Solar Energy xxx (xxxx) xxx

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Solar Energy
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/solener

Performance studies on mixed-mode forced convection solar cabinet dryer

under different air mass flow rates for drying of cluster fig
Jasinta Poonam Ekka a, b, P. Muthukumar a, *, Krishnendu Bala a, Dipak Kumar Kanaujiya c,
Kannan Pakshirajan c
a
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati, Assam 781039, India
b
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Guru Ghasidas Central University, Bilaspur, C.G 495001, India
c
Department of Biosciences and Bioengineering, Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati, Assam 781039, India

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: A Mixed-mode Forced Convection Solar Cabinet Dryer (MFCSCD) is designed for the maximum harnessing of
Drying solar radiation. It utilizes the direct heat from solar radiation through glass cover as well as preheated air from
Cluster fig two solar air heaters (SAHs) fixed in series having a double pass. The experimental research works were per­
Mixed mode solar drying
formed in the metrological conditions of Guwahati, India. The drying performance of MFCSCD was analyzed
Pickup efficiency
under different air mass flow rates in terms of specific moisture extraction rate (SMER), pickup efficiency, and
Specific moisture extraction rate
Quality analysis dryer efficiency for the drying of cluster fig. Further, a thin layer drying kinetics analysis was carried out to find
the best suited mathematical model for representing the drying behavior of cluster fig in MFCSCD and open sun
drying. Cluster fig dried from moisture content (MC) of 5.67 to 0.08 kg/kg on a dry basis in 7.0, 8.0, 8.5, and 9.5
h at airflow rates of 3.72, 2.76, 1.8, and 1.08 kg/min, respectively, whereas it took 14 h to attain the same
moisture level under open sun drying. The experimental results showed higher dryer and pickup efficiencies and
SMER at 3.72 kg/min air flow rate. The quality analyses of solar and sun-dried were carried out to estimate the
total phenolic content, antioxidant activity, and rehydration ratio.

dried product quality under the open sun also deteriorates due to
1. Introduction windborne dust, dirt, sudden rain, and infestation by insects, rodents,
animals, etc. (Ekka et al., 2020). In a conventional drying system, either
Ficus Racemose (Family: Moraceae) is mostly found in India, South an electrical heater or a fossil fuel-based furnace is used for producing
East Asia, and Australia. In India, Ficus Racemose is commonly known as hot air, which is a highly cost-intensive operation and employed mostly
‘Gular,’ ‘Cluster fig,’ or ‘Udumbara’ and it is an edible fruit. All parts of in industrial drying applications. Solar drying is an efficient way to
this plant possess medicinal properties in Ayurveda. The fruit of this tree overcome the barriers of conventional drying systems and sun drying.
is used to cure leukoderma, cancer, and diabetes (Ahmed and Urooj, Based on air circulation, solar dryers are classified into passive
2010). Fresh fruits (cluster fig) are rich in minerals, vitamins such as E, (natural) and active (forced) convection types. In the natural convection
K, and dietary fibers. They are free from fat and cholesterol and contain type, the air circulation is created by buoyancy force. This type of dryer
high phytonutrients and antioxidants (Duhan et al., 1992). is not efficient due to poor air circulation inside the dryer cabinet, which
Most of the agro products are highly perishable in nature due to their reduces the drying rate. Whereas in forced convection type dryer, op­
high amount of MC (above 85% on a wet basis) and cannot be stored timum air mass flow rate is supplied using a blower or a fan for main­
beyond their harvesting season. Hence, drying is necessary to increase taining the higher air temperature to increase the moisture removal rate
their self-storage life (Goyal et al., 2007). Drying under the direct sun is a (Kuhe et al., 2019). Based on heat transfer, solar dryers are also classi­
primitive method of removing the water content from food materials by fied as mixed-mode, indirect, and direct. Many researchers have worked
spreading them on the floor, bamboo mats, or high-rise pavement. on improving the performance of the mixed-mode solar dryers (MMSD)
Though this method is a passive type, it has several drawbacks such as for drying of various products. Jain (2005) built a multi-tray forced
non-uniform and more prolonged drying and attacks by microorganisms convection solar dryer in mixed-mode coupled with solar air collector
like molds, yeast, and bacteria due to longer drying hours. Further, the having granite grit as sensible thermal storage. The optimum

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: [email protected] (P. Muthukumar).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solener.2021.06.086
Received 31 October 2020; Received in revised form 26 June 2021; Accepted 28 June 2021
0038-092X/© 2021 International Solar Energy Society. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Please cite this article as: Jasinta Poonam Ekka, Solar Energy, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solener.2021.06.086
J.P. Ekka et al. Solar Energy xxx (xxxx) xxx

Nomenclature ΔP Pressure drop (Pa)

Pt Total input energy (W)
a and b Experimental drying constants RMSE Root mean square error
dt Time interval (s) Re Reynolds number
Dh Hydraulic diameter (m) SAH Solar air heater
f Friction factor SMER Specific moisture extraction rate (kg/kWh)
hfg Latent heat of vaporization (kJ/kg) t Dying time (s)
It Solar radiation Intensity (W/m2) v Velocity of air (m/s)
k Drying rate constant (h− 1) Va Volume of air (m3)
l Length of the duct (m) W Amount of moisture removed (kg)
md Mass of dry product (kg)
Mdb Moisture content on dry basis (%) Symbols
mp Mass of wet product (kg) χ2 Chi-square
Mt Moisture content at any time α Absorptivity
Mwb Moisture content on a wet basis (%) τ Transmissivity of the glass
m Air mass flow rate (kg/min) ɳ Efficiency
MC Moisture Content ψ Moisture ratio
MFCSCD Mixed-mode forced convection solar cabinet dryer ρ Density of air (kg/m3)
Me Moisture content - equilibrium % on wb μ Viscosity of air (kg/m⋅s)
Mf Moisture content - final (%) on wb ψ exp Moisture ratio- experimental
Mi Moisture content - initial (%) on wb ψ pre Moisture ratio- predicted
N No. of observation ∊ Void space in bed
n No. of model constants

