TOPIC 1: INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTING

Sub Topic 1: Introduction to Computers

A Computer is electronic device that receives data, processes data, stores data, and
produces a result (output).
A Computer is an electronic device which stores and processes data in binary form
according to the instructions given to it in available program.
A Computer is an electronic device that accepts data input, processes it according to some
specified instructions (software), outputs the information and stores the results for future
use.
The concept of computer system
A computer system is a collection of entities that collectively work together to process data
into information. A computer system is more than a box with components; it comprises the
elements or components that make the machine fully useful.
The Components of a computer system
 Hardware  Human ware
 Software  Communication
 Data & Information

Hardware
This is a term used to describe all the various physical devices of a computer. Computer
hardware components are tangible (they can be touched).
Computer hardware includes.
 Input devices like the keyboard and mouse,
 Processing devices like the Microprocessor Chip,
 Storage devices like the Hard disks and the CDs,
 Output devices like the monitor and the printer

Computer Software
Software is a term for electronic instructions that tell the computer how to perform a task.
These are a series of programs (instructions) that tell the computer what and how to work.
Computer software can be grouped into System software and Application software

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System software like the Operating system (such as Windows, Linux, UNIX, DOS, Mac Os
etc.) are used to manage and coordinate all the computer resources and activities.
Application software (such as Games, Calculator and Media Player, Word Processors, etc.)
solve the specific or exact needs of the user
Computer Users/ Human ware
 Computer Users (Human ware) refers to the people who operate and initialize
instructions to the computer system.
 They design and develop computer systems, operate the computer hardware, create
the software, and establish procedures for carrying out tasks.

Types of computer users

Ordinary user -is someone without much technical knowledge of computers but uses
computers to produce information for professional or personal tasks, enhance learning, or
have fun. Ordinary users include Computer students, Typists (Secretaries), etc.
Professional user -is a person in a profession involving computers who has had formal
education in the technical aspects of computers; Examples include Computer programmers,
webmasters, etc
Data & Information

Data refers to raw facts and figures used to create information.

This is entered into the computer by the user via input devices, in a form suitable for
processing. Data may consist of characters, symbols, sounds and graphics, videos etc.
Computer Information
 Processed data (Information) Like a words (e.g boy), a mathematical formula,
grades, a piece of music, a song etc.
 Information refers to the processed data that makes meaning and is useful.
 For example the figure 10082006 may be input as data, but once this same figure is
converted to the format 10/08/2006, you realize that it’s a date.
 Computer Information is organized into files, which are collections of data grouped
together and given a name
 A file that a user can open and use is often called a document.

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Computer Communication
Computer communication is the transmission of data and information over a channel
between two computers. Computer communication allows sharing of hardware, software,
data and human ware among computers in a network like the Internet. It also facilitates
communications between people e.g. through e-mail.

CHARACTERISTICS OF MODERN COMPUTERS

(1)Speed
Computers operate at extremely high speeds. Their speed is measured in millions of
instructions per second (MIPS).
(2) Automatic
Computers are automatic machines, because once started on a job, they carry on, until the
job is finished, without any human assistance. However, computer being machines cannot
start them. They cannot go out find their own problems and solutions. They have to be
instructed.
(3) Accuracy
Computers are very accurate. The errors in made computing are due to the users but not
technological weakness. If a user enters wrong data, the computer gives wrong Information.
This trend is described as GIGO (Garbage In Garbage Out)
(4) Diligence: this is the ability of a computer to work without getting tired or bored. It can
continuously work for hours without creating any error human beings in doing regular types
of jobs, which requires great accuracy.
(5) Versatility: It means the capacity to perform many different types of tasks. A computer is
capable of performing almost any task, if the task can be reduced to series of logical steps
(6) Artificial Intelligence: This is the ability of a computer to think and reason likes a human
being. The computer is capable of mimicking human behaviours like sensing, responding to
the stimuli and others.

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The Information Processing Cycle
 The information processing cycle is a series of steps the computer follows to
receive data and process it into information.
 The 4 basic operations of the information processing cycle are input, processing,
output, storage and/or distribution.
 A computer is the machine that performs the cycle.
Data processing is the activity of manipulation of raw facts to get meaningful information.
Data processing is the process that involves transformation of data into information.
These are the steps that are taken to convert raw facts, which are data, into information. It
starts with data collection.
The stages of the information processing cycle
1. Input stage
Data, instructions and commands are entered /inserted into the computer with the
help of input hardware devices for processing.
2. Processing stage
Data is converted, changed, transformed, interpreted, and manipulated into
information that can be understood by the user.
3. Storage stage. Information is kept temporarily or permanently for future use in the
computer.
4. Output stage. At this stage, information is produced, conveyed or displayed to the
user. The user can be able to see the results of processing with the help of output
devices.
The Common hardware parts of a computer
• The basic parts of a computer include the following.
(a) The system unit
It’s the core of a computer system; it is rectangular box that houses the internal electronic
delicate parts of a computer. The system unit is also known as the chassis that gives
appearance and shape of the computer. The system unit protects the internal parts of the
computer. The most important part is the CPU or processor which acts as the brain of a
computer. There are two types of system unit and these include; The Tower and Desktop.
(b) Mouse

