Chapter 4

Traffic Engineering

CHAPTER HIGHLIGHTS

☞ Introduction ☞ Traffic stream models

☞ Traffic studies ☞ Traffic regulation and control
☞ Traffic speed studies ☞ Types of traffic signals
☞ Speed and delay studies ☞ Design of rotary
☞ Origin and destination studies ☞ Road intersections
☞ Accident studies ☞ Interchanges
☞ Traffic flow characteristics ☞ Parking
☞ Speed–Flow–Density relations ☞ Highway lighting
☞ Derived characteristics

Introduction 2. Direction wise and turning movements at

intersections.
Traffic Engineering is that branch of engineering which
deals with the improvement of traffic performance on road 3. Details of pedestrian volume counts.
network and terminals through systematic traffic studies, Draw back: It is not practicable to carry out manual count
scientific analysis and engineering applications. It also of different vehicle classes during 24 hours of a day for 365
includes planning and geometric design on one hand and days.
regulation and control on other.
Automatic Counters
1. Photo electric cell
Traffic Studies
2. Electrical method
Traffic Volume Study (q)
3. Pneumatic method
Traffic volume or flow is expressed as number of vehicles
that pass across a given transverse line of the road during • Advantage of it is that it can work throughout the day and
unit time. In this study the type and the number of vehicles night for desired period, recording exact time at which
are counted either manually or by using mechanical or auto- each vehicle crosses. Lane occupancy and speeds of
matic counters. different vehicles can be recorded.
• Drawback is that it cannot classify and record every
Method of Volume Count vehicle type and details of turning movements and also
pedestrian flow.
Manual Count (Best Method) By manual count, it gives
• Suitable for long counts and for permanent installations
data which cannot be collected by mechanical or automatic
• In view of variety of vehicles, based on the vehicle
counts.
speed, space and characteristics a number is assigned to
1. Classification of different vehicles and their counts at the vehicle in comparison to car termed as ‘Equivalent
required time. passenger car unit’ (PCU). Using the values in table, the

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traffic can be expressed uniformly in terms of passenger Traffic Speed Studies

car unit (PCU) per hour or per day
1. Spot speed: It is the instantaneous speed of a vehicle
Vehicle Type PCU at specified cross section or location.
Passenger car, Tempo, Jeep, Auto 1 2. Average speed: It is the average of spot speeds of all
rickshaw, Van, Agricultural tractor the vehicles passing a given point on the highway.
Bus, Truck, Agricultural tractor trailer 3 3. Running speed: It is the average speed maintained
by a vehicle over a particular stretch of road (delays
Motor cycle, scooter and cycle 0.5
are excluded).
Cycle rickshaw 1.5
4. Travel/overall/journey speed: It is the effective
Horse drawn vehicle 4 speed of travel all along the route between two
Bullock cart 8 terminals (delays are included).
Small bullock cart 6 Methods for Spot Speeds
Hand cart 6 •• Radar speed meter method (speed gun and is most
efficient and easy to use).
•• As per IRC, traffic counts are taken twice in a year
•• Electronic meter method.
for a village. One during peak season of harvesting
•• Photo-electric meter.
and marketing and other during the lean season. It
•• Enoscope/mirror box method.
shall be taken for 7 consecutive days and 24 hours
Mirrors are arranged at 45°.
each day (24 × 7).
■■

■■Simple cheap and easy to use.

■■Difficult for heavy multilane traffic and slow method
Presentation of Traffic Volume Data •• Time lapse method
1. Average annual daily traffic (AADT): It is the •• Pressure contact strip method
average daily (24 hours) traffic volume recorded for Presentation of Spot Speed Data
all the 365 days of the year.
2. Average daily traffic (ADT): Average daily traffic
volume recorded for a period less than a year
(6 months, a season, a month, a weak, or 2 days)
Frequency (%)

3. Trend charts: Shows volume trends over period of

Modal speed

years. It is used in estimating the rate of growth and

for planning future expansion, design and regulation.
4. Variation charts: Variation of flow (hourly, daily and
seasonally) are prepared. These help in facilitating or
regulating traffic at peak traffic periods.
5. Traffic flow maps: Traffic flow lines along the routes Speed (kmph)
are drawn. The thickness of the lines represents the
Frequency distribution diagram
traffic volume to any desired scale.
•• Modal speed: speed at which greatest number of vehi-
6. Volume flow diagram at intersections to a scale.
cles travel. It is peak of frequency distribution curve.
7. 30th highest hourly volume: The hourly volume
that will be exceeded only 29 times in a year and all
other hourly volumes of the year will be less than this 98%
volume.
85%
Cumulative frequency (%)

•• Congestion only during 29 hours in the year.

98th Percentile speed
85th Percentile speed

•• Generally taken as hourly volume for design.

•• Highway facilities are designed for this volume, as
it is satisfactory from both facility and economic
15%
considerations.
8. Peak hour factor: It is in terms of traffic volume
during peak hour and it is expressed as percentage
of AADT. This peak hour factor is used in the Speed (kmph)
design of transportation facilities of urban transport
infrastructure projects. Cumulative speed distribution diagram

