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Writing Matters
Developing Writing Skills In Students of All Ages
William Van Cleave • Educational Consultant • W.V.C.ED
Updated February 2014
I. What the Research Says

- Motor Component & Spelling Concerns
- Remediating Handwriting to Improve Output and Product
- Other Writing Findings
II. Creating Sentences From Scratch

- Teaching Parts of Speech for Sentence Development
- Using the Clause to Build Sentences of Varying Structure
- Advanced Elements
III. Idea Generation

- Lists
- Categorization
- Graphic Organizers and Webbing
IV. Paragraph & Essay Development

- Basic & Expanded Paragraphs
- Different Purposes of Writing
- The Five Paragraph Essay
V. Revision
- Goals
- Two Models For Differentiated Instruction
VI. Appendices
- Various Word Lists
- Common Core Cross Reference Chart
© 2014 • wvced.com • [email protected]

Introduction
Writing coherent paragraphs and essays involves engaging in a number of activities simultaneously:
• motor component: whether students print, write in cursive, or type an assignment, part of the
brain is engaged in this process.
• spelling: even if students are not penalized for spelling, they must still sound out and spell the
words they choose so that the reader can understand what is being written.
• syntax (sentence construction): students must write coherent sentences, including appropriate
variety, structure, and punctuation.
• vocabulary: students must use words that convey intended message and vary those words to
reflect the development of ideas
• text structure (paragraph/essay): students must apply what they have learned regarding
introductory, supporting, and concluding sentences/paragraphs.
• recursive processes (planning/revising/editing): students must proofread and edit their work,
taking into account conventions of spelling, punctuation, sentence construction, and idea
development.
• content: topics chosen from students’ own experiences contain the most simple and direct
content; eventually, students must write on topics assigned by content-area teachers.
• audience: students must determine the purpose of the assignment, the intended audience, and
the approach to be taken in order to match written piece with intended audience.
The skills included in this scope and sequence involve knowledge in four stages. A student has
achieved “mastery” only when he/she is able to engage with the concept at all four stages.
Stages of Idea Generation Parts of Speech Sentence Parts Paragraph/

Knowledge Essay Parts
Definition learn definition learn definition ability to discuss
Identification recognize in text recognize in text recognize in text
Create in generate/ provide provide create using

Isolation categorize list examples examples known topic
in isolated in isolated
sentences sentences
Create in generate/ use in use in create using

Application categorize paragraphs paragraphs content-based
list for topic
content-based
assignment

Forming Words - Cursive
As Diana Hanbury King writes in Writing Skills For The Adolescent, “There is no reason
why cursive writing should not be taught to all students. However, in the case of
dyslexics, there are several reasons for insisting on cursive. To begin with, in cursive
writing there is no question as to where each letter begins -- it begins on the line. The
confusion with forms is not merely a left and right reversal as with b/d and p/q; it is
also an up and down reversal as with m/w and u/n; hence the uncertainty as to whether
a letter begins at the top or the bottom. Second, spelling is fixed more firmly in the mind
if the word is formed in a continuous movement rather than a series of separate strokes
with the pencil lifted off the paper between each one” (King).
In short:
• cuts down on reversals (cursive b/d, m/w, etc.)

• in a proper lowercase cursive alphabet, all letters begin on the baseline
• spelling is better reinforced in the mind if the continuous movement of cursive is used
• reading is strengthened through writing
• forces appropriate clustering of letters to create words and spacing between words
B. index finger’s pad should be pressed against the
paper up (so writing hand doesn’t have to move

A. fingers should be in triangular position - thumb
B. letters should be taught in groups by formation

C. pencil should rest on the arch between thumb
E. other hand should be on top of paper to pull
F. arm should arc across page as student writes

and first finger, and eraser should point over
and first finger squeeze pencil while middle
A. every lower case letter begins on the line

(instead of wrist flipping back and forth)
C. both arms on table (including elbows)
finger acts as bridge for pencil
D. wrist should be flat on table

B. corner folded if necessary
A. paper tilted at 45 degrees
Handwriting Tips:
B. back straight
II. Paper Position:
III. Hands & Grip:

William Van Cleave
shoulder
A. feet flat
down)
pencil
IV. Script:
Body:
I.


Gillingham-Based Alphabets
(Diana Hanbury King’s fonts)
right-handed alphabets:
left-handed alphabets:

Grammar Instruction
Keep two things in mind:
• We teach grammar to improve writing. If you cannot justify teaching a particular concept in
terms of improving a student’s writing, don’t teach it.
• The best grammar exercises involve students writing sentences containing/practicing various
grammatical concepts.
Parts of Speech: Consider the job the word does in the sentence.
• noun person, place, thing, (idea) John, school, bench, (peace)
• verb action word (linking, helping) jump, (am, seem)
• pronoun word that takes the place of noun he, you, they, I
• adjective describes a noun (or pronoun) ugly, tired
• adverb describes a verb (adjective, or other adverb) quickly
• preposition begins a phrase in, on, around
(anything a plane can do to a cloud)
• conjunction joins 2 words or 2 groups of words and, although
• article teach in adjective family a, an, the

• interjection expresses emotion - inessential whoa!
Sentence Parts: Clauses are the building blocks to all sentence writing.
subject what’s doing the action John went to the store.
predicate verb plus its baggage John went to the store.
direct object receives action of verb John threw Mark the ball.
indirect object tells to whom/for whom action is done John threw Mark the ball.
predicate noun follows linking verb and renames subject John is a pilot.
predicate adjective follows linking verb and describes subject John seems exhausted.
clause group of words with subject John went to the store
and predicate because she is finished
independent clause clause that can stand by itself John went to the store
dependent clause clause that cannot stand by itself because she is finished
simple sentence one independent clause John went to the store.
compound sentence 2 independent clauses joined by , John went to the store,
and for, and, nor, but, or, yet but it was closed.
or 2 independent clauses joined by ; John went to the store;
it was closed.
complex sentence 1 independent clause and 1 or more John went to the store
dependent clauses because he needed milk.
When John went to the
store, he forgot his wallet.
John, who was selected as
our leader, rarely smiled.

Five-Point Instructional Strategy
New Concept Review Concept
a. Teacher introduces concept and then a. Students explain concept, proving
asks students to explain it, proving understanding. The emphasis here
understanding. In most instances, is on information your students
introducing a part of speech or sentence have learned and can share. With
part to your students should take just a few most concepts this will take only a
minutes. Students should create (or you few minutes. Students should begin
should provide) a vocabulary card with term by verbalizing what they know from
on front, definition and examples on back; memory and then use the concept
explain the term and its definition; and have vocabulary card to elaborate on
them explain it back to you or, in the case their understanding.
of large group instruction, to each other.
Students can illustrate their cards as well.
b. Students identify examples of the concept in context. Have students sort words,
sentence parts, or sentences to help them recognize the concept you are teaching. Have
them identify examples of the studied element in a larger context. Professionally
written sentences, from both textbooks and good literature, sometimes serve this
purpose well and also offer material for further discussion.
c. Students create their own examples in isolation. Students must focus primary
attention on creating examples of the concept, in isolation and in applied context. Keep
the emphasis on student-generated work.
d. Students share their examples with the instructor and their classmates. When the
students complete independent practice of a concept at their desks, always allow time
to share results. This (a) validates the students’ writing, (b) encourages them to write at
a more sophisticated level since they anticipate an audience, (c) allows the instructor to
check for competence, and (d) provides student-generated examples (whether correct or
not) for further discussion and analysis.
e. Teacher uses examples, both correct and incorrect, for clarification and further
instruction. As the students share, the teacher writes any incorrect examples as
well as any examples that show a new or interesting development that warrants
discussion. Since the examples come from the students’ own writing on the day in
question, the teacher is able to target student difficulties immediately and strengthen
class understanding. Using student examples rather than prefabricated, professionally
written sentences connects students to the assignment, provides immediacy and
relevance, and gives the teacher valuable information about where the students are and
what they need next in order to further their writing.