performance of the dryer was attained at 1.7 kg/min air flow rate. The optimizing the operating conditions, and product quality improvement
inside solar dryer temperature was maintained between 50 and 76.7 ◦ C. (Çakmak and Yıldız, 2011; Babalis et al., 2006; Lahsasni et al., 2004;
Chowdhury et al., (2011) designed and developed an MMSD for drying Toğrul and Pehlivan, 2002). Toğrul and Pehlivan (2002) performed
jackfruit (50 kg) from 76% w b to the desired MC of 11.88% w b. The experiments on the drying of apricot using a conical-shaped solar heater
solar collectors and the drying chamber were connected in series. The in the airflow range of 50–70 kg/h. It was found that the excellent
drying chamber received preheated air from the solar air collector and quality of the dried apricot was obtained above 50 kg/h airflow rate. The
direct heat from the sun’s radiation. During the experimental hours, the auxiliary heaters were utilized for the continuous drying process after
thermal efficiencies of the solar dryer and air collector were varied in the the sunset or during the cloud cover days. Lahsasni et al., (2004)
range of 32.3–65.3% and 27.4–42.5%, respectively. It was also found employed a convective SAH with an auxiliary heater for studying the
that solar dryer drying time was much less than drying under the open effect of air mass flow rate and drying temperature on the drying of
sun. Dejchanchaiwong et al., (2016) conducted a comparative study on prickly pear fruits. The air volume flow rate was varied between 0.027
mixed-mode and indirect type solar dryers to dry rubber. They and 0.083 m3/s, and the air temperature was varied in the range of
concluded that the dryer efficiency of a mixed type solar dryer was 50–60 ◦ C. The two-term model was found best for presenting the drying
15.4%, while for indirect mode solar dryer, it was 13.3%. The use of behavior of prickly pear. Çakmak and Yıldız (2011) performed an
mixed-type solar drying systems decreased the drying time from 7 to 4 experiment employing a novel solar dryer at different air velocities for
days. Tiwari et al., (2016) conducted the performance tests on a PVT- drying seeded grapes and found that Midilli model was best suited for
mixed type greenhouse dryer for drying grapes. The experimental representing the thin layer drying kinetics of grapes. Babalis et al.,
setup comprised of a drying unit, a PV panel on the roof of the dryer, and (2006) investigated the drying behavior of figs in a laboratory-scale
two D.C fans for forced circulation. Abubakar et al., (2018) experi­ tunnel dryer at different drying air temperatures and air velocities.
mented with a newly designed passive MMSD with multi chimney for The statistical non-linear regression analysis was performed and the
drying yam slice. The drying chamber consisted of chimneys, trays, and Two-term model was found best suited for the drying of cluster fig.
glass cover. The dryer system performance was evaluated based on Dhanushkodi et al., (2017) studied the thin layer drying behavior of
moisture removed, drying rate, and drying efficiency. This design cashew kernels in solar dyer, biomass dryer, and solar hybrid dryer.
feature improved the average drying efficiency and drying rate to 25.4% Midilli and two-term models were found suitable drying kinetic models
and 2.6 × 10− 5 kg/s, respectively. Lakshmi et al., (2018) dried black for the solar drying of cashew kernels. Rabha et al., (2017) developed an
turmeric (medicinal herb) in a MMSD under forced circulation with a indirect solar cabinet dryer with paraffin wax as thermal storage ma­
latent thermal storage system to examine the effects of thermal storage terial. The authors concluded that Midilli and Kucuk models were found
for use in off sunshine hours. The intensity of radiation was varied be­ best-suited kinetics model for representing the drying behavior of ghost
tween 11 W/m2 and 1131 W/m2, and the airflow rate was maintained at chili dried in an indirect solar dryer. The product took 123 h in the solar
0.015 kg/s throughout the experiment. The average drying temperature dryer and 193 h under the open sun to complete the drying process. Arun
throughout the drying process was maintained at 48 ◦ C, and the overall et al., (2020) performed experimental investigations on the drying of
dryer efficiency was calculated as 12.1%. Eltawil et al. (2018a) experi­ banana (Musa nendra) and bitter gourd (Momordica charantia) in an
mentally examined the performance of drying peppermint at different indirect multi-tray solar dryer. They discussed the drying characteristics
loading densities in a MMSD assisted with the photovoltaic system. The of products dried, energy utilization ratio (EUR), exergy losses, energy
highest dryer efficiency of 30.7% was achieved with a 2 cm thick spread. efficiency, and exergy efficiency of the system. Several researchers have
Drying conditions, type of solar dryers used, and physical charac­ performed experiments to study the thin-layer drying behavior of
teristics of the products influence the drying kinetics. The selection of a various vegetables and fruits such as sweet potato (Diamante and
suitable drying kinetics model is very crucial in deciding the ideal drying Munro, 1993), maize (Simate, 2001), sultana grapes (Yaldiz et al.,
rate, which is very much valuable for the design of drying chamber, 2001), carrot (Doymaz, 2004) and eggplants (Ertekin and Yaldiz, 2004).

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J.P. Ekka et al. Solar Energy xxx (xxxx) xxx

Fig. 1. Schematic diagram of the MFCSCD system.

Fig. 2. Details of MFCSCD (a) schematic representation and (b) pictorial view of two SAHs in series connection.

It is seen from the literature survey that most of the authors have facilitating faster removal of moisture from cluster fig. The SAHs are
focused on studying the thin-layer drying kinetics of fruits and vegeta­ connected in series which raises the temperature in SAH 2 10–15 ◦ C
bles (Babalis et al., 2006; Dhanushkodi et al., 2017; Diamante and higher than SAH 1. This study also focuses on investigating the effect of
Munro, 1993; Doymaz, 2004; Ertekin and Yaldiz, 2004; Rabha et al., air mass flow rates on performance parameters viz., drying time and
2017; Simate, 2001; Yaldiz et al., 2001). Few experimental works were rate, drying efficiency, and pickup efficiency of MFCSCD and identify
focused on the enhancement of solar dryer performance by modifying the best drying kinetics model for representing the drying behavior of
the designs of SAHs and dryers, using PV panels, providing different cluster fig. The quality analyses of solar and sun-dried are also carried
methods of air circulation, and integrating heat storage systems (Abu­ out to estimate the total phenolic content, antioxidant activity, and
bakar et al., 2018; Chowdhury et al., 2011; Dejchanchaiwong et al., rehydration ratio.
2016; Eltawil et al., 2018b; Jain, 2005; Lakshmi et al., 2018; Tiwari
et al., 2016). Limited works were reported on the impact of mass flow of 2. Experimental analysis
air on the MFCSCD performance. Though a study on drying behavior of
figs (Ficus carica) was reported by Babalis et al., (2006), no literature is The schematic of an MFCSCD experimental setup shown in Fig. 1 is
available on the dehydration behavior of cluster fig. Therefore, the comprised of two identical SAHs with double pass connected in series, a
present work aims at the development of a mixed type solar dryer for centrifugal blower, and a mixed-mode drying chamber. The developed