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•• 98th percentile speed: For the purpose of highway •• To improve existing road network.
geometric design (design speed). •• Estimation of future traffic needs.
•• 85th percentile speed: The speed at or below which 85% •• To locate terminal and intermediates stops and
of vehicles are passing a point on the highway or only plan out facilities for public transport.
15% of vehicles exceed the speed at that point (upper •• To locate new bridge if demanded and planning for
speed limit). interchanges.
  This is adopted for safe seed limit at this zone. 3. Presentation of O–D data:
•• 15th percentile speed: The speed value which is used as •• ‘O’ and ‘D’ tables showing number of trips between
minimum speed on major highways. different zones.
•• 50th percentile speed: The middle or 50th percentile •• Desire lines: (Graphical representation) These are
of spot speed is called median/medium speed (median straight line connecting origin with destination in
speed). different areas.
Types of Spot Speeds   Width of the line represents number of trips.
  Desire line density map enables to decide the
1. Space mean speed (Vs): It is the average speed of interest of road users and helps to find the necessity
vehicles in a certain road length at any specified time of new road link, derision, by pass or a new bridge.
period. This is the harmonic mean of spot speeds. •• Pie charts: Circles are drawn and diameter is pro-
2. Time mean speed (Vt): It is the average speed of portional to number of trips.
vehicles passing a certain point over some specified •• Contour lines: Similar to topographic contours
time period on a highway. shape of contours would indicate general traffic
  It is the average/mean of spot speeds: needs of the area.
•• (Average travel time of all vehicles)
1
=
Space mean speed
.
Accident Studies
•• Space mean speed is slightly lower than time mean •• Accident records are maintained giving all particulars of
speed under typical speed conditions on rural the accidents, location and other details.
highways •• Collision diagrams are drawn which show the path of
vehicle and pedestrians involved in accident. These dia-
σ2 grams are useful to compare the accident pattern before
Vt = Vs +
Vs and after the remedial measures are taken.
•• Individual and statistical analysis of accidents are done.
σ2 = Standard deviation.
Both space and time mean speeds will be equal only
when all vehicles are travelling at the same speed.
Traffic Flow Characteristics
The basic traffic manoeuvres in a traffic stream are
Speed and Delay Studies 1. Diverging
•• Floating car or riding check method
2. Merging
•• License plate or vehicle number method
•• Interview technique 3. Crossing manoeuvres
•• Elevated observations
•• Photographic technique

Origin and Destination Studies

1. Methods of conducting O and D studies:
•• Road side interview method Left Right (∗)
•• License plate method DIVERGING
•• Return post card method
•• Tag on car method
•• Home interview method
•• Work place interview method
2. Applications:
Left Right (∗)
•• Planning and design of highways (routes and
terminals) MERGING

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Speed–Flow–Density Relations
1. Traffic density (K): The number of vehicles
occupying a unit length (1 km) of a lane of roadway
Left Right (∗)
at a given instant
WEAVING
S → 1 vehicle
(1 km) = 1000 → K = ?
1000
K= = Number of vehicle/km [per lane at an
S
instance of time]
S = Average c/c distance between two successive
CROSSING (∗) vehicles.

•• The manoeuvres with (*) represent conflicting traffic. NOTES

•• Merging from and diverging to left do not cause much  1. Under free flow condition (with design speed)
problem. or road empty without traffic condition, density
•• Diverging to and merging from right create conflict points. is least.
•• Weaving manoeuvre, i.e., merging and diverging in a  2. A traffic jam condition before red signal (if all
short stretch always creates a conflict point. vehicles stopped on road) maximum density
•• Crossing also causes a problem where road at a time will be achieved called ‘Jam Density’ (Kmax­).
results in considerable reduction in flow on one capacity
of the intersection.  Vehicle 
2. Traffic volume     ⇒  q = V ⋅ K
 hour 
Number of Conflict Points on Cross Roads
Where
of Different Number of Lanes
  V = Speed of vehicles (km/hour)
Number of Lanes Number of Potential Conflicts
  K = Traffic density (veh/km)
A-One
Both Way Both 3. Capacity (C or qmax):
Roads B-Two Roads
Road A Road B Two Way Way One Way  1000 
C = qmax = V 
2 2 24 11 6  s 
2 4 32 17 10 It is the ability of the roadway to allow maximum
4 4 44 25 18 traffic flow or traffic volume per unit time.
Where
  V = Design speed (km/h)
  S = c/c spacing of vehicles
(a) Basic/theoretical/ideal capacity: The maximum
number of vehicles that pass a given point on a
lane or road way during one hour under ideal
road way and traffic conditions.
S = L + 0.7 V in m
SL = Lag distance = 0.7 n
ϑ = Design speed (m/s)
L = Length of rigid wheel base (m) = 6.1 m
t = Reaction time of ideal driver (0.7 second)
•• Two roads of same features will be same basic
capacities
(b) Practical/design capacity: The maximum
Conflicts on cross roads with one road as one way: number of vehicles that can pass a given
Major conflicts crossing = 7 point so that they may not cause unreasonable
Minor conflicts = 4 delay, hazards and restrictions to driver’s free-
Merging total = 11 dom to manoeuvres under the prevailing road

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conditions. This is of primary interest to the q

designers
S = L + SSD qmax
SSD = Stopping sight distance
L = Length of rigid wheel base (6.1 m)

Derived Characteristics V=0 ⎛V

max
⎛ Vmax
V

⎜ ⎜
•• Derived parameters from speed (V), flow (q), density (k) ⎝ 2 ⎝
are:
Vmax = Free flow speed/free mean speed
1. Time headway (Ht): It is the time gap between two
successive vehicles crossing a section of a road, q

1
Ht = = h/veh qmax
q

1 1
•• Minimum time headway, Ht = = h/
veh qmax c
K
⎛K ⎛ Kmax
3600 max
•• Maximum theoretical capacity, qmax =C= ⎜
⎝ 2 ⎝
⎜
Ht
Kmax = Maximum Jam density
σ…(Ht in seconds)
K
2. Space/distance headway (S): It is the average
distance between two successive vehicles on the road
or it is reciprocal of traffic density, Kmax

1
S= km/veh
K
1 V
Vmax
•• Maximum space headway = (At Jam
K max
density)  Vmax   K max 
qmax = 
 2   2 

Traffic Stream Models SOLVED EXAMPLES

Green Shield’s macroscopic stream model: He assumed a
linear speed–density relationship. Example 1
The free mean speed on a roadway is found to be 70 km/h.
 K  Under stopped condition the average spacing between vehi-
V = Vf 1− 
 K j  cles is 6.9 m. Determine the capacity of flow (in vehicles/
km).
(A) 120 (B) 145
 K  (C) 160 (D) 175
Q = VK = Vf 1− K
 K j  Solution
Spacing between vehicles S = 6.9 m
q
1000 1000
Jam density kmax =
=
s 6.9
kmax = 145 vehicle/km
Hence, the correct answer is option (B).