Parts of Speech Introductory Activities
Noun Classroom Naming/Labeling

Nature/Street Walk
Categorization
Verb Classroom Naming/Labeling

Nature/Street Walk
Conjugation
Yesterday/Today/Tomorrow
Pronoun Family Tree
Adjective Classroom Naming

Object Description
Coloring/Counting
Sense Exploration
Adverb Verb Description
Preposition Chair/Student
Plane/Cloud
Paper/Words
Conjunction Plus Sign

Humans Holding Hands
Walk/Direction

Displaying grammar vocabulary cards: Use grammar vocabulary cards for
instruction. Display your cards using the layout below, and have the students organize
them similarly until they are able to do so independently. Doing so will help students
understand the relationships between parts of speech and sentence parts as they learn to
recognize examples in context.
noun verb preposition subject verb
pronoun adverb clause

conjunction independent dependent
adjective
clause clause
names person, action, linking, begins phrase

parts of speech or helping
place, thing, or idea (anything a plane
relationship chart can do to a cloud)
noun verb preposition

replaces pronoun
noun
adjective adverb conjunction
describes noun describes verb joins 2 words

(or pronoun) (also adjective or or 2 groups of
other adverb) words
taken from Van Cleave’s Writing Matters: Developing Sentence Skills in Students of All Ages
©wvced. Permission granted to reproduce this page for student use by wvced.com.
Sample Worksheet Ideas

(whole worksheets for each part of speech can be created from each section)
Adjective Activity Ideas
An adjective describes a noun: ugly duckling red baron
I. Write a sentence using both of the adjectives listed:
green, three million
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________

More Adjective Activity Ideas
adjective word that describes a noun ugly duckling

difficult problem
examples original, disappointing, three, red, overdone, charismatic, hideous,

beautiful, rotten, intelligent, creative, voracious, enlightened, shy,
considerate, pleasant, whispering, icy, enormous, sly
II. Write an appropriate adjective in each blank:
The _______________ man and the _______________ woman went to the
_______________ mall. While there, they saw some _______________
puppies in the pet store, ate at a _______________ restaurant in the food court,
and bought several _______________ pieces of clothing. On their way out, they
saw several _______________ children listening to their iPods. Overall, the
man and the woman had a _______________ day.
III. Write an appropriate adjective in each blank:
_______________ tree _______________ day
_______________ car _______________ school
IV. Create a sentence that includes at least two adjectives:
_________________________________________________________
V. Rewrite each sentence with at least two adjectives inserted into it:
e.g.,: The boy likes ice cream. The tall boy likes vanilla ice cream.
The man went to the store.
______________________________________________________________
The forest burned to the ground and left nothing but ashes.
______________________________________________________________
VI. Make a list of adjectives that describe the nouns below:
_____________ hat _____________ teacher
__________________________ __________________________
__________________________ __________________________
__________________________ __________________________

Adverb Activity Ideas
An adverb describes a verb:
run rapidly jump quickly
I. Put an appropriate adverb after each verb below:
understand ____________________ laugh __________________
sleep ____________________ sit __________________
murmur ____________________ fumble __________________
stab ____________________ eat ____________________
II. Sort the following adverbs into appropriate columns:
carefully rapidly soon
there closer out
loudly punctually now
quietly rudely down
how when where
________________ ________________ ________________
________________ ________________ ________________
________________ ________________ ________________
________________ ________________ ________________
III. Rewrite each sentence with at least one adverb in it:
e.g.,: The boy ate in the kitchen. The boy ate quickly in the kitchen.
Julie played in the sandbox.
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
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Verb Activities at the Word Level
I. Verb Tense (Conjugate verbs to practice number and tense usage.):
verb: _______________
I _______________ we _______________
you _______________ you _______________
he/she/it _______________ they _______________
verb: _______________
yesterday (past tense) today (present tense) tomorrow (future tense)
I _______________ _______________ _______________
you _______________ _______________ _______________
he/she/it _______________ _______________ _______________
we _______________ _______________ _______________
you _______________ _______________ _______________
they _______________ _______________ _______________
II. Write a sentence using the verb(s) listed. You may change the tense of any verb as
you see fit:
trade
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
eat, drink
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
defend, protect
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________

Other Activities at the Word Level
III. Identify the part of speech of the underlined word in each sentence:
_______________ 1. Robert gathered his tools and left the construction site.
_______________ 2. Over three thousand New Yorkers ran in the marathon.
_______________ 3. The blue handkerchief was found under the table.
_______________ 4. The child cried continuously when he fell off the slide.
_______________ 5. My grandmother lived down the road from me.
_______________ 6. I liked it when my baby-sitter took me out for ice cream.
_______________ 7. Fred and Ethel were married for over three decades.
IV. Noun Expander (download this and other grammar charts in full color from vcedconsulting.com):
adjective common noun prepositional (adjective) phrase
ugly toad on the mossy rock
V. Replace tired words. (Prevent students from repeating the same, boring words
by helping them generate other words to replace stale and overused ones. A few
examples follow; the answers are written at right.
Instead of... ...use (students generate these words as you write them)...
small tiny, little, miniscule, almost invisible, minor, unimportant,

petite, insignificant, trivial
very ugly gross, disgusting, hideous, heinous, homely, unattractive,

(good for “very” grotesque, repulsive, crabby, cross, grumpy, nasty
in many places)
fun entertaining, amazing, wonderful, terrific, entertaining
engaging, super, diverting, absorbing, charming, delightful,
fascinating, pleasing, pleasant

Sentence Developing Activities
As your students develop an understanding of parts of speech and sentence parts, here
are some activities designed to improve writing at the sentence level. Independent
sentence writing (#8) is the goal.
1. Sentence matching
- join sentence parts to make sentences: match pre-written subjects and predicates
(2 column) or subjects, simple verbs, and objects (3 column)
2. Sentence unscrambling
- unscramble sentence chunks to make logical sentences
3. Sentence imitating
- write a sentence similar in structure to a provided model
4. Sentence combining
- in activities/exercises & your own writing:
provide 2-4 sentences and ask student to combine
provide 2 sentences and a clue and ask student to combine
provide one sentence and one element to embed into it
5. Expanding sentences using bare bones sentence expanders

- provide simple subject and verb and use questioning to prompt sentence
expansion (e.g., John ate. when? where? why? how?)
- provide simplistic sentence with nouns, verbs, and phrases and ask student to add
adjectives and adverbs
6. Tandem writing
- student writes first half of sentence, trades papers with a classmate, and
finishes classmate’s sentence (subject to predicate or first clause to second clause)
7. Writing sentences from prompts

- “begin a sentence with the word __________” (sub. conj., transition word, etc.)
- “write a sentence that contains __________” (sub. conj., prep., noun, etc.)
- provide student with first sentence and transition word that is to begin second
sentence
8. Sentence writing
- as a class starter
- for class work and homework, even instead of paragraph writing

clause: group independent clause: clause
of words with that can stand by itself
a subject and
Common Sentence Templates dependent clause: clause
its verb that cannot stand by itself
Simple Sentence Compound Sentence Complex Sentence

1 independent clause 2 independent clauses 1 independent and 1 (or more)
dependent clauses
for
and
nor
but
or
yet
I I, I I;I D,I ID I D
Many have a single joined by comma and
subject and predicate. coordinating conjunction... using subordinating conjunction...
Mac went to the store. Jackson went to the store, but it was closed. While Rob was pulling out of his driveway, he
Tickets for the final game were scarce, yet Drew accidentally bumped into another car. (D,I)
On Tuesday Will visited our still got seats. Even though the movie ran late, Charles still
14
grandmother at her cottage I love to jog through the park, and Isabelle often got in before curfew. (D,I)
in the next town. joins me.
I do not want to go to the movies, nor do I feel Luke spent an extra $50 on his computer
Others have like playing baseball. because it came with a printer. (ID)
compound subjects Our mom banned drinks in the den after Jeb
and/or predicates. ...or joined by a semi-colon. spilled soda on the good table. (ID)
Wes and Ethan often play A number of recent inventions have changed the ...or using relative pronoun.
tennis on Saturdays. way the world functions; cell phones and the
internet are two of the most obvious. Taylor, who has played competitive sports since
Logan saw an excellent The game got rained out; however, the coaches fourth grade, started at free safety this fall.
movie and then went to rescheduled it for the following Saturday. Jack loved any book that could hold his
dinner with friends. attention.
(For a group of words to (Words such as however are conjunctive adverbs (The first of these adjective clause (or D-wedge)
be a clause, it must have its rather than conjunctions; these adverbs often begin sentences uses the clause to define the subject.
own subject and predicate. the second clause of a compound sentence that uses The second uses it to define the object.)
It cannot share either with a semi-colon and are always followed by a comma.)
another clause.)

Clause/Phrase Activities
Clauses are the key building blocks of all sentences we write. The ability to
identify and create them is essential. Mark each group of words below as P
(phrase) or C (clause):
_____ if the rain never stops _____ when the manager organizes the team
_____ for breakfast _____ through the woods by the river
_____ under the window _____ the party ended at midnight
_____ since I slept _____ as long as you study before the game
_____ beside the grocery store _____ if I finish the book
_____ before she finished the pie _____ as soon as the painter finished
_____ as soon as the temperature drops _____ when the exercise was over
_____ because Mike could drive _____ at the end of the long road
_____ if we see another ant _____ beneath the deep blue sea
_____ after careful consideration _____ we both finished eating breakfast in time
_____ between two slices of bread _____ because of the number of boxes
_____ since yesterday _____ though I gave you three warnings
_____ until you hear back from me _____ until I receive your donation
All the groups of words below are clauses. Identify each as I (independent or
main) or D (dependent or subordinate):
_____ Constantine joined the sports club _____ whenever we have a chance to play golf
_____ since Abraham Lincoln was elected _____ before I will clean out the closet
_____ school lets out in June _____ if T.V. remained black and white
_____ the play begins at 9 a.m. _____ my family is coming for the holidays
_____ after we purchased the new car _____ the doe was brown with a white tail
_____ if we can handle the time change _____ cleats were left on the radiator to dry
_____ we ate the purple potato chips _____ although asparagus is out of season
_____ water is the most healthy drink _____ the black panther pounced at the crowd
_____ if my migraine doesn’t linger _____ when the strawberries arrived
_____ as long as the schedule will be kept _____ before I considered my sister’s request
_____ if I worry too much about the trip _____ where our cousins live
_____ the postal carrier delivered the mail _____ whenever the detective catches the crook

Sentence Part Matching - Subject-Predicate
Subject Predicate
The little boy with dimples landed on the feeder in our yard.
A chirping blue jay smiled at the doctor’s offer of candy.
My grandmother used to bake me cookies each weekend.
A couple of teenagers wore his uniform with pride.