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J.P. Ekka et al. Solar Energy xxx (xxxx) xxx

system is placed on the roof of IIT Guwahati, Research Complex. The Table 1
coordinate of the location is 26◦ 0.194′ N Latitude and 91◦ 0.6931′ E List of drying kinetics models considered in the present work (Erbay and
Longitude. The absorber plate is made of G.I sheet, painted black having Icier, 2010).
0.85 mm thick and the area of each SAH is 2.12 m2. The base metal plate Name of Model Model
is 0.2 mm thick aluminum placed 40 mm below the absorber plate. The Henderson and Pabis kt)
ψ = ae(−
supporting structure of SAH is made of pinewood having 2.04 m × 1.04
Logarithmic ψ = ae(− kt)
+c
m size and 6 mm thickness (shown in Fig. 2b). A polyurethane insulation
Midili Kukck ψ = ae(− kt)
+ bt
sheet of thickness 2.5 cm is provided below the base plate to reduce
Modified page ψ = e(− (kt)n )
bottom loss. Glass cover of 4 mm thickness is used as the glazing ma­
terial. The outlet of SAH 2 is connected to the centrifugal blower ca­ Two-term model ψ = ae(− kt)
+ be(− gt)

pacity of 0.5 hp, which is further connected to the inlet of the MFCSCD Newton ψ =e (− kt)

(shown in Figs. 1 and 2(a)). Page ψ = e(− ktn )

A mixed-mode type drying chamber of size 2.09 m × 0.89 m × 0.45 Verma ψ = ae(-kt) + (1-a) e(-gt)
m is fabricated from the locally available pinewood. A circular opening Two-term exponential ψ = ae(− kt) + (1 − a)e(− kat)
of diameter 12 cm is provided on both sides of the drying chamber for an Wang and Singh ψ = 1 + at + bt2
inlet of hot dry air and exhaust of humid air. The roof of the drying
chamber is made of a glass cover of size 1.9 m × 0.9 m and 4 mm
thickness with 0◦ inclination (for making the construction simple). The 2.2. Drying analysis
walls and base are plated with a thin metal sheet and blackened for
maximum thermal absorptivity. Inside the drying chamber, six-wire The drying characteristic of the cluster fig sample in MFCSCD was
mesh trays are placed in two layers; three at the top and three at the investigated based on moisture ratio (ψ), drying time, and drying rate.
bottom. The distance from the dryer base to first layer trays, second The MC of cluster fig on the dry and wet basis is given by Eqs. (1) and
layer trays, and glass cover are 15, 30, and 45 cm, respectively (Fig. 2a). (2), respectively:
Wooden bits are fitted to the sidewalls of the dryer for supporting the mp − md
Mdb = (1)
drying trays. Ambient air is circulated to SAH-1, which gets heated up md
from incident solar radiation and then passed to SAH-2 (Fig. 2b). The
heated dry air coming out from SAH-2 is given to the MFCSCD for drying Mwb =
mp− md
(2)
purposes. mp

While estimating the mass of water removed from the product,

moisture content on a wet basis is used.
2.1. Experimental procedure The drying rate is defined as the moisture-evaporated during the
drying process to the drying time (Morad et al., 2017).
The drying experiments of cluster fig (Ficus Racemose) were con­
ducted during October 2017. Each test had started in the morning and Mt+dt − Mt
Drying rate = (3)
continued till the evening. The fruits used in the experiments were dt
directly plucked from the tree (for each experiment). The fruits were
washed with water and kept on an absorbent paper to remove the excess 2.3. Drying kinetics
water. The fruits were approximately 3–4 cm in diameter. They were cut
in half and loaded on the wire mesh trays to form a thin layer. Each The drying characteristic curve is used for analyzing the influence of
experiment on the drying of cluster fig was started with a moisture different air mass flow rates on the drying time. The moisture ratio (ψ ) of
content of approximately 5.67 kg/kg on a dry basis and continued until samples is expressed as (Rabha and Muthukumar, 2017):
it reached 0.08 kg/kg on a dry basis. For studying the thin layer drying (Mt − Me )
behavior of cluster fig, the dryer was loaded with 5 kg of cluster fig for ψ= (4)
(Mi − Me )
each test. Two samples were prepared of initial weight 200 g each, one
sample for MFCSCD and another for drying under direct sun. Both the Since the RH of dry air fluctuates inside the solar drying chamber
samples were dried simultaneously under the same weather conditions. throughout the drying process due to the variation in temperature, the
The amount of moisture evaporated from the product sample was value of Me in Eq. (4) is neglected, and the modified ψ is given by Eq. (5)
measured by weighing every 30 min interval using an electronic balance (Diamante and Munro, 1993):
[range: 0–600 g and accuracy ± 0.01 g]. The drying characteristic of Mt
cluster fig was studied based on moisture removed, drying time, and ψ= (5)
Mi
drying rate. To evaluate the thermal performance of the MFCSCD, 20 kg
cluster fig was loaded. The experiments were performed at two air mass Here,Mt and Mi are moisture content on a wet basis. The experimental
flow rates of 3.72 kg/min and 1.08 kg/min. drying data obtained is used to determine ψ and is plotted with drying
Ambient temperature and relative humidity (RH) were recorded time to fit with different mathematical models given in Table 1. The
during the course of experiments with the help of a mercury thermom­ value ofR2 is one of the methods for the selection of the model. In
eter and a sling psychrometer, respectively. The dry air temperatures at addition to R2 , the best-fit curve is determined by other parameters such
different positions of SAHs and MFCSCD systems were measured using as χ 2 and RMSE. Therefore, the evaluated best-fit curve should have the
the calibrated T-type thermocouples. The RH at the inlet, exhaust, and lowest χ 2 and RMSE values and highest R2 value (Ertekin and Yaldiz,
inside of the dryer were recorded using a digital hygrometer. Solar ra­ 2004; Babalis et al., 2006; Rabha et al., 2017; Mghazli et al., 2017)
diation falling on SAHs was measured by using a pyranometer [Accu­ The values of R2, χ 2, and RMSE are estimated from the following
racy ± 1%; Range up to 1750 W/m2], which was placed with the same expressions:
orientation as SAHs. A hot-wire anemometer was used for measuring the
∑N ( )2
velocity of dry air (Range: 0–25 m/s and accuracy: ± 0.1 m/s). The ψ pre,i − ψ exp,i
temperatures and solar radiation were recorded at 20 s intervals using a R2 = 1 − ∑i=1
N ( ) 2
(6)
i=1 ψ pre − ψ exp,i
data acquisition system. The MC was determined for both fresh and
dried products using the AOAC method (AOAC, 1990).