Example 2
Estimate the theoretical capacity of a traffic lane with
K V
one way traffic flow at a stream speed of 50 km/h. If the

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a­ verage space gap between vehicles to follow the relation Sg

= 0.278Vt, where V is stream speed (km/h), t is the average
reaction time = 0.7 second, assume average length of vehi-
cles = 5 m (capacity in vehicles/hours/lane).
(A) 3260 (B) 3390
(C) 3470 (D) 3580 Speed limit Restriction ends No parking

Solution
900 mm
V = 50 km/h
c/c spacing of vehicles S 900 mm

= 0.278 Vt + L
= 0.278 × 50 × 0.7 + 5 Stop Give way
= 14.73 m.
These are represented by equilateral triangle with its
1000
Theoretical capacity, q = apex upwards with white background red board and
S black symbol.
1000 × 50 Example: Sharp curve, Narrow bridge, School zone,
= T-intersection, hill or ghat road.
14.73
3. Informatory or guiding signs:
= 3394.43 vehicles/hour/lane
•• These are rectangular in shape and used to guide
q  3390 vehicles/hour/lane the road users along routes, inform them of desti-
Hence, the correct answer is option (B). nation and the distance, and thus gives information
to make travel easier, safe and pleasant.
•• On NH and SH, the informatory signs are of green
Traffic Regulation and Control back ground with borders and words in white
To have safe traffic operations on roads, it is desirable to colour.
impose adequate traffic regulations and traffic control by Example: Destination signs, Direction signs, Route
providing traffic control devices marker signs, Hospital, eating places, etc.
Traffic Control devices are: •• (Refer text books for more traffic signs)
1. Traffic signs
2. Traffic signals
Traffic Signals
Provided at intersections where there are a large number
3. Traffic islands
of crossing and right turn traffic and there is possibility of
4. Road markings several accidents.
Traffic Signs •• The time elapsed from the beginning of getting red to a
There are used with the objective of regulating, warning and particular side to the beginning of next red to the same
guiding the users of motor vehicles side is called ‘Cycle’.
•• Traffic control signals have three coloured lights
1. Regulatory/mandatory signs: These signs are Red: Vehicles must stop
provided to inform the road users certain laws, Amber: indicates change of signal
regulations and prohibitions. Green: Vehicles can proceed
  These are circular in shape, with white colour
interior and red border or width 60 mm
•• Stop sign is of octagonal shape and red in colour Types of Traffic Signals
with a white border of width 30 mm 1. Traffic control signals:
•• violation of regulatory signs is a legal offence (a) Manually operated signals
Example: No entry, U turn, right turn prohibited, (b) Fixed time automatic signals
Horn prohibited, speed limit (c) Automatic traffic actuated signals
2. Warning signs: These are to warn the road users of 2. Pedestrian signal:
certain hazardous conditions that exist on or adjacent •• For pedestrian control
to roadway. •• It has only Green and Red

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3. Special traffic signal: ‘Flashing beacons’ may be 5. Traffic islands: The raised areas constructed within
installed at certain locations in order to warm the the roadway to establish physical channels through
traffic of certain situations. which vehicles can move freely.
•• Flashing red signals, are to stop before entering a   Based on function, traffic islands may be classified as
stop line/cross walk. (a) Divisional islands: Kerbs which just divide the
•• Flashing yellow signals are cautionary signals to road into lanes to prevent accidents and head on
signify that drivers may proceed with caution. collisions.
Signal design methods: (b) Channelising islands: To guide the traffic into
(a) Trial cycle method proper channel through the intersection area at
(b) Approximate method based on pedestrian cross- grades especially when the area is large.
ing requirement (c) Pedestrian loading/refuge islands: Provided at
(c) Design based IRC guidelines bus stop after two or three lanes for crossing mul-
4. Weber’s method: tilane highways to cross the roads.
•• This is an analytical approach of determining the (d) Rotary island: This is larger than channeliz-
optimum cycle time. ing islands and provided at an intersection when
•• ‘Optimum signal cycle time’ corresponds to least number of intersection legs are five or more and
overall delay. all are of equal importance.
•• Normal flow (q) and saturation flow (S) values
per unit time on each road meeting at junction are Design of Rotary
required for signal design. Design speeds are reduced to 40 km/h for rural highways
1.5 L + 5 and 30 km/h for roads in urban areas rotaries can be circu-
•• Optimum cycle time, C0 = lar, elliptical, tangential, turbine, etc.
1−Y
•• Green time on road 1 (Turbine is most efficient)
y1 1. Weaving angle and weaving length: The angle
G1 = (C0 – L)
Y between the path of a vehicle entering the rotary to
Y = y1 + y2 + y3 + … that of another vehicle leaving the rotary is called
L = Lost time per cycle in seconds = 2n + R weaving angle.
N = Number of phases
R = All red time   It should be small, but ≥ 15°.
q1 q2 q3   The length of rotary road way between any two
Y1 = : y2 = ;y = adjacent channelising islands is called weaving
S1 S2 3 S3
length.
Effective green time: 2. Radius of rotary:
•• It is the actual time available for the vehicles to •• As per IRC
cross the intersection Minimum Radius of central island = 1.33 (Radius
(Effective green time = Total Green + Yellow – Lost of entry curve)
time) •• Radius is calculated keeping super elevation, e
(Lane capacity: (qmax)) = 0 and longitudinal coefficient of friction, f = 0.43
gi to 0.47.
Qmax = Si
C0 3. Width of carriageway at entry and exit: Minimum
Si = Saturation flow on ith lane width at entry = 5 m
gi 4. Width of rotary road way:
= Green ratio