The soldier, a veteran of two wars, eats dinner together each night.
My entire family broke into my dad’s car.
A swarming nest of bees caused the family to leave the picnic early.
A pair of monarch butterflies awkwardly bent down to reach the pond.
Two long-legged giraffes fluttered near me on my Saturday walk.
Sentence Part Matching - Subject-Verb-Object
Subject Verb Object
The good boy accidentally smashed her sister on the head.

The mean girl angrily smacked the woman with her bags.
The rowdy kids kindly helped the antique vase.
The sick child announced two bowls of chicken soup.

The general ate his troops to march.
The president ordered a new plan for his country.
The driver painted twelve patients yesterday.

My doctor saw his friends through the city.
An artist raced that ugly baby portrait.

Sentence Combining
I. Make each pair of sentences into a compound sentence using the provided keyword:
We could go to the movies. Marcia could go alone. (or)
_________________________________________________________
The new video game hit stores yesterday. We were the first ones to get it. (and)
_________________________________________________________
II. Make each pair of sentences into a compound sentence. Use a conjunction:
The test was yesterday. I did not prepare enough.
_________________________________________________________
Two rivers surrounded the town. There was still not enough water to drink.
_________________________________________________________
III. Make each pair of sentences into a complex sentence using the provided keyword:
It was raining hard. We did not go outside. (because)
_________________________________________________________
We were driving. Another car hit our fender. (while)
_________________________________________________________
She was a good teacher. She yelled a lot. (although)
_________________________________________________________
IV. Make each pair of sentences into a complex sentence. (Use a subordinating conjunction.):
We save enough money. We will get a new game system.
_________________________________________________________
We went to the movies. They decided to go bowling.
_________________________________________________________
You do your homework. You will pass every test.
_________________________________________________________
V. Combine into one sentence. Do not leave out any information:
The movie was excellent. It ran quite late. It starred Denzel Washington.
_________________________________________________________
We were hungry. We went to my favorite restaurant. I ordered a burger and fries.
_________________________________________________________
My cousins are from Australia. They visited us last month. We had a blast.
_________________________________________________________

Other Sentence Building Activities
I. Develop these verbs using adverbs, phrases, and clauses:

verb: jumped shouted
adverb: quickly ______________________
adverb phrase: through the hoop _________________________________
adverb clause: when we heard the loud noise __________________________________
II. Finish these sentences (good to explore complex to younger students):

I love weekends because ________________________________________.
John finished the quiz before _____________________________________.
We went to the movies while _____________________________________.
III. Prepositional Phrase Placement: Put a ^ in each spot where the given prepositional
phrase could be placed. (This can also be done by giving students in a group setting
their own cards, each with a word on it, and having them sort themselves into a logical
sentence. An additional student, armed with the phrase, can stand in various places
along the sentence’s route where the phrase could logically be inserted):
1. The angry troll gobbled the mischievous children. under the bridge
2. The doctor prepared for a difficult surgery. in the operating room
3. My friend came to stay with me. over the weekend
IV. Write each sentence two ways, one beginning with the dependent clause and the
other ending with it. Be careful to use a comma when necessary.
1. my friend gave me a present because she is a nice person
version a: _____________________________________________________
version b: _____________________________________________________
2. I moved the boxes into the garage when my brother agreed to help
version a: _____________________________________________________
version b: _____________________________________________________

Basic Subject-Verb Barebones Sentences for Expansion
I laughed. The athlete cycled. His ship landed.
You should eat. The basement floods. A rocket launched.
It rained. The students groaned. The children played.
We slept. The worker hammered. The musician practiced.
The chef baked. The outlaw hanged. They skied.
The actors bowed. The farmer hunts. The minivan stopped.
Grandpa called. The warrior was injured. My guinea pig squeaked.
The hikers will camp. The woman jogs. The cook stirred.
The audience clapped. The clown will juggle. The brat tripped.
The boats crashed. The boy jumped. My cousins will visit.
Advanced Subject-Verb Barebones Sentences for Expansion

Sue will answer. The fire glowed. The orchestra performed.
Juan apologized. The day improved. Meryl pretended.
My brother argues. One soldier lasted. James refused.
The flight was delayed. The ice melted. The couple relaxed.
We were embarrassed. Marsha observed. One cupcake remains.
My niece was frightened. Luke offered. I remember.
A crowd gathered. The boys will promise. The mourners wailed.
Basic Subject-Verb-Object Sentences for Expansion

The teen could afford the car. Her partner served the ball.
We amused ourselves. The lifeguard shaded his eyes.
Dad will carve the turkey. The kids smashed the pumpkins.
Sue combs her hair. Dad supplied the snacks.
The waitress filled our glasses. Our grandparents surprised us.
The child glued the pieces. The pro tamed the lion.
I grabbed your coat. We tasted all the cakes.
The farmer milked the cow. My grandmother tires easily.
My sister remembers everything. The truck towed my car.
We should remove our shoes. My daughter tugged on my shirt.
Susie scraped her knee. My son will unlock the door.
Advanced Subject-Verb-Object Barebones Sentences for Expansion

The owner accepted the offer. She dislikes him.
We admired the monument. He still had hope.
The secretary advised the president. The actress will impress you.
A scientist analyzes results. The bear intended no harm.
Three schools banned the book. She invented a cure.
We will collect donations. The leader signaled his troops.
Liz contained her anger. The heat tests her patience.

Sentence Expansion Examples - Adverbial
(Words, Phrases, and Clauses)
I laughed. when?
Daily, I laughed. I laughed through the night.
I often laughed. I laughed as she was falling.
I rarely laughed. I laughed as long as I could.
I laughed recently. Once I understood the joke, I laughed.
Sometimes, I laughed. I laughed till tears came to my eyes.
Today, I laughed. Until she stopped making jokes, I laughed.
Usually, I laughed. I laughed when I saw my sister’s costume.
I never laughed. I laughed whenever my cousin sneezed.
I laughed yesterday. While I was eating, I laughed.
After dinner, I laughed. I laughed before her show.
You should eat. where?

You should eat nearby. You should eat inside the cave.
You should eat outside. You should eat near the mall.
You should eat near your family. You should eat above the main floor.
You should eat across the room. You should eat next to McDonald’s
You should eat around the corner. You should eat on the trip.
At the party you should eat. You should eat over at Marcie’s house
You should eat behind the stage. You should eat under my supervision.
You should eat below the falls. You should eat underneath that light.
You should eat beneath the tent. You should eat between your parents.
You should eat beside me. You should eat wherever your girlfriend wants.
You should eat in your room. You should eat where there is good food.
You should eat beyond my sight. You should eat by Elliott.
You should eat down the street.
The bull charged. how?

The bull charged carefully. The bull charged fiercely.
The bull charged angrily. The bull charged speedily.
The bull charged with rage. The bull charged without a care in the world.
The bull charged as if the red cape were driving him crazy.
The bull charged as though he would mow down the matador.
The bull charged exactly how the crowd expected.

Sentence Expansion Examples - Adverbial (continued)
(Words, Phrases, and Clauses)
The infant cried. why?

The infant cried in order to get her way.
The infant cried at the loud noise.
The infant cried for no reason at all.
To get attention, the infant cried.
The infant cried until he heard his father’s voice.
The infant cried in case he might be heard.
The infant cried assuming that all eyes would turn towards him.
The infant cried with the hope of getting a fresh diaper.
The infant cried without cause.
Because she was in the hot sun, the infant cried.
If his sister made scary faces, the infant cried.
The infant cried in order that he might be heard.
Since everybody ignored him, the infant cried.
The infant cried so that she could get some food.
Unless he heard his mother’s voice, the infant cried.
Juan apologized. concession...

Juan apologized against his better judgment.
Despite his innocence, Juan apologized.
Juan apologized in spite of his sister’s screaming.
Juan apologized although he was angry.
Though he knew Marcus was in the wrong, Juan apologized.
Even though Marcie refused to listen, Juan apologized.
While some might have considered it a weak move, Juan apologized.

Sentence Expansion Examples (continued)
(Most are Adjectival; Some are Nouns)
The soldiers fought. what kind? which one? whose?

The Union soldiers fought. The young solders fought.
The exhausted soldiers fought. The disobedient soldiers fought.
The armed soldiers fought. The camouflaged soldiers fought.
The loyal soldiers fought. The furious soldiers fought.
The Chinese soldiers fought. The wounded soldiers fought.
The vicious soldiers fought. The peace-loving soldiers fought.
The dangerous soldiers fought. The elite soldiers fought.
The younger soldiers fought. The soldiers in blue uniforms fought.
The soldiers of Guam fought. The soldiers in Call of Duty fought.
The squadron soldiers fought. The reluctant soldiers fought.
Those soldiers fought. The general’s soldiers fought.
The soldiers over there fought. The soldiers next to the tank fought.
Our soldiers fought. Their soldiers fought.
The only soldiers on the field fought.
The soldiers, brothers in their twenties, fought.
The soldiers, proud French men, fought.
The soldiers from behind the trees fought.
Armed with rifles, the soldiers on the paint ball field fought.
The soldiers who ignored their commander fought.
The soldiers that Poland hired fought.
The soldiers, following orders from military command, fought.
The soldiers, who hoped for a swift victory, fought.
The soldiers in new uniforms fought.
The soldiers with extra free time fought.
The solders, a worn out troop, fought.
The soldiers, a proud fighting unit, fought.
The girls rejoiced. how many?