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J.P. Ekka et al. Solar Energy xxx (xxxx) xxx

∑N ( )2
ψ exp,i − ψ pre,i ⌊ ⌋
χ2 = i=1
(7) 8 ∑
∞
1 Deff t
N− n MR = exp − (2n + 1)2 π2 2
2
(15)
π2 n=0 (2n + 1) 4L
√̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
√ [ N ]
√1 ∑ ( )2 where Deff is the effective moisture diffusivity (m2/s), t is the time (s). L is
RMSE = √ ψ exp,i − ψ pre,i (8)
N i=1 the half-thickness of samples (m). The effective diffusivity is estimated
by using the first term of the general solution; thus, the equation can be
written as;
2.4. Performance of MFCSCD
( ) ( )
8 2 Deff t
MR = exp − π (16)
The thermal performances of the MFCSCD for different air mass flow π2 4L2
rates were evaluated in terms of dryer efficiency, SMER, and pickup
efficiency. The total amount of moisture removed from the product is
calculated as (Rabha and Muthukumar, 2017); 2.5. Pumping power required
( )
mp Mi − Mf
W= (9) The total volume of air needed (Va ) for removing the moisture from
100 − Mf
the product dried is 2329.89 m3 calculated using (Forson et al., 2007);

2.4.1. Dryer efficiency Whfg Ra Tamb

Va = ( ) (17)
It is defined as the ratio of energy needed to evaporate the water Cpa Pa ToSAH2 − Tf
present in cluster fig to the total energy input in the drying chamber.
where Ra is the specific gas constant, Pa is the partial pressure of dry air
Whfg
ηdryer = (10) in the atmosphere, Cpa is the specific heat capacity of air at constant
Pt
pressure, ToSAH2 is the temperature of air from solar air heater, Tf is the
hfg can be calculated from Eq. (11) (Baniasadi et al., 2017). temperature of the air leaving the drying bed, and Tamb is the ambient
temperature which is given as;
hfg = 2501.8 − 0.002378(Twb − 273.16) (11)
Tf = Tamb + 0.25(ΔT) (18)
273.16 ≤ Twb ≤ 533.16, where Twb is the wet-bulb temperature of outlet
air in K. ΔT is given as the average rise in the drying air temperature above the
The energy supplied to MFCSCD is the summation of the amount of ambient temperature.
heat received from two SAHs and the dryer in the form of incident solar The MFCSCD system is operated under active mode; hence, electrical
intensity and electrical power supplied to run the blower. The total energy is required to drive the blower to force the air into the two solar
energy input to the dryer system is given in Eq. (12); air heaters and drying chamber. The power required depends on the fan
and motor efficiency. The pumping power Pb is calculated by using the
Pt = {(ASAH1 + ASAH2 + Amsd )ατIt + Pb }t (12) following relation (El-Sebaii et al., 2011);

where ASAH1, ASAH2 , and Amsd (m2) are the aperture area of SAH-1, SAH-2, Pb =
mΔP
(19)
and mixed-type drying chamber, respectively. ηfan ηmotor ρ
The pressure drop ΔP is calculated from the following expression;
2.4.2. Specific moisture extraction rate (SMER)
The ratio of the total amount of water (moisture) removed from the ΔP = ΔPd + ΔPl + ΔPch (20)
cluster fig during the drying operation to the total input energy to the
The pressure drop through the upper and lower duct of the two-pass
drying chamber (kg/kWh). The reciprocal of SMER is specific energy
solar air heater ΔPd is calculated by using the following relation (El-
consumption (SEC).
Sebaii et al., 2011);
W
SMER = (13) 4f ρlv2
Pt ΔPd = (21)
2Dh
2.4.3. Pickup efficiency The friction factor (f) for the duct with fins attached to the absorber
It is used for determining the effectiveness of the dryer, which is the plates can be evaluated as follows;
ratio of the actual amount of water (moisture) removed from the product
f = 0.079Re− 0.25
(22)
dried to the theoretical capacity of dry air to carry moisture (Sekyere
et al., 2016; Baniasadi et al., 2017).
ΔPl is the pressure drop due to the effect of the entrance and exit and the
W various pipe fittings, such as elbows, bends, joints and valves.
ηpickup = (14)
m t(ωsat − ωin )
K ρv2
ΔPl = (23)
where ωin = Absolute humidity of air in dryer inlet (kg dry water/kg dry 2
air); ωsat = Adiabatic saturation humidity of the inlet air to the drying where the K has values of 0.5 for entrance, 0.9, and 0.015 for elbow and
chamber (kg dry water/kg dry air); m = Mass flow rate (kg/s); t = joints, respectively (El-Sebaii et al., 2011).
Drying time (s). Pressure drop in the drying chamber due to the product in the trays
(Osodo et al., 2019);
2.4.4. Effective moisture diffusivity
Effective moisture diffusivity is the rate of moisture movement. ΔPch 150μ(1 − ∊)2 v 1.75(1 − ∊)ρμ2
= + (24)
Based on the assumption that the moisture migration to the surface of Lp ∊3 dp2 ∊3 dp
the product is by diffusion. No shrinkage and constant temperature
between product and drying air are assumed. The solution of Fick’s law where dp is the product diameter, Lp is the bed length, and ∊ is the void
is given as (Mghazli et al., 2017); space in the bed.