C0  e1 + e2 
W=   + 3.5
Gi = Effective green time on ith lane  2 
C0 = Cycle time Where
Green time for pedestrian crossing:   e1 = Average width at entry
W   e2 = Average width at non weaving section
Gp = ts + •• Practical capacity of rotary road way,
up
ts = Start up lost time (As per IRC = 4.7 s)
  e     p 
280 w 1 +    1 −   
W = Width of road
  w  3
Qp =
up = Walking speed of pedestrians (15% speed, 1.2
 w
 1 + 
m/s as per IRC) L

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Where
  w = Width of weaving section
e1 + e2 e
  e = and  (0.4 to 1.0)
2 w
  L = Weaving length
  p = Proportion of weaving traffic
b+c
  = Semi-direct
a+b+c+d

b, c are crossing/weaving traffic while entering/
leaving rotary.

a, d are non weaving traffic at rotary.

Road Intersections
An intersection is where two or more roads join or cross.
1. Grade intersection: Indirect
•• In this roads cross each other at same level. Diamond interchange: Provides for transfers of
•• Relative speed and manoeuvre areas are to be con- traffic from one road to another crossing, but with
sidered in design. reduced speed.
•• During the design, attempts should be made to •• Used in built-up area
minimise be the total conflict area, especially
Cloverleaf interchange:
major conflict area.
•• This is a high speed interchange with least number
(a) Un-channelised intersections
of conflicts.
(b) Channelised intersections
•• Right turning traffic is completely eliminated.
(c) Rotary intersections
•• Used in open country, when two high speed roads
(d) Signalised intersections
meet at a function.
2. Grade separated intersection/interchange ramps
(Fly over):
•• In this roads cross each other at different levels.
•• This causes least delay and hazard to traffic flow
and is the highest form of intersection treatment.
•• A bridge is an interchange without ramps.

Interchanges
Interchanges are classified as:
1. Direct
2. Semi-direct
3. Indirect Parking
On Street or Kerb Parking
•• Vehicles are parked along the park.
•• Width of the kerb required for parking depends on angle
of parking.
1. Parallel parking:
•• Parallel parking needs less roadway width.
•• This is preferred when the width of kerb parking
space and the width of the street are limited.
•• The number of vehicles that can be parked per unit
Direct length of road is least.

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5.9 m 5.9 m  L − 1.77 

•• Number of vehicles that can be parked N =   (for
 3.54 
45° parking)
5m 2.5 m

Off Street Parking

0.9 m •• When parking facility is provided at a separate place
away from the road side or kerb, it is known as off-street
Number of vehicles that can be parked, parking.
•• There is no due increase in congestion, delay and hin-
L drance to moving traffic as in on street parking.
N=
5.9 •• Drawback is that it is not possible to provide it at close
intervals in business centres of a city and also vehicle
2. Angle parking: users have to walk a greater distance after parking.
•• Width of roadway for parking and width required
for parking and un-parking operations increase
with increase in parking angle up to a maximum Highway Lighting
at 90° angle. •• As per IRC, the minimum illumination required on
•• This parking accommodates more vehicles per unit important roads is 30 Lux and main roads is 15 Lux
length of kerb.
•• Maximum number of vehicles can be parked at Lamp lumen × Coefficient
90°. of utilization × Maintenance factor
•• More convenient for drivers for parking and un- Spacing of lamps =
Average lux on road × Width of read
parking operations, but cause more obstruction to
the through traffic resulting in accidents.
•• 45° Angle parking is considered to be best considering NOTE
all factors. Generally maintenance factor is taken as 80%
1.77 m

3.54 3.54 5.9 m

5
m 5.58 m
m
5
2.

45° Angle parking

Exercises
1. The road geometrics in India are designed for the 3. Name the traffic survey data which is plotted by means
(A) 98th highest hourly traffic volume. of ‘desire lines’.
(B) 85th highest hourly traffic volume. (A) Accident (B) Classified volume
(C) 50th highest hourly traffic volume. (C) Origin and destination (D) Speed and delay
(D) 30th highest hourly traffic volume.
2. The speed and delay studies on a defined section of 4. If a two-lane national highway and a two-lane state
high way are conducted by highway intersect at right angles, the number of poten-
(A) radar gun. tial conflicts points at the intersection, assuming that
both the roads are two-way is
(B) traffic counters.
(C) moving car method. (A) 11 (B) 17
(D) enoscope. (C) 24 (D) 32