The seven girls rejoiced. The girls, two juniors and one senior, rejoiced.
All the girls rejoiced. The girls, three sets of twins, rejoiced.
Some girls rejoiced. Too few girls rejoiced.
Too few girls rejoiced. No girls rejoiced.
No girls rejoiced. A few girls rejoiced.
Several girls rejoiced. Many girls rejoiced.

Sentence Expansion Questions With Student Responses
1. The ghost haunted the mansion.
when? for hundreds of years
where? on the corner of the deserted street
how? by wandering the halls late into the night
why? because her death had not been avenged
concession? despite the fact that few people noticed her presence
what kind? young, female
which one? of Andrea Longhorn
how many? the (already included)
2. The teams competed.

when? twice each year
where? at the largest stadium in Great Britain
how? by playing their very best
why? because their rivalry was older than any of the current players
concession? although the Bears always won
what kind? veteran
which one? with well developed skills
how many? two
3. The owner accepted the offer.

when? at close of business on Friday
where? in his office on the fourth floor
how? gratefully
why? so that he could retire a rich man
concession? in spite of his son’s desire to run the business
what kind? selfish
which one? of the shoe company
how many? sole
4. barebones sentence: _________________________________________

when? _________________________________________
where? _________________________________________
how? _________________________________________
why? _________________________________________
concession? _________________________________________
what kind? _________________________________________
which one? _________________________________________
how many? _________________________________________

Name: ________________________________ Date: ___________
I, I
Compound Sentences for
and
2 independent clauses: nor
• joined by a comma (,) and conjunction (for, and, nor, but, or, yet) but
• advanced: joined by semicolon (;)
or
Examples: yet
I;I
• John went to the store, but it was closed.
• We should consider all our alternatives,
or Mary may become angry with us.
• advanced: The river swept away the bridge;
we traveled upstream in our boat.
Sentence Check:
• make sure each part of the sentence can stand by itself
• make sure the subjects are different
• make sure the sentence has a comma (,) and a conjunction (advanced: or a semicolon (;))
1. ______________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
2. ______________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
3. ______________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
4. ______________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
5. ______________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
6. ______________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________

Name: ________________________________ Date: ___________
Complex Sentences
1 independent clause and 1 or more dependent clauses:
ID
- if the dependent clause is first, use a comma
- do not use a comma if the dependent clause is last
Examples:
- Since we went to the bank, we have enough money for groceries.
- Mary and John brought a gift because it was the right thing to do.
D,I
Sentence Check:
- make sure there is one independent clause with a subject and its verb
- make sure there is one dependent clause with a subject and its verb
- check punctuation: do not use a comma if dependent clause is last
Subordinating Conjunctions:
after as soon as even though once till where
although as though how since unless whereas
as because if so that until wherever
as if before if only that when while
as long as even if in order that though whenever
1. ______________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
2. ______________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
3. ______________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
4. ______________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
5. ______________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
6. ______________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________

Name: ________________________________ Date: ___________
Developing Sentence Skills

Sentence Vocabulary:
subject what’s doing the action

verb action word (or state of being)
clause group of words with subject and its verb

independent clause clause that can stand by itself
dependent clause clause that cannot stand by itself
simple sentence 1 independent clause

compound sentence 2 independent clauses joined by comma (,) and
f(or) a(nd) n(or) b(ut) o(r) y(et)
complex sentence 1 independent clause and 1 (or more) dependent clause(s)
Sentence Exercises:
1. Write two simple sentences. example: Mike bought some groceries.
a. _________________________________________________________
b. _________________________________________________________
2. Write two compound sentences.

example: Mike bought groceries, but he ran out of gas on the way home.
a. _________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
b. _________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
3. Write two complex sentences:

example: Because he was rushed, Mike went to the store by car.
a. _________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
b. _________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________

Transitioning From Sentence to Paragraph
Often, students learn to write a variety of different kinds of sentences effectively in
isolation but do not apply that ability automatically to their paragraph work. Continued
practice with writing isolated sentences is one way to aid this transition. Several useful
transitional writing activities can help as well.
To move from isolated sentence writing towards paragraphs, students can write...
• sentences in isolation on topic of their own choosing.

• sentences in isolation on topic assigned by the teacher but still in their comfort zone.
• sentences in isolation about content-area topic they’re studying.
• sentences that follow teacher-written sentence on topic assigned by the teacher but
still in their comfort zone.
• sentences that follow teacher-written sentence about content-area topic they’re
studying.
• cluster of sentences (2-4 - specify number and perhaps even provide critera) about
topic of their own choosing.
• cluster of sentences (2-4 - specify number and provide criteria) about topic assigned
by the teacher but still in their comfort zone.
• cluster of sentences (2-4 - specify number and provide criteria) about content-area
topic.
Note: These clusters of sentences would function like mini-paragraphs -- all on the
same topic, flowing from one sentence to the next, without the constraints of topic and
concluding sentences.
Examples:
sentence that follows teacher-written sentence about content-area topics:
Write a compound sentence that follows this sentence: Charlotte spins messages for
Wilbur into several of her morning webs.
cluster of sentences about topics assigned by teacher but still in their comfort zone:
Write three sentences about last night’s soccer game. You must include a D,I (complex
sentence), a sentence that starts with a prepositional phrase, and a sentence with a
compound subject.
cluster of sentences about content-area topic:

Write two sentences about the start of the Civil War. Include one D,I and one
compound sentence.

Advanced Elements
Keep these things in mind:
• We teach grammar to improve writing. If you cannot justify teaching a particular concept in
terms of improving a student’s writing, don’t teach it.
• Expand upon students’ knowledge of basic grammar to teach them more advanced structures.
• The best grammar exercises involve students writing sentences containing/practicing various
grammatical concepts.
Advanced elements are listed beneath their respective parts of speech:

• noun names a person, place, thing, or idea Liz, school, tree, peace
• pronoun takes the place of noun he, she, them, us
gerund verb acting as noun (verbal)
(can be phrase) Skiing is wonderful. I love eating. She found swimming exhausting.
appositive noun or pronoun that renames an adjacent noun or pronoun
(can be phrase) Trey, my younger brother, lives in Louisville, Kentucky.
A dangerous woman, the spy was feared by friend and foe alike.
Winston Churchill worked with F.D.R., our president during World War II.
noun clause clause that takes the place of a noun
I don’t know what you are doing. Wherever you want to go will make me happy.
• adjective describes a noun (or pronoun) ugly, three, blue, loud

participle verb acting as adjective (verbal)
(can be phrase) sleeping baby busted lip engaging game smoking gun rousing speech
Taking the corner at breakneck speed, the cyclist just barely avoided a collision.
adjective phrase prepositional phrase that describes noun/pronoun
He was the first man on the moon. The book of poems was boring.
adjective clause clause that describes noun/pronoun (also called adjective clause)
Abraham Lincoln, who worked to free the slaves, was assassinated.
The mouse saw the cheese, which was bait in the trap.
• adverb describes a verb (adjective, or other adverb) quickly, soon, usually

adverb phrase prepositional phrase that describes verb
I slept in a sleeping bag at the campsite. We ate at McDonald’s.
adverb clause clause that describes verb in another clause (usually the independent clause)
When the clock strikes twelve, we will arrive.
I like her because she has a great sense of humor.
conjunctive adverb can be used between semi-colon and comma to begin second independent clause
(can be phrase) in compound sentence
Ice cream is delicious; nevertheless, it is not a part of my diet.
I had a headache; consequently, I took some aspirin.
She is a good person; at the same time, she isn’t thoughtful when she speaks.
Students often use infinitives correctly and automatically without instruction; because of this, I don’t
spend significant time teaching them. Avoid teaching what role they play (noun, adjective, adverb)
unless it is required by an outside source.
• infinitive verb in to + verb form acting as something else

(verbal - can be noun, adjective, or adverb)
(can be phrase) I gave the dog a bone to make her happy. I ate to satisfy my mother.
I love to win. The man to beat had better funding.

