. During this time interval
(a) A deflection is observed for a moment in the the magnetic field intensity increases (during
galvanometer connected to the secondary rise) or decreases (during fall) with time
coil when current is switched on in the thereby leading to changing magnetic flux
primary coil. linked with the secondary coil and hence
(b) A larger deflection in opposite direction is deflection is observed in the galvanometer.
observed in the galvanometer when current
in the primary coil is switched off. Faraday’s Laws of EM Induction
From the observations of above-mentioned
Interpretation of Observations experiments, following laws were enunciated:
The observations of the magnet-coil and coil-coil First Law: Whenever there is a variation of
experiments were understood as follows: magnetic flux through a loop or circuit, an emf is
(a) In the first experiment involving a coil and a induced in the circuit.
magnet, whenever magnet approached the Second Law: The magnitude of emf is directly
coil, the number of magnetic field lines proportional to the time rate of change of
passing through the surface of coil increases magnetic flux through the circuit.
thereby resulting in increase of magnetic flux Mathematically it is given as:
through the coil. This results in induced emf d
e=− (25)
across two ends of coil due to which induced dt

current flows in the coil. The phenomenon of

inducing emf across a loop or circuit through Induced Current in EM Induction
variation of magnetic flux through it is called
Electromagnetic Induction.

8
If the closed loop or circuit has resistance R, then the force of repulsion. This mechanical
the induced current flowing through it is given energy supplied is transformed into
as: electrical energy which appears as induced
e 1 d emf. Similar is the situation when south-pole
I= =− (26)
R R dt of the magnet is pushed towards the coil.
The induced charge in the circuit in time t of (b) When north-pole of the magnet recedes
motion is: away from a stationary coil, then a south
t d
Q=− (27) pole is developed at the face of the coil
R dt
towards the magnet. As a result, energy
must be supplied in the form of mechanical
Lenz’s Rule
work to pull the magnet away from the loop
This rule helps us to define the direction of
against force of attraction. The mechanical
induced current in the loop or circuit resulting
energy supplied is transformed into
from induced emf. According to this rule, the
electrical energy appearing as induced emf.
induced current flows in a direction so as to
Similar is the situation when south-pole of
oppose the cause of change in magnetic flux.
the magnet is pulled away from the coil.
This rule accounts for negative sign in the
expression for the induced emf given by
Direction of Induced Current
Faraday’s second law.
The direction of induced current is determined
The Lenz’s rule is in accordance with law of
by Right Hand Fleming Rule. According to this
conservation of energy. This can be understood
rule if the central finger, forefinger and thumb
by reviewing the Faraday’s observations, in the
of the right hand are stretched mutually
above discussed experiments, from energetics
perpendicular to each other and forefinger
point of view:
denoted the direction of magnetic field while
(a) When north-pole of the magnet approaches
the thumb gives the motion of conductor, then
a stationary coil, then a north pole is
the central finger points in the direction of
developed on the face of the coil towards
induced current.
the magnet. As a result, energy must be
supplied in the form of mechanical work to
Motional EMF
push the magnet closer to the loop against

9
When a conductor, with open ends, is made to equation (31) is time dependent equation,
move in the region of magnetic field, then an also referred to as differential form of
emf is induced across its ends, referred to as Faraday’s law or Maxwell’s third equation.
motional emf. If a conductor of length L is moved This indicates that time variation in magnetic
with velocity v at an angle  to the direction of field in time yields electric field varying in
magnetic field of intensity B, then motional emf space. This equation is important in the fact
induced is given as: that it gives the much desired
e = BvL sin  (28) transformation of magnetic field to electric

The origin of motional emf can be understood in field.