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5. The average daily traffic on a stretch of road is 300 11. For designing 2-phase fixed type signal at an inter-
commercial vehicle per lane per day. Design traffic rep- section having north-south and east-west road where
etitions for 10 years when vehicle damage factor is 2.5 only straight ahead traffic is time lost per cycle is 12
and traffic growth rate is 7%, is seconds. The cycle length (seconds) as per Webster’s
(A) 3.8 msa (B) 23.5 msa approach is
(C) 45.4 msa (D) 16 msa
Parameter North South East West
6. A traffic stream in a particular direction of a two lane
Design hour flow (PCU/h) 1000 700 900 550
road is moving with a constant speed of 50 km/h, with
Saturation flow (PCU/h) 2500 2500 3000 3000
an average headway of 2.52 seconds. The longitudinal
distance between two consecutive vehicles is (A) 67 (B) 77
(A) 30 m (B) 35 m
(C) 87 (D) 91
(C) 38 m (D) 42 m
1 2. On a two-lane two-way highway, a car A was following
7. A traffic company operates a scheduled daily truck ser-
a truck B and both were traveling at a speed of 40 km/h.
vice between city P and city Q. One-way journey time
While looking for an opportunity to overtake the truck,
between these two cities is 85 hours. A minimum layo-
The driver of the car A saw another car C coming from
ver time of 5 hours is to be provided. The number of
the opposite direction. At that moment, the distance
trucks required to operate daily service from both the
between A and C was 450 m. After an initial hesitation
cities P and Q?
period of two seconds, the driver of car A started the
(A) 4 (B) 6
overtaking operation. The distance between A and B at
(C) 7 (D) 8
that instance was 30 m. A over took B by accelerat-
8. A single lane unidirectional highway has a design ing at an uniform rate of 1.20 m/s2. When the overtak-
speed of 65 km/h. The perception-brake-reaction time ing operation completes. There was a distance of 25 m
of drivers is 2.5 seconds and the average length of vehi- between B and A. Determine the distance between the
cles is 5 m. The coefficient of longitudinal friction of two cars(A and C) at the instance of completion of the
the pavement is 0.4. The capacity of this road in terms overtaking action(in meters). The distance between dif-
of ‘vehicles’ per hour per lane is ferent vehicles given are as measured from the front
(A) 1440 (B) 750 bumper of one vehicle to the front bumper of another
(C) 710 (D) 680 vehicle. Design speed of the highway is 80 km/h.
9. On a urban road, the free mean speed was measured as 13. The vehicle speed affects the design of
70 km/h and the average spacing between the vehicles (A) sight distance.
under jam condition s 7.0 m. The speed-flow-density
(B) super elevation.
equation is given by
(C) length of transition curve.
 k  (D) All of these
U = Usf 1− 
 k j  14. The speed at which (or) below which 85 per cent
Where of vehicles are passing the point on highway can be
U = Space-mean speed (km/h); assessed is known as
Usf = Free mean speed (km/h); (A) 85th percentile speed.
k = Density (veh/km); (B) 20th percentile speed.
kj = Jam density (veh/km); (C) 15th percentile speed.
q = Flow (veh/h). (D) 25th percentile speed.
The maximum flow (veh/h) per lane for this conditions 15. The method of origin and destination studies in which
is equal to the car is struck with a pre-coded card as it enters the
(A) 2000 (B) 2500 area under study is
(C) 3000 (D) None of these (A) road side interview method.
10. On a specific highway, the speed-density relationship (B) home interview method.
follows the Greenberg’s model [V = Vr loge(kj /k)], (C) license plate method.
where Vr and kj are the free flow speed and jam density
(D) tag on car method.
respectively. When the highway is operating at capac-
ity, the density obtained as per this model is 16. When a vehicle moves obliquely across the path of
another vehicle moving in same direction at small
(A) ekj (B) kj
angle of crossing is termed as
kj kj (A) merging. (B) weaving manoeuvre.
(C) (D)
2 e (C) crossing manoeuvre. (D) diverging.

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 3.984  |  Part III  ■  Unit 11  ■  Transportation Engineering

17. Which of the following graph represents relation (A) warning signs.
between speed and volume? (B) regulatory signs.
(A) (C) informatory signs.
(D) None of these
2 1. The theoretical capacity of traffic lane with one way traf-
Speed (v) fic flow at a stream speed of 80 km/h. The average space
gap Sg = 0.278 Vt and average length of vehicles = 8 m
(A) 3450 veh/h/lane (B) 3395 veh/h/lane
Volume, q
(C) 3530 veh/h/lane (D) 3834 veh/h/lane
22. The average normal flow of traffic on cross roads A
(B)
and B during design period are 400 and 250 PCU per
hour, the saturation flow values on these roads is esti-
Speed (v) mated to be 1350 and 1200 PCU per hour respectively.
The all-red time required for pedestrian crossing is
15 second. The total cycle time using Webster’s method is
(A) 62.4 s (B) 63.3 s
Volume, q (C) 65.53 s (D) 67.5 s
(C) 23.    I. At intersection the area of conflict should be as
small as possible.
II.  Sudden change of path should be avoided.
Speed (v)
(A) I and II are true.
(B) II and III are false.
(C) I is true II is false.
(D) I is false II is true.
Volume, q
(D) 24. In a street light system
Street width = 20 m
Mounting height = 10 m
Speed (v) Lamp size = 5000 lumen
Luminaire type II
Coefficient of utilization = 0.36
 Spacing between lighting units if average lighting
Volume, q
intensity is 6 Lux
18. The free mean speed on a roadway is found to be 100 (assume maintenance factor = 0.8)
km/h under stopped condition the average spacing (A) 16 m (B) 18 m
between vehicles is 8.9 m. The Jam density of flow is (C) 15 m (D) 12 m
(A) 113 vehicles/km. 25. Match the following:
(B) 118 vehicles/km. List I List II
(C) 145 vehicles/km. 1. Diamond a.
(D) 148 vehicles/km.
19. The maximum number of vehicles that can pass a given
point on a lane or roadway during one hour under pre-
vailing traffic conditions is known as
(A) basic capacity.
(B) practical capacity.
(C) possible capacity.
(D) highway capacity.
2. Rotary b.
20.