List Generation
Purpose:
• encourages students to generate ideas
• helps students learn to group, identifying similarities/differences
• simple, straightforward technique for brainstorming prepares for everything from a paragraph to a
longer essay
• non-threatening task (as spelling does not count and sentence structure is not required)
• lets the student know early on whether he/she has enough information for a paragraph/paper on the
topic
Some Suggested Topics for List Writing:

(slashes represent separate list topic ideas.)
about the senses:

• things that are___________ (any color) • things that are cold/hot
• things that are bright • things that are rough/smooth/soft/hard
• foods that taste bad/good • foods that taste sweet/bitter
• things that make loud noises • things that smell good/bad
• places where you should whisper/shout • things that can/cannot fit in your pocket
• things that are shorter/taller than you are • things that keep you warm/cool
• fruits/vegetables/dairy products/sweets • breakfast/lunch/dinner foods
other list topic suggestions:

• drinks • musical instruments
• things you can do with a potato • tools
• rooms in a house/mansion/castle • vehicles on land/in the air/for water
• sports • bodies of water
• things to do on a sunny/rainy day • things you’d want on a deserted island
• places you’d like to visit/vacation • places you would not like to visit/vacation
• things you’d buy if you had $1,000,000 • people you admire
• famous people (living/dead) you’d like to meet • things you can do in less than a minute
• favorite books/movies/stories/T.V. shows • characters in ___________
• favorite actors/sports heroes/musicians • favorite places to eat
• things to do in ___________ (town/city) • zoo/farm/jungle animals
• insects/mammals/amphibians/reptiles/ • good/bad animals for pets
birds/fish • jobs you’d like to try for a day/week/year
• colleges/camps you’d like to attend • modes of transportation
• things that plug in or require electricity • favorite video games
• things I do before going to school/bed • things to take in your tote bag on a plane
• important inventions • things to take camping/to the beach
• favorite restaurants • things that cost more than $___________

Paragraph Development Exercises
The following exercises are designed to reinforce the basic Basic Paragraph Structure
paragraph format and give students practice with the
Topic Sentence
individual elements, especially those that may prove more
Supporting Sentence
difficult, such as writing topic sentences. They are presented
Supporting Sentence
in increasing difficulty. Some students may need to spend a
Supporting Sentence
great deal of time on each of the elements of the paragraph
Concluding Sentence
while others will internalize the structure more easily.
I. Write supporting sentences for the following topic sentences:

I have several favorite foods.
1. ___________________________________________________________________
2. ___________________________________________________________________

3. ___________________________________________________________________
There are several good ways to occupy your time on a rainy day.
1. ___________________________________________________________________
2. ___________________________________________________________________

3. ___________________________________________________________________
II. Write concluding sentences for the following supporting

sentences:
1. Drinking lemonade, ice tea, and other cold drinks is one way to stay cool.
2. Turning on a fan or air conditioner drops the temperature in my house.
3. Going for a quick swim in the mid-afternoon cools me down for the rest of the day.
C.S. _________________________________________________________________
III. Write a topic sentence for each set of supporting sentences:

T.S. ________________________________________________________________
1. I love to play frisbee in the deep, green grass of the park.
2. There is a playground, which my little brother loves, near where I play frisbee.
3. Near the entrance of the park, they have grills where we sometimes barbecue.
C.S. The park is probably my favorite place on the weekends.

Expanding Paragraphs & Using Transition Words
Expanded Paragraph:
Once you have practiced writing basic paragraphs and
are comfortable with their format, it is time to expand. Topic Sentence
Take a five sentence, basic paragraph and add detail Supporting Sentence
2 detail sentences
sentences to each supporting sentence. If you add one
Supporting Sentence
detail to each supporting sentence, your 5 sentence 2 detail sentences
paragraph will become 8 sentences; if you add two Supporting Sentence
details to each supporting sentence, your five sentence 2 detail sentences
paragraph will become 11 sentences! Concluding Paragraph
Add detail sentences for each supporting sentence:

T.S. On a rainy day, there are several things I enjoy doing.
1. Going to the theater to catch a movie or two is a great way to pass the time.

___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
2. I love having some extra time to enjoy playing video games.

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________
3. Usually, I have a great book to read.
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
C.S. Some people find rainy days depressing, but every once in a while they can be great.
Add detail sentences for each supporting sentence:

There are several jobs I would like to try. First, I think it would be interesting to work as an
architect. ________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
Next, I would like to work in an ice cream parlor. ____________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
Finally, I think I would enjoy being a teacher. _________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
I think it would be interesting to try each of these jobs before choosing a full-time career.

Topic ____________________________________ Prompt ____________________________________
6. _______________ ____________________________________
List of 1. _______________
10 Things
2. _______________ 7. _______________ List of 1. _______________ 4. _______________
3. _______________ 8. _______________ 6 Events
2. _______________ 5. _______________
4. _______________ 9. _______________ 3. _______________ 6. _______________
5. _______________ 10. _______________ Star the 3 items you like best. Each will become a supporting sentence
Star the 3 items you like best. Each will become a supporting sentence
Topic Prompt or
Sentence ____________________________________ Story Lead ____________________________________
____________________________________ ____________________________________
Supporting Event
Sentence 1 ____________________________________ Sentence 1 ____________________________________
32
____________________________________ ____________________________________
Supporting Event
____________________________________ ____________________________________
Supporting Event
____________________________________ ____________________________________
Concluding Story End

Sentence ____________________________________ (Conclusion) ____________________________________

____________________________________ ____________________________________
V.C. Educational Consulting • vcedconsulting.com • 864.238.7216
Basic Paragraph Templates • vcedconsulting.com • V.C. Educational Consulting
Expanded Paragraph Template
vcedconsulting.com
Title _________________________________________________________
Topic
Sentence _________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
Supporting
Sentence 1 _________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
Detail ____________________________________________________
Sentences
1&2 ____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
Supporting
Sentence 2 _________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
Detail ____________________________________________________
Sentences
1&2 ____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
Supporting
Sentence 3 _________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
Detail ____________________________________________________
Sentences
1&2 ____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
Concluding
Sentence _________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
Kinds of Paragraphs - Purposes for Writing
Example • uses examples to support the main idea or thesis

e.g., Many wonderful foods can be eaten as a snack.
• 3 (or more) examples are chosen from a larger possible group

• common uses: often used to introduce paragraph writing to younger
students and those with basic skills because of its simplicity; most any
subject
• e.g., Many technological inventions entered our lives in the last ten
years.
Classification • (advanced example) divides items into classes, groups, or categories

e.g., There are several wonderful kinds of vacations you can take.
• topic sentence identifies subject to be classified and gives number,

name, and significance of classifications (either explicitly or implicitly)
• each supporting sentence explains one category
• usually, each category is further defined through the use of examples of
items that fall into that category
• sometimes, the author compares to clarify the classifications
• common uses: science questions; other, more general questions
• e.g., Technology can be grouped into three major categories.
Reason • explains reasons for something

e.g., There are quite a few reasons the Civil War began.
• supporting sentences each answer the question “why?”

• common uses: social studies/history and literature questions
• e.g., Technology has changed our world for the better.
Persuasion • (a kind of reason) convinces reader to make a certain decision/choice

e.g., You should avoid smoking cigarettes at all costs.
• commands the reader to “believe me, and do it.”

• requires analysis, information, and context for the reader to form own
opinion
• avoids descriptive language in favor of imperative mode
• common uses: writing/English and social studies/history questions
• e.g., You should purchase the newest computer from Apple.

Definition • precisely explains what something is, how it looks or works, or its
purpose
e.g., Friendship means something slightly different to everyone, but
true friendship is recognized in times of trouble rather than times of
happiness.
• answers the question, “what do you mean?”

• topic sentence identifies the subject and the focus of the definition
• meaning is found through your own experiences; quoting the dictionary
is not appropriate
• may include comparisons/contrasts and examples
• common uses: government/social studies, philosophy
• e.g.,: Technology can be defined as a distraction from the real world.
Process • gives directions or explains how to do something

e.g., Preparing to depart for school requires several careful steps.
• topic sentence identifies process to be discussed and often includes

attitude towards it (e.g., efficient, inefficient, logical, cumbersome)
• usually uses concise, formal, non-descriptive vocabulary
• presents information as steps in a sequence
• reader should be able to follow independent of the author
• common uses: recipe book; procedure section of a lab report
• e.g., Upgrading the memory card on your computer is a relatively simple
process.
Narrative • (similar in structure to a process) relates a story or event

e.g., One time I found an adorable abandoned puppy in the parking lot
behind my house.
• topic sentence will identify the event and signal your judgement,
feelings, or thoughts about it
• should recreate story or event for readers who were not there
• sequential; usually chronological
• usually contains characters, setting, a conflict, and resolution
• contains some description, but action takes priority
• common uses: creative writing, relating a story or event in your life
• e.g., I will never forget the day we bought our first computer.
Description • (similar in structure to a narrative) uses language to describe something

the reader should imagine
e.g., The perfect dive is an incredible thing to watch.