terms of Lorentz force suffered by the free

electrons in the conductor moving through a MAXWELL’S FOURTH EQUATION:
region of magnetic field. This force causes AMPERE – MAXWELL’S LAW
charge polarization at two ends of conductor
perpendicular to the direction of field, thereby
Biot Savert’s Law
leading to generation of emf.
The flow of current in the conductor results in
generation of magnetic field around it was well
Maxwell’s Third Equation
demonstrated through the experiments of
The Faraday’s law states that time variation of
Oersted. Besides the demonstration, this
magnetic flux through a circuit induces an emf in
experiment holds significance as it correlated
the circuit. This can expressed mathematically
the current flow in a conductor and generation
as:
of magnetic field thereby establishing that
d d  
e=− = −  B  dS (29) current is the source of magnetic field.
dt dt
  d   The Biot and Savert, through their experiments
e =  E  dl = −  B  dS (30)
dt studied the magnetic field due to current
  d  
 curlE  dS = − dt  B  dS carrying conductor of an arbitrary shape at a

 dB given point of observation. If a current I is
curlE = − (31)
dt flowing in the conductor of arbitrary shape and
The equation (30) represents the integral magnetic field is to be measured as distance of
form of Maxwell’s third equation. The separation r from an element of length dl of

10
conductor, then it can be expressed by Biot-   0 I
 B  dl =  2s dl =  I
0 (35)
Savert law as:
 0 IdlSin The line integral in the equation (35) is
B= (32)
4 r 2 independent of s just because the decrease in B
Vectorially this relation can be expressed as: with s is compensated by increase in

  0 Idl  r circumference. In fact the above relation should
B= (33)
4 r 3 hold true not only circular loops but also closed
If the current flowing in a conductor is not loop of any arbitrary shape. Hence we can write
uniform such that it can be characterized by in general for steady currents as:
   
current density J (r ) , then Biot-Savert’s law will
  dl =  0 I
B (36)
take the form as: This is referred to as Ampere circuital rule. It can
 
   0 J (r )  rˆ
4  r 2
B(r ) = dV (34) be expressed in the differential form as:
     
This law gives the direction and intensity of  B  dl =   
Curl B  ds =  0  (r )  ds
J
CurlB =  0 J (37)
magnetic field at the point of observation.
However, it involves lot of geometrical and This is generalized form of Ampere circuital law

mathematical intricacies too. which was encountered to be the fourth

equation by Maxwell. However this equation
shows consistency in the realm of
magnetostatics till we limit ourselves to systems
involving steady currents.
Ampere’s Circuital Law
Let’s consider a infinitely long straight
Electrodynamics Before Maxwell

conducting wire carrying current I through it. The laws specifying divergence and curl of

The magnetic field lines will be concentric circles electric and magnetic fields formed the

around the wire as central axis. The direction of underlying basis of electrodynamics. These can

magnetic field lines will be defined by right hand be expressed in the form of equations as:

curl rule. The line integral of magnetic field

around a closed circular path of radius s, centred
at wire, is given to be:

11
   
   E
E = (Gauss ' Law in Electrostatics )   B =  0 J +  0 0 (38)
0 t
 
B = 0 (Gauss ' Law in Magnetostatics) Hence the magnetic field can be generated

  B
 E = − ( Faraday ' s Law of EM Induction) through current as well as due to time variation
t
   of electric field in the region. This is called
  B = 0 J ( Ampere ' sCircuital Law)
Ampere-Maxwell Law and is found to be
If we take divergence of third and fourth
consistent for both steady and non-steady
equations given above, then it can be observed
currents. This is the revised Maxwell’s fourth
that:
 equation.
     B 
( )
    E =    − (
  
 = − B
 ) The magneto-motive force, which represents
 t  t
the current, can be expressed as:
As divergence of curl of a vector field is always  
  dD   dD 
zero so LHS of above equation vanishes. Using em =  H  dl = I +   dS =  ( J + )  dS
dt dt
the Gauss’ law in magnetostatics, the RHS of the 
   dD 
above equation also vanishes. This implies that  curlH  dS =  ( J + dt )  dS (39)

Faraday’s law of EM induction is always 

  dD
curlH = J + (40)
consistent. dt
In the similar way, repeating the process for This is the Maxwell’s fourth equation, which is
Ampere circuital rule, we get: represented by time dependent differential

( ) ( ) ( )
      