The above sign is categorized under

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 Chapter 4  ■  Traffic Engineering  |  3.985

List I List II List I (Type of Marking) List II (Areas)

3. Partial c. 3. Object markings c. No parking zones and
clover leaf traffic lanes
4. Word messages d. Kerb markings and
objects within the
carriage way

Codes:
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
(A) c a b d (B) d c b a
(C) b c d a (D) a d c b
4. Full clover d.
leaf 30. Desired lines are used in
(A) speed and delay studies.
(B) origin and destination study.
(C) spot speed study.
(D) None of these
31. The spacing between the vehicles allowed by the driver
of the following vehicle does not depends on
(A) speed of leading vehicle.
Codes: (B) average length and width of vehicle class.
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 (C) tyre and characteristics of two vehicles.
(A) a b c d (B) a d c b (D) driver characteristics of following vehicle.
(C) d c b a (D) c b d a 32. The speed of road is 100 km/h and average centre to
26. The no parking symbol is represented by centre spacing of vehicles (or) space headway is 10 m.
(A) triangle (B) circle The capacity of single lane is
(C) octagonal (D) hexagonal (A) 103 veh/h/lane (B) 105 veh/h/lane
27. The practical capacity of a rotary is given by the 4
(C) 10 veh/h/lane (D) 102 veh/h/lane
formula
33. Match the following
 p
280 w (1 + w ) 1 −  List I (Traffic
 3  Man Oeuvres) List II (Figures)
QP =
(A)
 w 1. Diverging left a.
1 + L 
 
 w  p
280 w 1 +  1 − 
 L  3 
(B) QP = 2. Diverging right b.
 e
1 + w 
 
 e  w 
280 w 1 +  1 + 
(C) QP =  w  L
 p
1 − 3 
  3. Crossing right c.
(D) None of these
28. The average width of entry e1 is 150 m and average
width of exit is 200 m. The width of the rotary roadway is
(A) 182 m (B) 178 m
4. Merging left d.
(C) 176 m (D) 179 m
29. Match the following
List I (Type of Marking) List II (Areas)
1. Markings at a. Slow and stop Codes:
intersections 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
2. Carriage way marking b. Speed change lanes (A) b a c d (B) c a b d
and stop lines (C) d c a b (D) c d b a

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 3.986  |  Part III  ■  Unit 11  ■  Transportation Engineering

34. The charts showing the volume variations over a period (A) 2 m (B) 3 m
of years are known as (C) 2.5 m (D) 3.5 m
(A) trend charts. (B) variation charts.
42. The capacity of vehicles on a single lane pavement with
(C) traffic flow maps. (D) volume flow diagram. a design speed of 50 km/h and spacing between vehi-
35. The speed at which greatest number of vehicles travel cles of 59.5 m is
is called (A) 840.3 (B) 842.8
(A) medium speed. (C) 848.3 (D) 846.2
(B) model speed.
43. Two major roads with two lanes each are crossing in
(C) 15th percentile speed. an urban area to form an uncontrolled intersection, the
(D) 98th percentile speed. number of conflict points when both roads are two way
36. Match List I (Traffic survey) with List II and select the is X and when both roads are one way is Y. the ratio of
correct answer using the codes given: X and Y is
List I List II
(A) 0.25 (B) 4
a. Spot speed 1. By video tape
(C) 40 (D) 96
b. Traffic volume 2. By road side interview 44. If the standard deviation of the spot speed of vehicles
c. O-D survey 3. By doppler radar in the high way is 9.2 km/h and the mean speed of
vehicles is 43 km/h. The coefficient of variation of
d. Parking survey 4. By pneumatic tube
speed is
Codes: (A) 0.213 (B) 0.321
a b c d a b c d (C) 0.323 (D) 0.314
(A) 3 1 2 4 (B) 2 4 3 1
45. A two lane urban road with one-way traffic has a
(C) 3 4 2 1 (D) 4 2 1 3
maximum capacity of 2800 veh/h. Under jam condi-
37. The design speed of a traffic lane is 70 km/h. What is tion, the average length occupied by vehicles is 10 m.
the theoretical capacity per hour taking the total reac- The speed versus density relationship is linear, for a
tion time to be 2 seconds and average length of vehicles traffic volume of 1500 veh/h, the density (in veh/km)
as 8 m? is
(A) 828 veh/m/day (B) 735 veh/m/day (A) 43.29
(C) 628 veh/m/day (D) 428 veh/m/day (B) 43.12
38. On a road the free speed was 65 km/h and the space (C) 42.19
headway at jam density was 6.25 m. What is the (D) 42.69
maximum flow which could be expected on this 46. A transport company operates a scheduled daily
road? truck service between city P and city Q. Two way
(A) 2600 veh/h (B) 1625 veh/h journey time between these two cities is 80 hours. A
(C) 1300 veh/h (D) 406 veh/h minimum lay over time of 2 hours is to be provided,
39. The last time due to starting delay on a traffic signal then the number of trucks required to provide this
approach is noted to be 3 seconds, the actual green time service is
is 20 seconds and amber time is 3 seconds. How much (A) 4 (B) 2
is the effective green time? (C) 6 (D) 8
(A) 19 seconds (B) 22 seconds 47. The PCU (Passenger Car Unit) value for cycle on an
(C) 27 seconds (D) 31 seconds urban road is
40. The free mean speed on a road wing is found to be (A) 0.5 (B) 1.0
60 km/h under stopped condition the average spacing (C) 3.0 (D) 4.0
between vehicle is 6 m. The capacity of flow, assuming
linear speed density relation is 48. The average spacing between vehicles in a traffic
stream is 100 m, then the density (in veh/km) of the
(A) 2333 veh/h (B) 3333 veh/h
stream is ______.
(C) 2870 veh/h (D) 3838 veh/h
49. The speed density (U–K) relationship on a single lane
41. If the lamp lumen is 30 lux coefficient of utilization is
road with unidirectional flow is U = 65–0.65 k, where U
0.3, maintenance factor is 0.25, average lux on road is
is in km/h and k is in veh/km. The capacity of the road
15 and width of road is 7.5, then spacing between the
(in veh/h) is ______.
street light is