• detailed observations
• flows directionally (from top to bottom, left to right, inside to outside,
etc.)
• similar to narrative but focuses on an isolated action (verb) or sensation
(adjective or adverb)
• almost always part of a larger piece of writing
Compare/ • explains how two things are similar and/or different

Contrast e.g., While S.U.V.’s and cars both are land vehicles, they serve quite
different purposes.
• topic sentence should make clear statement of why and how the two
items are alike and/or different
• either tells all about one thing and then all about the other or uses
points of comparison to move back and forth between the two things
• a Venn diagram is often useful for planning this style of writing
• conclusion establishes what has been learned through the comparison
• sophisticated and challenging because the author works with two, often
opposing, topics in the same paragraph/essay and must use transition
words that signal a change of direction
• common uses: all subjects
• e.g., The choice of whether to purchase an Apple or a PC is a difficult
one.
Practice writing different kinds of topic sentences:
Write a topic sentence on the following topic for each kind of paragraph: a trip to the beach
• example: _______________________________________________
• classification: _______________________________________________
• reason: _______________________________________________
• persuasion: _______________________________________________
• process: _______________________________________________
• narrative _______________________________________________
• descriptive: _______________________________________________
• definition: _______________________________________________
• compare/contrast: ___________________________________________
_________________________________________________________

Introductory Paragraphs & template for organizing introductory paragraphs
Thesis Statements
The key to good, interesting writing is the
development of a thesis statement. Many
students find them difficult. A vague or
ill-considered thesis can lead to a paper that
wanders or loses steam. Worse, the wrong
thesis can lead the student to write a plot
summary of a book or event rather than a
true paper.
I often say the following to students: You
should think of thesis statements as your
own arguments. The purpose of a five
paragraph essay is to introduce your
argument (not the author’s) and support
it with evidence you find from the sources
you have read. We use thesis statements in
everyday conversations. It’s often the way
we communicate. We suggest something,
and then we defend our suggestion.
“Chicken soup is delicious” is a thesis
statement. As supporting evidence, one
paragraph might mention that it’s good
for curing colds, another might discuss the
outstanding flavor, and so on. Even a simple
statement such as “We should go to dinner
now” is a thesis. The supporting evidence
might not have to be spoken, but it is there.
(We’ll be late otherwise, we don’t want to get
in trouble, etc.)
Many of the assessments at both the
national and state levels provide a prompt of
some kind. Everything from the Common
Core assessments to the A.C.T. and S.A.T.
essay sections include a prompt. A good way
to approach the introductory paragraph is as
follows:

• Take a stand. (Take a position on your prompt.)
• Make a list. (List the reasons why you chose your position. These should NOT be sentences.)
• Write the fluff or introductory sentences. These sentences are more general statements about
the topic and can include a restatement of the prompt but in your own words.)
• Write your thesis. (Put your position into a good sentence, which will be the last sentence of
your introductory paragraph.) Remember the following:
thesis = argument

Expand Your Writing: 5 Paragraph Essay
From Paragraph To Essay Introductory Paragraph
Expanded Paragraph Topic Sentence
Introductory Remarks
Paper Plan
Topic Sentence Thesis Statement
Supporting Sentence 1 Supporting Paragraph 1

Basic Paragraph (with transition) Topic Sentence
Supporting Sentence 1
Detail 1 Supporting Sentence 2
Topic Sentence Detail 2 Supporting Sentence 3
Concluding Sentence
Supporting Paragraph 2
Supporting Sentence 2 Supporting Sentence 2 Topic Sentence
(with transition) Supporting Sentence 1
38
Supporting Sentence 3 Supporting Sentence 2
Detail 1 Supporting Sentence 3
Concluding Sentence Detail 2 Concluding Sentence
Supporting Paragraph 3
Topic Sentence
Supporting Sentence 3 Supporting Sentence 1
(with transition) Supporting Sentence 2
Detail 1 Concluding Sentence
Detail 2
Concluding Paragraph
Topic Sentence
Summary Sentence 1
Concluding Sentence Summary Sentence 2
Summary Sentence 3
Concluding Sentence

Some Thoughts on Proofreading & Revision
When working with a student’s writing, you enter into a one-to-one teaching environment
immediately, without any additional work. You collect the papers and take them home, and
immediately you are able to communicate directly with each student. Instant differentiated
instruction! Whether your class is 3rd grade general education, 11th grade English, or a small
group tutorial, you should take advantage of this opportunity whenever you have it. Even in
supposedly homogenous settings, our students have different strengths and weaknesses, talents,
abilities, and areas of deficit. Here, at last, is the opportunity in a group setting to address each
child’s needs individually.
Struggling writers, if they choose to complete an assignment at all, are used to seeing a bath of
blood red ink across the page. Teachers, overwhelmed with the enormity of their tasks, often
correct everything they see. Punctuation, fragments and run-ons, and subject/verb agreement
are overshadowed by spelling errors for the struggling speller. “Rewrite” or “please see me” is
stamped across the paper. Worse even than that, however, the student who is faced with cor-
recting teacher-found errors has little chance of learning from the experience. Rather, he copies
dutifully, sometimes making new errors, hopefully changing everything the teacher has found,
and usually learning nothing from the process. If I add a comma to your sentence or change
your misspelled word to the correct spelling, you learn nothing in the process of copying your
paper over -- nothing but the fact that you made an error. The nature of the error, what exactly
was wrong with the way you had it, and the means to find such an error in the future are lost.
There are errors that must be corrected. Surely, if a final draft is to be posted on a bulletin board
or added to a formal portfolio, glaring spelling errors must be corrected, for example. Choose
your battles wisely, however: avoid overwhelming the student and empower him or her to self-
correct whenever possible.
Setting Specific Goals:
Set specific, attainable goals for each student writer, and then hold your students accountable
for achieving those goals. Take, for example, the hypothetical small group of Mary, Antoinne,
and Devin. Each has various strengths and weaknesses, but when it comes to the writing pro-
cess, there are specific things on your agenda you wish each child would address above all oth-
ers. Say, for example, that Mary has enormous difficulty with capitalizing the first words of her
sentences and using end punctuation. Antoinne repeats his nouns (instead of using pronouns)
too often and overuses “fun” and “cool.” Despite the fact that Devin has learned compound and
complex sentences, she often does not include the commas she needs. Usually, I have several
goals for each student, but for the purposes of this illustration, the hypothetical issues above will
make the strategy clear.
continued

Often, students will complete a writing assignment and bring it with
them from home. The teacher will say, “pull out your papers and
proofread them one more time.” Some teachers have become im- Devin
mersed in the “peer critique” template as well. While I have often

found tandem writing or peer outlining useful, asking students to Antoinne
proofread each other’s work, particularly when it comes to mechanics,
is rarely successful. The strong writer bleeds on her partner’s paper
Mary
just as you might have done, and the struggling writer fails to find
anything in his partner’s writing to correct, often because his partner
is a much better writer than he is. Worse yet is the situation where a partner incorrectly corrects
(did you catch that?) supposed errors in his partner’s writing.
Instead, I suggest that each student has an “agenda” posted in his notebook. When my students
bring in their papers, I ask them to proofread using their agendas. No one is a perfect writer,
and I certainly won’t hold Mary accountable for each and every error she makes, but she is re-
sponsible for making sure her sentences are capitalized and end punctuation is in place. Anto-
inne is only allowed to use the main noun once in each paragraph; he must change the repeating
nouns into pronouns. In addition, he must remove “fun” and “cool,” instead replacing them
with a word from his bank of similar words. Devin must identify whether each sentence she has
written is simple, compound, or complex, and then check to see that she has used appropriate
punctuation. “Proofread,” a daunting and enormous task, takes on new meaning. It becomes
an active, productive experience. When I evaluate their papers, I rarely count off for spelling
and other errors that are beyond their control. I do count off for those errors that are on their
agendas -- errors that I have helped them to control. This gives them agency in improving their
own writing. As a student grows more comfortable with items on her agenda, these items will be
crossed off, and new ones will take their places.
Editing Papers:
Once the students have checked their papers against their agendas, I collect them and examine
them for two kinds of errors:
• Error which they probably would not be able to find/correct on their own: While I leave
some of these alone, I do correct the ones I deem important in pen or pencil (no red).
• Error which I think they can find on their own with a little guidance: I make marks in the
margin to indicate these errors. If a line of text has a 2 in the margin, there are two errors the
student needs to find. Sometimes, I will label a line 1s (spelling) or 1p (punctuation) to assist
the student further. When he becomes skilled at locating errors using this strategy, I’ll begin
to put numbers by each sentence rather than each line, making the task slightly more difficult.
Ultimately, I’ll put numbers by each paragraph. This is a challenging but also empowering task
for the student to complete. Once I return the papers, I provide time in class for the students to
locate their errors so they verify that they’ve found the mistakes I identified. The vague, general
term “proofread” becomes an achievable goal with a good chance of success. Further, the stu-
dent learns much from the process of discovering her own errors.

Working With Younger Students & Students With Basic Skills
These students often find the task of writing extremely daunting. Usually, they have had
little experience with writing, and the writing they have done has been marked or graded
“harshly.” The trick to teaching expository writing to students with fledgling skills is to
foster an enjoyment of the writing process while simultaneously advancing the student’s
skills. Most of these activities can be used with students of all levels but are particularly
effective for reluctant, resistant, and fledgling writers.
Often, teachers move students too quickly into paragraph writing without developing
their sentence skills. Try these activities and others before moving to paragraphs:
• generating lists and coming up with topics for already written lists
• sorting nouns by kind (person/place/thing/idea; proper/improper)
• changing nouns from singular to plural and from plural back to singular
• sorting nouns by group (e.g., reptiles/mammals/amphibians; dangerous/safe jobs; things that can/
cannot fit in your pocket
• using provided nouns in complete sentences
• using capitals and applying end punctuation to already written sentences
• adding adjectives to nouns and nouns to adjectives
• adding verbs to nouns and nouns to verbs
• matching subjects to predicates
• sorting words by part of speech
• using provided introductory words to write sentences (e.g., Usually, Today, Sometimes, On Monday, In
January, For dinner)
• distinguishing between complete sentences and fragments
• writing lots of sentences
As you introduce paragraph structure to students, continue to practice the activities

above and also begin to teach/practice the following:
• writing compound sentences

• adding supporting sentences to topic sentences and topic sentences to supporting sentences
• adding concluding sentences to already written paragraphs
• adding independent clauses to dependent clauses
Teach paragraphs in the following order to these beginning writers:
(1) example (2) process (3) reason
Avoid teaching compare/contrast paragraphs until a student reaches at least 3rd grade.
With these students, develop compare/contrast skills with the following activities:
• choose two things and list their similarities

• choose two things and list their differences
• create a Venn Diagram for two things you wish to compare/contrast

Writing from
Informational Text
©wvced 2013
Summarize Write Revise
Read for content.