    B =   0 J = 0   J form of Ampere-Maxwell’s law. It indicates that
the time variation of electric field is also a source
The LHS of the equation vanishes being the
of magnetic field. In absence of any current flow,
divergence of curl of vector field. However the
this law brings symmetrical transformation of
RHS vanishes only for steady currents. This
electric and magnetic fields into each other.
implies that Ampere circuital rule is not
consistent for non-steady currents. This
MAXWELL’S EQUATIONS IN MATTER
inconsistency was resolved by Maxwell by
The Maxwell’s equations given above are valid
inducing theoretical symmetry that time varying
for the free space. However, it will be interesting
electric fields will also become the source of
to develop generalized equations, when
magnetic field in addition to the current. Hence
material media are subjected to electric or
we can write as:

12
magnetic fields. When a dielectric material is the material will be comprised by (i) free current
 
subjected to the electric field, then polarization density ( J f ) (ii) bound current density ( J b ) and
of its constituent atoms or molecules takes place 
(iii) current density ( J P ) due to variation in
resulting in accumulation of bound charges
   electric polarization that may be caused by
 b = −  P within the dielectric and  b = P  nˆ
varying electric field. Hence we have:
on the surface. The field due to polarization is 
       P
just the field due to bound charges. Hence total J = J f + Jb + J P = J f +   M +
t
charge density is sum of free and bound charge The Maxwell’s fourth equation takes the form
densities i.e.  =  b +  f . Then Gauss’ law  
     P E 
  B =  0  J f +   M + + 0 

results in  t t 
     1  
 0 (  E ) =  b +  f = −  P +  f Since H = B−M
   0
  ( 0 E + P) =  f    D

    H = J f + (42)
D = 0E + P t
 
D =  f (41) This is the Ampere-Maxwell’s law in matter.
This is the Gauss’ law in dielectrics. Hence Maxwell’s equation in matter can be
In the non-static case, any change in electric expressed as:

polarization under the influence of applied     B
D = f  E = −
electric field will result in flow of bound charge t

      D
 P B = 0  H = J f +
and current density will be J P = . t
t
When the magnetic field is applied to material
medium the magnetic polarization results due to BOUNDARY CONDITIONS
   
alignment of dipole moments of constituent In general, the fields E , B, D and H will be
atoms in the direction of applied field. The net discontinuous at the boundary between two

magnetic moment (M ) arising due to different media or at the surface that carries

polarization of material can be associated to the charge density  or current density J . To
flow of the bound current density as obtain the explicit form of discontinuities, we
  
J b =   M . Hence the total current density in can analyze the integral form of Maxwell’s
equations:

13
(a) The integral form of Gauss’ equation in loop is L and breadth is vanishing small. The
electrostatics is two length arms lie slightly across the
 
  dS = Q f
S
D interface in two different media. The above
equation over this loop will have the form:
Let’s consider interface between two      
d
E1  L − E 2  L = −  B  dS
different media and draw a tiny Gaussian dt S
box extending slightly into the material on In the limit of width of loop tending to zero
either side of the boundary. Then we can the flux vanishes. Hence we get:
write above equation as:
E1ll − E2ll = 0 (45)
   
D1  S − D2  S =  f S Hence the parallel component of electric
D − D = f
⊥ ⊥
(43)
1 2
field remains continuous across the interface
Thus the above relation shows the amount of two material media.
of discontinuity in perpendicular (d) The integral form of Ampere-Maxwell law is
components of the displacement vector.   d  
(b) Similar analysis of integral form of Gauss’ law
C  dl = I f + dt S D  dS
H

in magneto-statics will give the discontinuity Analyzing in similar manner, as for Faraday’s
in perpendicular component of magnetic law, we get the condition as:
fields in two different material media. Hence If
H 1ll − H 2ll = (46)
we get: L

B1⊥ − B2⊥ = 0 (44) Hence there is a discontinuity in parallel

Hence perpendicular components of component of magnetic field across the

magnetic field remain continuous across the interface of two different material media.

interface of two different material media.