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J.P. Ekka et al. Solar Energy xxx (xxxx) xxx

Fig. 3. Variations in ambient, inside dryer, SAH-2 outlet and absorber plate temperatures, and solar radiation intensity with time for (a) 3.72 kg/min, (b) 2.76 kg/
min, (c) 1.8 kg/min and (d) 1.08 kg/min.

2.6. Experimental uncertainty as drying rate, drying efficiency, energy input, and energy output are
about ±3.8%, ±2.6%, ±3.6%, and ±0.6%, respectively.
The reliability of estimated results depends on the accuracy of
measuring instruments/sensors. The uncertainty in experimental drying 3. Results and discussion
data can be due to errors in calibration, measurements, and observa­
tions. In the drying experiment, the independent parameters are solar 3.1. Experimental observations
radiation, temperature, the mass of the product, relative humidity, and
velocity of air which are directly measured. If R is the result of inde­ All experimental investigations on the drying of cluster fig were
pendent variables x1 , x2 , x3 , ⋯⋯⋯xn then, performed during Oct. 2017 for four days. Solar insolation is a key
parameter, which decides the outlet air temperature of SAHs and the
R = R(x1 , x2 , x3 , ⋯⋯⋯xn ) (25)
inside air temperature of MFCSCD. Fig. 3 reports the daily variation in
Let,NR is the uncertainty in the estimation of dependent parameter, solar insolation, atmosphere air temperature, SAH-2 outlet air temper­
and n1 , n2 ……nn are the uncertainties in the independent variables ature, dryer inside air temperature, and absorber temperature with time.
(Holman, 2012). Then, The intensity of solar radiation varied from 115 to 777.4 W/m2, with an
[( average intensity between 510 and 550 W/m2 during the experimental
)2 ( )2 ( )n ]1/2
∂R ∂R ∂R days. The average atmospheric air temperature was recorded as 33.5 ±
NR = n1 + n2 + ⋯⋯⋯⋯ nn (26)
∂x1 ∂x1 ∂xn 3 ◦ C during all drying days. In open sun drying, the atmospheric air
temperature is considered as the drying temperature. The absorber plate
The maximum uncertainties in the estimated drying parameters such temperature was raised at a faster rate as compared to the SAH air

6
J.P. Ekka et al. Solar Energy xxx (xxxx) xxx

Fig. 3. (continued).

temperature (ranged from 50 to 98 ◦ C). The maximum plate tempera­ and 56.1 ◦ C for the air mass flow rate of 3.72, 2.76, 1.8, and 1.08 kg/
ture of 98 ◦ C was recorded for the air mass flow rate of 1.08 kg/min at min, respectively. It is noted that the inside dryer temperature is affected
the peak hour of solar radiation. The use of SAH-2 in series increases the by the airflow rate and amount of heat energy transmitted through glass
drying air temperature 10–15 ◦ C higher than SAH-1. The average air covers. The dry air temperature inside the MFCSCD was found to in­
temperatures recorded inside the drying chamber were 48.2, 50.4, 54.1, crease with a decrease in the air mass flow rate because of the high
retention time in the SAHs and drying chamber. The average plate
temperature and the average SAH-2 outlet air temperature were varied
in the range of 73.8–81.2 ◦ C and 58.5–65.8 ◦ C, respectively. It is to be
noted that the sudden drop in absorber plate temperature and solar ra­
diation intensity (Fig. 3a and d) observed were mainly due to the cloud
cover/low solar intensity.

3.2. Duration of drying

To study the effect of mass flow rate of air on the drying behavior of
cluster fig, samples were dried under various flow rates of air ranging
between 3.72 and 1.08 kg/min. During all drying tests, the initial MC of
the product samples were approximately 5.67 kg/kg on a dry basis
(determined using a hot oven drying experiment). Cluster fig sample of
Fig. 4. Comparison of MC variation of cluster fig at different air mass flow rates 200 g was dried in an oven at a temperature of 85 ◦ C till constant mass
in MFCSCD with sun drying. was obtained. The drying time required to reach a final MC of 0.08 kg/kg

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3.3. Drying rate of cluster fig

Drying kinetic models helps in determining the effect of air mass flow
rate on the drying time of cluster fig in MFCSCD. The average value of
drying rate reported for different air mass flow rates of 1.08, 1.8, 2.78,
and 3.72 kg/min were 0.59, 0.67, 0.7, and 0.8 kg water/kg dry matter-h,
respectively (Fig. 5). It was observed from the experiments that the
drying rate increases with the mass flow of air due to efficient mass
transfer. These results were similar to the findings reported by Morad
et al. (2017). A substantial low drying rate of 0.43 kg water/kg dry
matter-h was observed when dried under the direct sun because of the
slow heat and mass transfer rates.

Fig. 5. Influence of airflow rate on drying rate.