Read quickly. Decide topic. Write a • body paragraphs support thesis
Understand the content. sentence establishing the • supporting sentences
Understand the viewpoint(s). focus of the paper (thesis). support their topic sentences
• ideas ordered logically
Organize.
Cluster information into
categories. Either number
your note items or use a
web.
42
Write intro. Read for structure.
Highlight. Reword the prompt and add • clear sentences
Reread, highlighting important general information. Use • smooth transitions
information. thesis as final sentence. • correct grammar/punctuation
Write support.
Turn your categorized notes
into body paragraphs. (Use
notes, NOT source.)
Write conclusion.
Take notes. Restate your thesis, explain Redraft as necessary.
Using your highlighting, write your items of support, and • rewrite paper if current draft is
notes in word/phrase form. state your opinion about the difficult to read/understand
material.

Responding to a Persuasive/Opinion Prompt
Take a Stand:
1. Read the prompt carefully. Make sure you understand it. Recognize both sides of the
issue it addresses. Underline any key words.
2. Take a stand. This can often be a single word -- yes or no. Which side you believe doesn’t
matter; choose the side you can best argue and support convincingly.
Make a List:
1. Make a list of items that support your stand. Support can come from personal
experiences, information you’ve learned in your courses (e.g., historical events), movies
you’ve seen, and books you’ve read.
2. The list is essential. It allows you to get your ideas on paper and frees up working memory
so you can process, organize, and write cohesively about your topic. Also, if you aren’t able
to generate a complete list, it’s a quick indicator that you aren’t prepared to argue that side
of the topic.
Write Your Introductory Paragraph:

1. Begin with broad, more general statements about the topic. The most straightforward
way to create the opening sentences of an essay is to reword the prompt, exploring both
sides of the issue. General information about the topic can be included in the opening
sentences, but this is NOT the place to give away the side you wish to argue.
2. Conclude the first paragraph with your thesis. The thesis is your argument, the position
you intend to take. It should be a well-developed sentence that clearly states your position.
Often, it will also indicate the key ways you will support it (one for each of the upcoming
supporting paragraphs).
Generate Supporting Paragraphs (use for each of 2-3 paragraphs):

1. Write a topic sentence that defends your argument. Each supporting paragraph will make
a different defense of your argument.
2. Discount the opposition. A strong argument often presents the other side and quickly
discounts it. (e.g., While some may argue..., On the one hand..., Some think...but)
3. Present your evidence. Provide support for your defense. Be specific to anchor the reader
in your argument.
4. Conclude your paragraph. Make sure the reader remembers the point you’ve made and
how it ties back to your thesis.
Write Your Concluding Paragraph:

1. Restate the issue under discussion. Briefly mention both sides of the topic.
2. Restate your position. Discuss your side and the support you offered.
3. Conclude with your opinion. This is your last chance to convince the reader to support the
side you took.

Conjunctions Prepositions
coordinating (for compound sentences): I, fanboy I concrete prepositions
for and nor but or yet (to begin prepositional phrases)
above near to
Words for Sentence Construction
subordinating (for complex sentences to begin

adverb clauses - grouped by purpose): D,I ID across next to
around on
time: cause: manner:
at on top of
after as as
behind onto
as because as if
below out of
as soon as since as though
beneath outside
before
beside outside of
just as comparison: purpose:
between over
now that as in order that
beyond past
once just as so that
by through
since than
close to throughout
until condition:
down to
when concession: as long as
far from toward
whenever although even if
from towards
while even though if
in under
though unless
in front of underneath
place: whereas whether
inside up
where while
into upon
wherever
near within
Relative Pronouns advanced prepositions

(to begin prepositional phrases):
(for complex sentences to begin adjective clauses):
aboard during
who which that whom whose about except (for)
according to for
Conjunctive Adverbs after in addition to
against in case of
(optional for I;I compound sentences* - grouped by ahead of in place of
meaning): alongside in spite of
among instead of
additionally accordingly afterwards amongst of
also as a result later along off
furthermore consequently next aside from on behalf of
likewise hence subsequently atop out
moreover therefore then because of prior to
similarly thus before subsequent to
in addition alternatively besides with
actually instead despite with regard to
however certainly due to without
nevertheless indeed for example
nonetheless in fact for instance
on the contrary
on the other hand at the same time certainly © 2013 W.V.C.ED • wvced.com
still meanwhile clearly Permission granted to copy for student use.
simultaneously obviously
*Use a semi-colon before and a comma after the conjunctive adverb.

Signal Words for Reading, Writing & Notetaking
Direction Change & Addition: Similar ideas, Conclusion, Summary
Contrast: A change in additional support, or & Emphasis: Conclusion,
ideas to follow. evidence to follow. summary, or emphasis to
follow.
alternatively additionally
although again accordingly*
as opposed to also after all
at the same time and all in all
but another as a result*
conversely as an example because*
despite (the fact that) as well certainly
different from because clearly, then*
even so besides (that) consequently*
even though equally important finally
for all that following this further for the reason (that)*
however for example generally
in contrast for instance hence*
in spite of (the fact that) for one thing in a word
instead further in any event
nevertheless furthermore in brief
nonetheless in addition in conclusion
notwithstanding in light of the...it is easy to see in fact
on the contrary in particular in final analysis
on the other hand in the same vein in final consideration
or in the same way in general
otherwise just as in short
rather likewise in sum
still more (than that) in summary
though moreover in the end
unlike namely indeed
whereas next last
while other lastly
yet pursuing this further naturally
similarly of course
specifically on account of*
then on the whole
to illustrate since*
so*
Sequence & during now therefore*
Time: earlier presently thus*
eventually recently to be sure
after finally shortly to conclude
afterwards first... second... simultaneously to sum up
always third sometimes to summarize
as long as following soon truly
as soon as immediately so far
at first in the first place subsequently (* indicates cause and effect)
at last in the meantime then
Note: The bent arrow signifies a change
at length later this time in direction while the two straight arrows
before meanwhile when represent words that continue in the same
direction. The arrow on the right crosses a
before long never whenever line to indicate an end point.
currently next while © 2013 W.V.C.ED • wvced.com
Permission granted to copy for student use.

Common Core: Highlights From Grammar Sections of the Language Standards
General Statement: Demonstrate command of the conventions of standard English grammar and usage when writing or speaking.
(#’s in parentheses indicate grade levels for initial knowledge; many skills below require further development in subsequent years.)
ability to explain concepts: adjectives/adverbs:

- Explain the function of nouns, pronouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs in general - Use frequently occurring adjectives. (1)
and their functions in particular sentences. (3) - Use adjectives and adverbs, and choose between them depending on what is
- Explain the function of conjunctions, prepositions, and interjections in general modified. (2)
and their function in particular sentences. (5) - Form and use comparative and superlative adjectives and adverbs, and choose
- Explain the function of phrases and clauses in general and their function in spe- between them depending on what is to be modified. (3)
cific sentences. (7) - Order adjectives within sentences according to conventional patterns. (4)
- Use a comma to separate coordinate adjectives. (7)
nouns/verbs:
- Use frequently occurring nouns and verbs. (K) conjunctions:
- Use singular/plural nouns with matching verbs. (1) - Use frequently occurring conjunctions. (1)
- Ensure subject-verb and pronoun-antecedent agreement. (3) - Use coordinating and subordinating conjunctions. (3)
nouns: - Use correlative conjunctions. (5)
- Form regular plural nouns orally. (K)
- Use collective nouns. (2) prepositions:
- Form and use frequently occurring irregular plural nouns. (2) - Use most frequently occurring prepositions. (K)
- Form and use regular/irregular plural nouns. (3) - Use frequently occurring prepositions. (1)
- Use abstract nouns. (3) - Form and use prepositional phrases. (4)
verbs:
- Use verbs to convey a sense of past/present/future. (1)
sentence and general punctuation skills:
- Produce and expand complete sentences in shared language activities. (K)
- Form and use the past tense of frequently occurring irregular verbs. (2)
46
- Produce and expand complete simple and compound declarative, interrogative,
- Form and use regular/irregular verbs. (2)
imperative, and exclamatory sentences in response to prompts. (1)
- Form and use the simple verb tenses. (3)
- Produce, expand, and rearrange complete simple and compound sentences. (2)
- Form and use the progressive tense. (4)
- Produce simple, compound, and complex sentences. (3)
- Use modal auxiliaries. (4)
- Produce complete sentences, recognizing and correcting inappropriate fragments
- Form and use the perfect tenses. (5)
and run-ons. (4)
- Use verb tense to convey various times, sequences, states, and conditions. (5)
- Use a comma before a coordinating conjunction in a compound sentence. (4)
- Recognize and correct inappropriate shifts in verb tense. (5)
- Use punctuation (commas, parentheses, dashes) to set off nonrestrictive/paren-
- Form and use verbs in the active and passive voice. (8)
thetical elements. (6)
- Form and use verbs in the indicative, imperative, interrogative, conditional, and
- Vary sentence patterns for meaning, reader/listener interest, and style. (6)
subjunctive mood. (8)
- Choose among simple, compound, complex, and compound-complex sentences
pronouns: to signal differing relationships among ideas. (7)
- Use the pronoun I. (K) - Place phrases and clauses within a sentence, recognizing and correcting mis-
- Use reflexive pronouns. (2) placed and dangling modifiers. (7)
- Use personal, possessive, and indefinite pronouns. (2) - Use a semicolon (and perhaps a conjunctive adverb) to link two or more closely
- Use relative pronouns and relative adverbs. (4) related independent clauses. (9-10)
- Ensure that pronouns are in the proper case. (6) - Use a colon to introduce a list or quotation. (9-10)
- Use intensive pronouns. (6) - Use various types of phrases (noun, verb, adjectival, adverbial, participial,
- Recognize and correct inappropriate shifts in pronoun number and person. (6) prepositional, absolute) and clauses (independent, dependent; noun, relative,
- Recognize and correct vague pronouns. (6) adverbial) to convey specific meanings and add variety and interest to writing or
presentations. (9-10)