(c) The integral form of Faraday’s law of EM MAXWELL’S EQUATIONS IN TIME
induction is given as: HARMONIC FIELDS
  d  
C .dl = − dt S B  dS
E
Time Harmonic Fields
If we consider a small rectangular loop at
Commonly the Maxwell’s equations are
interface of two media such that length of
expressed for electromagnetic fields which have

14
arbitrary time dependence. The actual time y = A sin(t +  ' ) (48)

dependence of field quantities will depend upon where  ' = +
2
the source functions i.e charge and current
The equations (47) and (48) can be rewritten as:
densities. In engineering, the sinusoidal time
Z = x2 + y2
functions occupy a unique position owing not
  
only due to the advantage of easy generation Z = Acos(t +  ) + j sin(t + +  )
 2 
and but also the fact that any arbitrary time   
Z = Acos(t +  ) + j sin sin(t +  )
dependence can be expanded as Fourier series  2 

j 
of sinusoidal functions. If the source functions e 2
= j sin
2
are sinusoidal in nature, then due to linear  Z = Acos(t +  ) + j sin(t +  )
nature of Maxwell’s equations in their Z = Ae j (t + ) = ( Ae j )e jt (49)
differential form, the electric and magnetic The equation (49) is the representation of SHM using
fields will also exhibit sinusoidal time variations. complex number notation and it expresses
generalized SHM without putting any constraint of

Vector Representation of SHM initial conditions. The representation has two parts:

We have studied in lower classes that SHM can be (a) the portion Ae j represents the quantity called

represented as the projection of uniform circular phasor which contains information of magnitude of

motion on any one of the diameters. Let’s consider amplitude A and initial phase  (b) the exponential
 portion depicts the time variation of the physical
that we have a vector A rotating at constant angular
quantity. The equation (49) can be split into two
frequency  about its tail at center O of the circle.
parts to depict cosine-like and sine-like oscillations.
If this vector makes an angle  with x-axis at time
Hence we can write:
t=0, then magnitude of its projection, on the
diameter of circle along x-axis, at time t will be

Re Z = Re ( Ae j )e jt = Re As e jt    (50)

expressed as:
Im Z = Im( Ae j
)e j t
 = ImA e 
s
j t
(51)
j
where As = Ae (52)
x = A cos(t +  ) (47)
The real part in equation (50) reproduces the
Here the instantaneous value x of vector can be
equation (47) where the projection of circular
obtained through the knowledge of amplitude A,
motion on x-axis was considered to study SHM. The
angular frequency  and initial phase  . The same
imaginary part in equation (51) reproduces the
case can be studied by projecting the vector on the
situation of SHM illustrated in equation (48). The
y-axis. Hence we can represent it as:

15
equation (52) represents the magnitude of electromagnetic fields. These equations are also
amplitude and initial phase. This is usually referred useful for electromagnetic fields which have
to a phasor. arbitrary time variation. Such fields can be split into
harmonic fields using Fourier series expansion and

Time Harmonic Electromagnetics further equations (55-58) can be applied to each of

the components.
The field vectors that vary with space
coordinates and are sinusoidal functions of time
can be represented as vector phasors. The
electric and magnetic fields can be mathematically
expressed while referring to cos t as:


E ( x, y, z , t ) = Re E ( x, y, z )e jt  (52)


B( x, y, z , t ) = Re B( x, y, z )e jt  (53)
The equations (52) and (53) represent the time
harmonic fields with cosine-like time variations and
zero initial phase. These fields can be substituted in
the Maxwell’s equations and we obtain as:
  
  E ( x, y , z , t ) =
0
  
  E ( x, y , z ) = (55)
0

   
  B( x, y, z , t ) =   H ( x, y, z , t ) = 0
 
   H ( x, y , z ) = 0 (56)

   
  
  E = − B( x, y, z , t ) = − B( x, y, z )e jt
t t
 
  
   E ( x, y, z ) = − jH ( x, y, z ) (57)

    
  B ( x, y , z , t ) =  0 J +  0  0 E ( x, y , z , t )
t
   
  H ( x , y , z ) = J +  0 j E ( x , y , z ) (58)
The equations (55-58) represent the form of
Maxwell’s equations applicable for time harmonic

16