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 Chapter 4  ■  Traffic Engineering  |  3.987

Previous Years’ Questions

1. In signal design as per Indian Roads Congress speci- the critical lane volume on the minor road remains
fications, if the sum of the ratios of normal flows to unchanged. The green time will [GATE, 2008]
saturation flow of two directional traffic flow is 0.50 7 m wide road, minor road 2 lane
and the total lost time per cycle is 10 seconds, the
optimum cycle length in seconds is [GATE, 2007] 180 vph
(A) 100 (B) 80
(C) 60 (D) 40 Turns prohibited
2. If the standard deviation of the spot speed of vehi- Major road 4 lane
cles in a highway is 8.8 km/h and the mean speed of 660 vph 550 vph
the vehicles is 33 km/h, the coefficient of variation in Divided 14 m wide
speed is [GATE, 2007]
(A) 0.1517 (B) 0.1867
(C) 0.2666 (D) 0.3646
3. The shape of the STOP sign according to IRC: 180 vph
67–2001 is [GATE, 2008]
(A) circular (B) triangular (A) increase for the major road and remain same for
(C) octagonal (D) rectangular the minor road.
4. The capacities of ‘one-way 1.5 m wide sidewalk (per- (B) increase for the major road and decrease for the
sons per hour)’ and ‘one-way 2- lane urban road (PCU minor road.
per hour, with no frontage access, no standing vehi- (C) decrease for both the roads.
cles and very little cross traffic)’ are respectively (D) remain unchanged for both the roads.
 [GATE, 2008] 8. A three-phase traffic signal at an intersection is
(A) 1200 and 2400 (B) 1800 and 2000 designed for flows shown in the figure below.
(C) 1200 and 1500 (D) 2000 and 1200 There are six groups of flows identified by the num-
bers 1 through 6. Among these 1, 3, 4 and 6 are
5. A linear relationship is observed between speed and
through flows and 2 and 5 are right turning. Which
density on a certain section of a highway. The free
phasing scheme is not feasible? [GATE, 2009]
flow speed is observed to be 80 km/h and the jam
density is estimated as 100 vehicles per km length. 5 4
Based on the above relationship, the maximum flow
expected on this section and the speed at the maxi-
mum flow will respectively be
 [GATE, 2008]
(A) 8000 vehicles/h and 80 km/h
6
(B) 8000 vehicles/h and 25 km/h
(C) 2000 vehicles/h and 80 km/h
(D) 2000 vehicles/h and 40 km/h 3

6. A roundabout is provided with an average entry width

of 8.4 m, width of weaving section as 14 m, and
length of the weaving section between channelizing
islands as 35 m. The crossing traffic and total traffic
on the weaving section are 1000 and 2000 PCU per 1 2
hour respectively. The nearest rounded capacity of the
Combination Choice Phase I Phase II Phase III
roundabout (in PCU per hour) is [GATE, 2008]
P 1, 4 2, 5 3, 6
(A) 3300 (B) 3700
(C) 4500 (D) 5200 Q 1, 2 4, 5 3, 6
R 2, 5 1, 3 4, 6
7. Design parameters for a signalized intersection are
S 1, 4 2, 6 3, 5
shown in the figure below. The green time calculated
for major and minor roads are 34 and 18 seconds,
respectively. The critical lane volume on the major (A) P (B) Q
road changes to 440 vehicles per hour per lane and (C) R (D) S

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 3.988 | Part III ■ Unit 11 ■ Transportation Engineering

9. As per IRC:67–2001; traffic sign indicating the speed 14. It was observed that 150 vehicles crossed a particu-
limit on a road should be of [GATE, 2010] lar location of a highway in a duration of 30 minutes.
(A) circular shape with white background and Assuming that vehicle arrival follows a negative
redborder. exponential distribution, find out the number of time
(B) triangular shape with white background and red head ways grater than 5 seconds in the above observa-
border. tion is ______. [GATE, 2013]
(C) triangular shape with red background and white 15. For two major roads with divided carriageway cross-
border. ing at right angle, a full clover leaf interchange with
(D) circular shape with red background and white four indirect ramps is provided. Following state-
border. ments are made on turning movements of vehicles
10. The jam density is given as k and the free flow speed to all directions from both roads. Identify the correct
is given as u, the maximum flow for a linear traffic statement: [GATE, 2013]
speed-density model flow for a which of the following (A) Merging from left is possible, but diverging to
options? [GATE, 2011] left is not possible.
(A) 1/4 ku (B) 1/3 ku (B) Both merging from left and diverging to left are
(C) 3/5 ku (D) 2/3 ku possible.
(C) Merging from left is not possible, but diverging
11. The cumulative arrival and departure curve of one
to left is possible.
cycle of an approach lane of a signalized intersection
(D) Neither merging from left nor diverging to left is
is shown in the adjoining figure. The cycle time is 50
possible.
seconds and the effective red time is 30 seconds and
the effective green time is 20 seconds. What is the 16. The minimum value of 15 minutes peak hour factor
average delay? [GATE, 2011] on a section of a road is [GATE, 2014]
40 (A) 0.10 (B) 0.20
Cumulative arrival or departure