Transitions for Paragraph Writing
Transitional Chains: Used to separate sections of a paragraph that is arranged chronologically.
first/second/third
the first/second/third reason; another reason, still another reason, yet another reason; the
main/most important reason; the final/last reason
one; another; the last kind/type
generally; furthermore; finally
in the first place; also; lastly
in the first place; pursuing this further; finally
to be sure; additionally; lastly
in the first place; just in the same way; finally
basically; similarly; as well
for example/instance; another example; yet another example; the final/last example
to begin/first; also; at this point; next/then; when; finally
For opening a
paragraph initially or
for general use:
admittedly
assuredly
certainly
granted
no doubt
nobody denies
obviously
of course
to be sure
true
undoubtedly
unquestionably
generally speaking
in general
at this level
in this situation

Recommended Resources
Writing Matters Approach developed by William Van Cleave
(available at wvced.com):
Grammar Dice. (grammar/sentence generating dice activities)
GrammarBuilder Concept Cards. (sturdy vocabulary cards including parts of speech and sentence parts for
student and instructor use)
Words at Work I & II. (grammar/writing card games)
Writing Skills Sorters. (grammar/sentence sorting activity packs)
Writing Matters: Developing Sentence Skills in Students of All Ages. (reference manual with teaching
approach, concepts for instruction, and sample assignments)
Writing tools by other authors carried by wvced.com:

Killgallon, Don & Jenny. Sentence Composing, Elementary, Middle School, and High School Books. (3
books - sentence combining and other sentence building skills)
Killgallon, Don & Jenny. Story Grammar for Elementary School, Grammar for Middle School,
Grammar for High School. (3 books - sentence combining and other sentence building skills)
Padgett, Patricia. Stepping Stones. (expository writing board game)
Padgett, Patricia. Create-A-Story. (creative writing board game)
Padgett, Patricia. Writing Books 1 & 2. (workbooks involving sentence and paragraph writing)
Padgett, Patricia. Writing Game Pack. (grammar skills board game)
Pencil Grips. (assorted pencil grips to improve or correct pencil grasp)
Tactile Surfaces for Writing. (Brain Freeze, Gelboard, and Smart Sand)
Terry, Bonnie. The Sentence Zone. (sentence construction game)
Terry, Bonnie. The Writer’s Easy Reference Guide. (sturdy and useful reference guide for students;
inserts into 3-ring binder easily)
Other useful tools:

Graham, Steve, Charles A. MacArthur, and Jill Fitzgerald. Best Practices in Writing Instruction. guilford.
com. (teacher resource)
Hacker, Diana. A Pocket Style Manual, 6th Edition. bedfordstmartins.com. (M.L.A. resource guide with
other research information as well)
Hochman, Judith. Basic Writing Skills. sopriswest.com. (teacher resource)
King, Diana. Cursive Writing Skills (Left and Right Handed). epsbooks.com. (remedial workbooks)
King, Diana. Keyboarding Skills. epsbooks.com. (student book)
King, Diana. Learning Cursive Writing Skills. (Left-Hand and Right-Hand Lowercase Editions).
[email protected]. (workbooks for younger students)
King, Diana. Writing Skills, Books A, One, Two, and Three. epsbooks.com. (workbooks involving
grammar and sentence and paragraph construction)
King, Diana. Writing Skills - Teacher’s Manual. epsbooks.com. (teacher resource)
MacArthur, Charles A., Steve Graham, & Jill Fitzgerald. Handbook of Writing Research. amazon.com.
(teacher resource)
Mather, Nancy, Barbara J. Wendling, and Rhia Roberts. Writing Assessment and Instruction for
Students with Learning Disabilities. josseybass.com. (teacher resource)
Morgan, Charlotte G. When They Can’t Write. proedinc.com. (teacher resource with practice books on
included CD)
Kolln, Martha and Robert Funk. Understanding English Grammar, 7th Ed. ablongman.com.
Poulton, Shirley. Teach the Traits of Effective Writing. teachthetraits.com.
Schuster, Edgar. Sentence Mastery, Levels A, B, and C. phoenixlearningresources.com. (workbooks
focusing on sentence combining skills)

Recommended Resources (continued)
In support of cursive writing:
Gillingham, Anna and Bessie W. Stillman. Remedial Training for Children with Specific Disability in Reading,
Spelling and Penmanship, Chapter 9. E.P.S.
“Handwriting Doesn’t Have to be a Lost Art.” Montessori Life. Fall ‘01.
King, Diana. Writing Skills - Teacher’s Manual, Chapter 9. E.P.S.
Sheffield, Betty. “Handwriting: A Neglected Cornerstone of Literacy.” Annals of Dyslexia. Vol. 46, ‘96.

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W.V.C.ED • P.O.

I. What the Research Says

II. Creating Sentences From Scratch

III. Idea Generation

IV. Paragraph & Essay Development

 © 2014 • wvced.com • [email protected]

Stages of Idea Generation Parts of Speech Sentence Parts Paragraph/

Definition learn definition learn definition ability to discuss

Identification recognize in text recognize in text recognize in text

Create in generate/ provide provide create using

Create in generate/ use in use in create using

 © 2014 • wvced.com • [email protected]

• cuts down on reversals (cursive b/d, m/w, etc.)

paper up (so writing hand doesn’t have to move

B. letters should be taught in groups by formation

E. other hand should be on top of paper to pull

F. arm should arc across page as student writes

A. every lower case letter begins on the line

finger acts as bridge for pencil

D. wrist should be flat on table

II. Paper Position:

III. Hands & Grip:

 © 2014 • wvced.com • [email protected]

 © 2014 • wvced.com • [email protected]

• article teach in adjective family a, an, the

 © 2014 • wvced.com • [email protected]

 © 2014 • wvced.com • [email protected]

Noun Classroom Naming/Labeling

Verb Classroom Naming/Labeling

Pronoun Family Tree

Adjective Classroom Naming

Adverb Verb Description

Conjunction Plus Sign

 © 2014 • wvced.com • [email protected]

noun verb preposition subject verb

pronoun adverb clause

names person, action, linking, begins phrase

noun verb preposition

adjective adverb conjunction

describes noun describes verb joins 2 words

Sample Worksheet Ideas

Adjective Activity Ideas

An adjective describes a noun: ugly duckling red baron

I. Write a sentence using both of the adjectives listed:

green, three million

 © 2014 • wvced.com • [email protected]

adjective word that describes a noun ugly duckling

examples original, disappointing, three, red, overdone, charismatic, hideous,

II. Write an appropriate adjective in each blank:

The _______________ man and the _______________ woman went to the

_______________ mall. While there, they saw some _______________

saw several _______________ children listening to their iPods. Overall, the

man and the woman had a _______________ day.

III. Write an appropriate adjective in each blank:

_______________ tree _______________ day

_______________ car _______________ school

IV. Create a sentence that includes at least two adjectives:

The man went to the store.

VI. Make a list of adjectives that describe the nouns below:

_____________ hat _____________ teacher

© 2014 • wvced.com • [email protected]

© 2014 • wvced.com • [email protected]

© 2014 • wvced.com • [email protected]

© 2014 • wvced.com • [email protected]

© 2014 • wvced.com • [email protected]

© 2014 • wvced.com • [email protected]

© 2014 • wvced.com • [email protected]

© 2014 • wvced.com • [email protected]

The _ man and the _ woman went to the

_ mall. While there, they saw some _

_ tree _ day

_ car _ school

_ hat _ teacher

© 2014 • wvced.com • [email protected]

understand __ laugh

sleep __ sit

murmur __ fumble

stab eat

_ for breakfast _ through the woods by the river

_ under the window _ the party ended at midnight

_ beside the grocery store _ if I finish the book

_ since yesterday _ though I gave you three warnings

_ if my migraine doesn’t linger _ when the strawberries arrived