3.4. Drying kinetics model

Table 2
The values of ψ obtained for different air mass flow rates were
Values of statistical parameters found for different drying kinetics models. plotted with drying time and were made to fit with different drying
models presented in Table 1. The obtained values of drying constants,
Model Statistical
R2, χ 2, and RMSE, are mentioned in Table 2. The best drying kinetics
Parameter 3.72 2.76 1.8 kg/ 1.08 Sun model was selected based on the statistical regression analysis. The
kg/min kg/min min kg/min drying
Wang and Singh and Page models are found the best-fitted model for
Newton χ2 0.0024 0.0041 0.0003 0.0094 0.0148 describing the drying kinetics of cluster fig in MFCSCD and sun drying,
R2 0.9969 0.9947 0.9967 0.9899 0.9936
respectively. The drying model equations for cluster fig in terms of ψ are
RMSE 0.0123 0.0152 0.0038 0.0228 0.0218
Page χ2 0.0005 0.0012 0.0003 0.0001 0.0003
given in Eqs. (27) and (28):
R2 0.9994 0.9989 0.9947 0.9998 0.9995
RMSE 0.1328 0.0080 0.0038 0.0028 0.0033
ψ = 1 + at + bt2 (Wang and Singh model for MFCSCD) (27)
Modified χ2 0.0026 0.0039 0.0094 0.0128 0.0097
Page R2 0.9969 0.9941 0.9916 0.9921 0.9881 ψ = e(− ktn )
(Page model for sun drying) (28)
RMSE 0.0123 0.0143 0.0221 0.0258 0.0174
Henderson χ 2
0.0026 0.0044 0.0094 0.0062 0.0153 The values ofk,a, and b are given in Table 3 for different drying ki­
And Pabis R2 0.9969 0.9947 0.9916 0.9921 0.9936 netic models.
RMSE 0.0123 0.0152 0.0221 0.0180 0.0218 Fig. 6 shows the plot between experimental ψ obtained for different
Logarithmic χ2 0.0009 0.0001 0.0447 0.0021 0.0006
drying test conditions and predicted ψ using Wang and Singh model for
R2 0.9998 0.9997 0.9982 0.9975 0.9989
RMSE 0.0021 0.0025 0.0465 0.0100 0.0044 MFCSCD and Page model for sun drying. The validation of the predicted
Midilli χ2 0.0041 0.0013 0.0014 0.0021 0.0007 ψ with experimentalψ data is demonstrated in Figs. 7 and 8. All ψ data
R2 0.9971 0.9997 0.9980 0.9974 0.9988 points of experimental and predicted models are fitted close to a straight
RMSE 0.0165 0.0080 0.0084 0.0103 0.0046
line with the value of R2 = 0.9909 and 0.9977 for the drying in MFCSCD
Two term χ2 0.0021 0.0036 0.0099 0.0072 0.0043
R2 0.9969 0.9947 0.9916 0.9921 0.9936
and drying under the open sun, respectively. This reflects the goodness
RMSE 0.0103 0.0128 0.0211 0.0180 0.0111 of the fit.
Two term χ2 0.0023 0.0039 0.0094 0.0100 0.0153
Exponential R2 0.9965 0.9941 0.9916 0.9899 0.9936
RMSE 0.0115 0.0143 0.0221 0.0228 0.0218 3.5. Performance of MFCSCD
Verma χ2 0.0005 0.0011 0.0022 0.0028 0.0005
R2 0.9993 0.9985 0.9982 0.9946 0.9992 Two drying experiments were conducted with 3.72 and 1.08 kg/min
RMSE 0.0052 0.0076 0.0104 0.0054 0.0041
under fully loaded conditions for the comparative study. The drying
Wang and χ2 0.0001 0.0003 0.0017 0.0040 0.0015
Singh R2 0.9999 0.9988 0.9979 0.9859 0.9992 chamber was loaded with 25 kg of cluster fig with a loading density of
RMSE 0.0009 0.0017 0.0096 0.0145 0.0069 4.7 kg/m2. The product dried in a thin layer from the initial MC of 5.67
to 0.08 kg/kg on a dry basis.
Fig. 9 shows the variations in ambient RH, dryer inlet RH and dryer
on a dry basis was recorded as 9.5, 9.0, 8.0, and 7.0 h for the air mass
inside RH with the drying time for 3.72 and 1.08 kg/min under fully
flow rates of 1.08, 1.8, 2.78, and 3.72 kg/min, respectively in the newly
loaded conditions. During the drying days, the climatic condition was
developed MFCSCD, while the drying under sun took 14 h. The moisture
too humid, and the ambient RH was ranged between 63 and 78%. The
removed from cluster fig increases with the air mass flow rate of hot dry
RH at the inlet of the MFCSCD was varied from 18 to 33% and 11 to 45%
air. Due to higher convective heat transfer between the product and the
for the air mass flow rate of 3.72 and 1.08 kg/min, respectively. It was
drying air, the amount of moisture removed was faster at 3.72 kg/min
observed that the RH in the early hours of drying was maximum and
than other mass flow rates. When the solar dryer operated at the mass
became a minimum at the peak sunshine hours. Low RH of dry air en­
flow rates of 1.08, 1.8, 2.78, and 3.72 kg/min, the respective saving in
hances the moisture carrying capacity and is considered suitable for
drying times compared to sun drying were 32, 35.7, 42.8, and 50%. The
drying. At the early phase of drying, the evaporation of moisture was
observation made suggests that MFCSCD dehydrates cluster fig faster
faster due to the removal of surface moisture which increases the RH
than sun drying.
inside the MFCSCD. The RH inside the MFCSCD was varied in the range
Fig. 4 illustrates the plot drawn between the MC in db versus the
of 33 to 61% and 27 to 57% for the air mass flow rate of 3.72 and 1.08
drying time at different air mass flow rates. It was found from the
kg/min, respectively.
experimental work that the MC decreases at a faster rate during the
The total output energy from the dryer was estimated as 11.2 kWh.
initial hours of drying due to the faster removal of surface moisture
The total energy supplied to the MFCSCD was determined as 27.4 and
present on the product dried. The drying rate slows down in the later
34.1 kWh for 3.72 and 1.08 kg/min, respectively (reported in Fig. 10).
stage of drying due to the removal of inner bound moisture. The average efficiency of MFCSCD was estimated as 40.9% and 32.9%
for the airflow rates of 3.72 kg/min and 1.08 kg/min, respectively. The

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J.P. Ekka et al. Solar Energy xxx (xxxx) xxx

Table 3
Values of constants estimated for different drying kinetics models.
Model Constants 3.72 kg/min 2.76 kg/min 1.8 kg/min 1.08 kg/min Sun drying