(C) 0.25 (D) 0.33

17. The average spacing between vehicles in a traffic
30
(No. of vehicles)

Cumulative stream is 50 m, then the density (in veh/km) of the

arive stream is ______. [GATE, 2014]
20 18. The speed-density (u-k) relationship on a single lane
road with unidirectional flow is u = 70 – 0.7 k, where
u is in km/h and k is in veh/km. The capacity of the
10
Cumulative road (in veh/h) is ______. (GATE 2014)
departure 19. An isolated three-phase traffic signal is designed by
0 Weber’s method. The critical flow ratios for three
0 10 20 30 40 50
phases are 0.20, 0.30 and 0.25 respectively, and lost
Time (s)
time per phase is 4 seconds. The optimum cycle
(A) 15 seconds (B) 25 seconds length (in seconds) is ______. [GATE, 2014]
(C) 35 seconds (D) 45 seconds 20. A student riding a bicycle on a 5 km one-way street
12. Two major roads with two lanes each are crossing in an takes 40 minutes to reach home. The student stopped
urban area to from an un-controlled intersection. The for 15 minutes during this ride. 60 vehicles overtook
number of conflict points when both roads are one- the student (assume the number of vehicles overtaken
way is ‘X ’ and when both roads are two-way is ‘Y ’. by the student is zero) during the ride and 45 vehi-
The ratio of X to Y is [GATE, 2012] cles while the student stopped. The speed of vehicle
(A) 0.25 (B) 0.33 stream on that road (in km/h) is [GATE, 2014]
(C) 0.50 (D) 0.75 (A) 7.5 (B) 12
13. A two–lane urban road with one-way traffic has a (C) 40 (D) 60
maximum capacity of 1800 vehicle/h. Under the jam 21. On a section of a highway the speed-density relation-
condition, the average length occupied by the vehicles  2 
is average length occupied by the vehicles is 5.0 m. ship is linear and is given by v = 80 − k  ; where
 3 
The speed versus density relationship is linear. For a v  is in km/h and k is in veh/km. The capacity (in
traffic volume of 1000 vehicle/h, the density (in vehi- veh/h) of this section of the highway would be
cles/km) is [GATE, 2012] [GATE, 2014]
(A) 52 (B) 58 (A) 1200 (B) 2400
(C) 67 (D) 33 (C) 4800 (D) 9600

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 Chapter 4  ■  Traffic Engineering  |  3.989

22. A pre-timed four phase signal has critical lane flow 26. While traveling along and against the traffic stream,
rate for the first three phases as 200, 187 and 210 a moving observer measured the relative flows as 50
veh/h with saturation flow rate of 1800 veh/h/lane for vehicles/hour and 200 vehicles/hour, respectively.
all phases. The lost time is given as 4 seconds for each The average speeds of the moving observer while
phase. If the cycle length is 60 seconds, the effective traveling along and against the stream are 20 km/hour
green time (in seconds) of the fourth phase is ______. and 30 km/hour, respectively. The density of the traf-
 [GATE, 2014] fic stream (expressed in vehicles/km) is _________.
23. The following statements are made related to the  [GATE, 2016]
lengths of turning lanes at signalized intersections: 27. If the total number of commercial vehicles per day
 [GATE, 2015] ranges from 3000 to 6000, the minimum percentage
I. 1.5 times the average number of vehicles (by vehi- of commercial traffic to be surveyed for axle load is
cle type) that would store in turning lane per cycle  [GATE, 2016]
during the peak hour. (A) 15
II. 2 times the average number of vehicles (by vehi- (B) 20
cle type) that would store in turning lane per cycle (C) 25
during the peak hour. (D) 30
III.  Average number of vehicles (by vehicle type) 28. The critical flow ratios for a three-phase signal are
that would store in the adjacent through lane found to be 0.30, 0.25, and 0.25. The total time lost
per cycle during the peak hour. in the cycle is 10 seconds. Pedestrian crossings at
IV. Average number of vehicles (by vehicle type) that this junction are not significant. The respective Green
would store in all lanes per cycle during the peak times (expressed in seconds and rounded off to the
hour. As per the IRC recommendations, the cor- nearest integer) for the three phases are
rect choice for design length of storage lanes is  [GATE, 2016]
(A) Maximum of II and III (A) 34, 28, and 28
(B) Maximum of I and III (B) 40, 25, and 25
(C) Average of I and III (C) 40, 30, and 30
(D) Only IV (D) 50, 25, and 25
24. The relation between speed u (in km/h) and density 29. A motorist traveling at 100 km/h on a highway needs
k (number of vehicles/km) for a traffic stream on a to take the next exit, which has a speed limit of 50
road is, u = 70 – 0.7k. The capacity on this road is km/h. The section of the roadway before the ramp
_________ vph (vehicles/hour). [GATE, 2015] entry has a downgrade of 3% and coefficient of
25. In a one-lane one-way homogeneous traffic stream, friction (f ) is 0.35. In order to enter the ramp at the
the observed average headway is 3.0 seconds. The maximum allowable speed limit, the braking distance
flow (expressed in vehicles/hour) in this traffic stream (expressed in m) from the exist ramp is_________.
is________. [GATE, 2016]  [GATE, 2016]

Answer Keys

Exercises
1. D 2. C 3. C 4. C 5. A 6. B 7. D 8. C 9. B 10. D
11. B 12.  8.4 m 13. D 14. A 15. D 16. B 17. C 18. A 19. C 20. B
21. B 22. D 23. A 24. D 25. B 26. B 27. A 28. D 29. C 30. B
31. B 32. C 33. B 34. A 35. B 36. B 37. B 38. A 39. B 40. B
41. A 42. A 43. B 44. A 45. C 46. B 47. A 48. 10 49. 1625

Previous Years’ Questions

1. D 2. C 3. C 4. A 5. D 6. B 7. A 8. C 9. A 10. A
11. A 12. A 13. C 14. 11.86 15. B 16. C 17. 20 18. 1750 19. 92 20. D
21. B 22. 15.745 23. B 24. 1750 25. 1200 26. 3 27. A
28. A 29. 92.32

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