Newton k 0.3394 0.2949 0.3049 0.2112 0.1698

Page k 0.2033 0.1316 0.1560 0.0683 0.0360
n 1.3448 1.4930 1.45818 1.76385 1.6668
Modified k 0.5826 0.5244 0.5522 0.4961 0.3686
Page n 0.5826 0.5244 0.5522 0.4961 0.3686
Henderson a 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000
and Pabis k 0.3394 0.2949 0.3049 0.2461 0.1698
Logarithmic a 1.3044 1.5046 1.0358 2.1853 1.6123
c − 0.2964 − 0.4979 − 0.3521 − 1.1086 0.4754
k 0.2033 0.1404 0.1418 0.0813 0.0842
Midilli a 1.0389 1.0696 1.0389 1.0759 1.1411
b − 0.0329 0.0319 0.0329 0.0467 − 0.0165
k 0.1878 0.1849 0.1873 0.1227 0.1083
Two term a 0.0158 0.0157 0.0155 0.0153 0.0144
b 1.0395 1.0552 0.9980 1.1322 1.1987
k1 0.3394 0.2948 0.3049 0.2461 0.1698
k2 0.3394 0.2949 0.3049 0.2461 0.1698
Two term a 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000
exponential k 0.3211 0.2750 0.3049 0.2112 0.1698
Verma a 3.6817 18.2659 − 0.5150 − 7.0936 − 10.069
g 0.6708 18.2659 0.1418 0.4819 0.3095
k 0.5266 0.5208 0.6168 0.5697 0.3429
Wang and a − 0.2380 − 0.1964 − 0.2056 − 0.1652 − 0.1138
Singh b 0.0142 0.0089 0.0099 0.0056 0.0030

Fig. 6. Experimental ψ data under different drying conditions fitted with the predicted ψ model.

Fig. 7. Experimental ψ and predicted ψ values for MFCSCD. Fig. 8. Experimentalψ and predictedψ value for sun drying.

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J.P. Ekka et al. Solar Energy xxx (xxxx) xxx

The dryer efficiency of the developed MFCSCD was higher than obtained
by Abubakar et al., (2018) with 25.35% in a passive MMSD for drying of
yam and Eltawil et al. (2018b) with 34.29% in a PV thermal operated
MMSD for drying of potato. The SMER calculated using Eq. (13) was
0.616 kg/kWh for 3.72 kg/min and 0.496 kg/kWh for 1.08 kg/min. It
was found that SMER was higher when MFCSCD operated with 3.72 kg/
min, due to the faster moisture removal rate. Kuan et al. (2019) obtained
SMER between 1.25 kg/kWh and 0.2 kg/kWh. The average SMER was
estimated as 0.6 kg/kWh for dehydration of banana in a heat pump-
assisted solar dryer.
Pickup efficiency is one of the key parameters used for determining
the performance of MFCSCD. The average pickup efficiency was 35.1%
for the air mass flow rate of 3.72 kg/min and 20.9% for 1.08 kg/min.
The higher value of efficiency in the present developed system is due to
the use of a second SAH in series, which raises the air temperature by
10–15 ◦ C from the SAH-1. Also, the drying chamber receives incident
Fig. 9. Variations in dryer inlet RH, ambient RH and dryer inside RH with time. radiation on all the top three trays equally. This increases the moisture
carrying capacity of the air. The average pickup efficiency of 30% is
considered suitable for the drying of agro-products (Brenndorfer et al.,
1985). Higher temperatures and air mass flow rates have increased the
ability of dry air to carry more moisture from the product. The average
pickup efficiency estimated by Sekyere et al., (2016) was 32% for the
drying of pineapple in a mixed mode solar dryer. Table 4 shows the
comparison of performances in terms of dryer efficiency, pickup effi­
ciency, and SEC (specific energy consumption) between the newly
developed MFCSCD and other mixed-mode type solar dryers developed
by the other researchers.

Fig. 10. Effect of air mass flow rate on dryer efficiency, energy input and en­
ergy output.

results indicated that the efficiency of MFCSCD was high for 3.72 kg/
min in comparison with 1.08 kg/min. At a lower airflow rate, there may
be insufficient air circulation throughout the length of the drying
chamber which reduces the amount of moisture removed from cluster
fig and increases the drying time and hence, the energy consumption. Fig. 11. Effect of airflow on the effective diffusion coefficient of cluster fig.

Table 4
Comparison of performances between the developed MFCSCD and other MMSD developed by other researchers.
Reference Solar dryer type Dryer temperature Mass flow rate Drying time Dryer/pickup efficiency SEC

Dejchanchaiwong et al., MMSD for drying natural Av. 43.6 ◦ C at av. solar – 4 day (MC Dryer efficiency 15.4% –
(2016) rubber intensity of 528 W/m2 32.3% to 2.0%)
Baniasadi et al., (2017) MMSD under natural Max. 65 ◦ C – – Pickup efficiency 9.8% –
convection
2
Abubakar et al., (2018) MMSD natural convection Max. 53 C at 872 W/m
◦
– 2 day 25.35% –
for drying yam slice
Mehta et al., (2018) Natural circulation tent Av. 60–65 ◦ C at av. solar – 18 h (MC 89% – –
type MMSD for drying fish intensity 600 W/m2 to 10%)
Karthikeyan and Forced convection tunnel 40–71.8 ◦ C at solar intensity Velocity 0.5 m/ 12 h – –
Murugavelh, (2018) MMSD for drying range of 196–899 W/m2 s
turmeric
Eltawil et al. (2018b) PV powered tunnel – 0.06, 0.08 and 300–390 min Max dryer efficiency of 34.3% –
MMSD for drying potato 0.1 kg/s with 0.08 kg/s
chips
Arun et al. (2019) Forced convection MMSD Av. 48.5 ◦ C at max. solar 0.03 kg/s 10 h (final MC 17% 4.46 kWh/kg
with energy storage intensity 809 W/m2 12.2% on w.b) 39.5%
El Khadraoui et al. Forced convection 29.2–49.9 ◦ C,max. solar – 17 h – –
(2019) greenhouse dryer for intensity 808 W/m2
drying red pepper
Present study MFCSCD, multi trays for Av. temp 48.2–56.1 ◦ C at av. 1.08, 1.8, 2.76, 7 h at 3.72 kg/ Av. dryer efficiency 40.9% for 1.623 kWh/
drying of cluster fig solar intensity range of and 3.72 kg/ min 3.72 kg/min and av. pickup kg with 3.72
510–550 W/m2 min efficiency 35.1% kg/min

Note: Av. – average; Max. – maximum.

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J.P. Ekka et al. Solar Energy xxx (xxxx) xxx

Table 5 rylhydrazyl) radical based assay (Singh et al., 2012). Fruit extract of 0.1
TPC and antioxidant activity of dried cluster fig. ml (obtained using dichloromethane, acetone, ethyl acetate, and meth­
Samples TP mg GAE/g dry Antioxidant activity Rehydration anol) was mixed with a methanol solution containing 0.001 M DPPH (3
weight % ratio ml) followed by incubation in a dark chamber for 30 min. Using a UV–vis
Open sun 22.79 82.19% 2.19 spectrophotometer, the absorbance of the mixture was measured at 517
dried nm, and the antioxidant activity is calculated using Eq. (29):
MFCSCD 27.72 87.22% 2.58
dried C− S
Antioxidant activity(%) = × 100 (29)
C

Fig. 11 illustrates the effect of airflow rate on the effective diffusion where ’C’ is the absorbance of methanol solution containing DPPH and
rate of cluster fig. Effective moisture diffusivity is obtained from the ’S’ is the absorbance of reaction mixture obtained using sample extract.
slope of the curve plotted between ln (MR) versus drying time (s). Table 5 compares the values of TPC and antioxidant activity of the solar-
Estimated moisture diffusivity was in the range of 8.1059 × 10− 9– dried cluster fig sample with those of the open sundried sample, which
4.0528 × 10− 9 m2/s under different drying test conditions in MFCSCD, reveals that the DPPH free radicals scavenging capacity is high in the
while drying under open sun, the value was 2.837 × 10− 9 m2/s. It is case of the sample dried in MFCSCD. High antioxidant activity is
observed from moisture diffusivity values that higher mass flow rate has attributed to the high TPC in the cluster fig (Bachir Bey et al., 2017). In
a high value of moisture diffusivity coefficient. The values of diffusivity this study, the TPC of the open sun-dried sample was 22.79 total phenol
obtained lie within the range of 10− 8 to 10− 11 m2/s for drying of food (TP) mg GAE/g dry weight which was lower than that obtained in the
products, which is in the acceptable range (Zogzas et al., 1996). solar-dried sample (27.72 TP mg GAE/g dry weight). This may be due to
The total pressure drop of the MFCSCD was calculated as 1.15 kPa, the difference in the drying temperature. A similar trend of results was
and the total volume of air required was 2329.89 m3. By applying Eq. reported for the drying of black turmeric and red pepper by Lakshmi
(19), the fan power was found to be 0.132 kW. As the solar drying system et al., (2018) and López-Vidaña et al., (2017), respectively.
has to operate at different flow rates, a blower capacity of 0.5 HP was
selected for the drying operation. 3.6.4. Rehydration test
This was performed by taking 15 g of dried cluster fig and dipping in
3.6. Quality analyses of cluster fig distilled water at room temperature (25 ± 2 ◦ C) (Kaymak-Ertekin,
2002). After 30 min, the samples were taken out of the water, and extra
3.6.1. Extraction water was removed by placing it on tissue paper. Then, the sample was
The extraction of cluster fig content for quality analyses was per­ weighed on a weighing balance, and this process was repeated for 2 h.
formed using a mixture of different solvents like dichloromethane, ethyl Rehydration is defined as the weight of the sample after rehydration to
acetate, acetone, and methanol. The samples of the solar-dried and sun- the weight of the dry sample. The result of the rehydration test given in
dried cluster fig were powdered using a mortar. Powdered cluster fig Table 5 shows that the rehydration of cluster fig was more rapid in
samples (50 g) were then soaked in 140 ml of the solvent mixture (35 ml sample dried in MFCSCD than the open sun-dried sample. This may be
each) and kept in an orbital shaker at 25 ◦ C temperature and 140 rpm for due to deterioration of the cell structure in the open sun-dried samples
48 h for incubation. The solution was filtered using Whatman’s filter due to long drying time.
paper no. 1, and the filtrate was concentrated by evaporating it. Twice,
the process was repeated for getting yellow–brown color filtrates and 3.6.5. Color test
stored at 4 ◦ C for further use in quality analyses (Soni et al., 2014). Fig. 12 shows the pictorial views of fresh fruits, open sun-dried, and
MFCSCD dried samples. It was found that color retention of the samples
3.6.2. Total phenolic content (TPC) dried in MFCSCD by visual inspection was better than the sample dried
The prediction of TPC in cluster fig has been determined by using the under the open sun. This is mainly due to longer exposure to direct
Folin-Ciocalteau reagent described in Soni et al., (2014). The results of sunlight and re-absorption of moisture due to a longer drying time.
the samples are given in Table 5.
4. Conclusions
3.6.3. Antioxidant activity
The antioxidant potential of phenolic compounds was calculated by In this paper, the performance of a newly developed MFCSCD
assessing their radical scavenging capacity. Free radical scavenging ac­ coupled with two double-pass SAHs in series was experimentally
tivity of the fig was determined according to DPPH (2, 2-diphenyl-1-pic­ investigated by drying the cluster fig at different air mass flow rates

Fig. 12. Pictorial views of (a) fresh fruit (b) samples dried under open sun and (c) MFCSCD.

11
J.P. Ekka et al. Solar Energy xxx (xxxx) xxx

ranging between 1.08 and 3.72 kg/min. Operating with two SAHs and Diamante, L.M., Munro, P.A., 1993. Mathematical modelling of the thin layer solar
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found as optimum for drying of cluster fig in the newly designed forced convection mixed mode horizontal solar cabinet dryer for drying of black
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values of ψ were fitted with ten different drying kinetics models and Thermal performance investigation of double pass-finned plate solar air heater.
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EL khadraoui, A., Hamdi, I., Kooli, S., Guizani, A., 2019. Drying of red pepper slices in a
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Declaration of Competing Interest Goyal, R.K., Kingsly, A.R.P., Manikantan, M.R., Ilyas, S.M., 2007. Mathematical
modelling of thin layer drying kinetics of plum in a tunnel dryer. J. Food Eng. 79 (1),
176–180. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2006.01.041.
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial Holman, J.P., 2012. Experimental Methods for Engineers, eighth ed. McGraw-Hill, New
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence York.
the work reported in this paper. Jain, D., 2005. Modeling the system performance of multi-tray crop drying using an
inclined multi-pass solar air heater with in-built thermal storage. J. Food Eng. 71 (1),
44–54. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2004.10.016.
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