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 A mouse is a small device used to point and select items on the computer screen. It used in
the movement of the cursor
(c) Keyboard
A keyboard is in input device mainly used for typing text and issuing commands into the
computer
(d) A monitor is an output device that displays information in visual form like text and
graphics to the user.
(e) A printer transfers data from a computer onto a paper in form of a hard copy. One
does not need a printer to use a computer, but it allows you to print the documents.
(f) A speaker is an output device that is used to play sound. They may be built into the
system unit or connected with cables

Sub-Topic 2: The World of ICTs

The term Information and communication Technology (ICT) combines three items i.e.
[information, communication, and technology]
• Information: Refers to the processed data that carries meaning. It is data has been
prepared and organized very well.
• Communication in this regard refers to the electronic transfer of data from one
point to another.
• Technology refers to the technique and way of doing something.

GENERAL DEFINITON:
Information and Communication Technology (ICT) refers to the broad range of hardware,
software, network infrastructure and media that enable the processing, storage and sharing
of information among humans and computers, locally and globally.
Information Technology refers to a set of technological tools, resources which are used to
communicate, create, disseminate, store information and manage information.
Examples of old technology:  Photographic films
 Fax machine  Radios
 News papers
 Landlines

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Examples of new technology:  Email
 Computers  etc
 Smart phones
The use of ICTs in society
 Today people use ICTs in almost every walk of life.
 However, along with these advancements of science there arises the dilemma of
development of technology as it affects human individuals.
 They have come with both positive and negative impacts to our society.
Computers are applied in the areas of
 Business  Politics and governance
 Education  Art, leisure and entertainment
 Health  Industrial, technical and scientific
 Security uses

Uses of ICTs in the Area of Education

 In education, we use Computer Assisted Instruction (CAI), Computer Aided Learning
(CAL) and Computer Aided Assessment (CAA)
 Schools use computers to create school websites for sharing information with the
public.
 Productivity tools like desktop publishing and presentation software are used in
projects and other school activities.
 Computers are used for calculating mathematical arithmetic by students and
teachers in class.
 With Use of School Administration and Management Systems. (SAMS) Records
management is made easier because all details of learners can be held on
computer, and easily retrieved, reducing administrative costs.
 Students’ Progressive Report Cards can be produced electronically by use of
computers instead of hand written ones.
 Distance learning through computer based training. People get award such as
degrees without going to class.

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  Teachers use simulation software to perform difficult or dangerous experiments in
class.
 Use of special facilities for students with disabilities like text to speech and speech
recognition to help blind students.
Uses of ICTs in the Area of Business
 Computers enable people to Work from home, using a computer connected to
the employer's network or via the Internet. This is known as Telecommuting.
 Computers have created more jobs such as Computer technicians, Computer
teachers, etc.
 Buying and selling Computers and its components is a source of income to
individuals, and companies.
 Through, Computer Aided Design (CAD), scale drawings, and excellent designs
can be created easily.
 Computers are used for sending and receiving Mobile Money and making world-
wide money transfers.
 Banks use Computers to manage transactions and Automated Teller Machines
ATMs for 24 hours banking.
 Computers help in Business Advertisement through creating websites, internet,
flyers, brochures and billboards.
 Computers are used in typesetting business for production of document
printouts and publication of Books for sale.
 Computers are used for E-Commerce: the sale of goods and services over the
internet.
Uses of ICTs in the Area of Health
 Hospitals use computers for managing and storing Records electronically, rather
than paper files.
 Hospital Administration is also aided by printing labels, allocating beds, make
appointments, staff rotas, etc.
 Internet helps us get Web sites for information on health care, treatments,
conditions, etc
 Monitoring/Diagnosis such as Heart rate, blood pressure, etc. is aided by
Computer Expert systems.

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  Medical Training is facilitated by Simulation software and on-line data sources.
 Computers are used to carry out many surgical procedures such as laparoscopic
surgeries
 They are used in diagnosis and cure of many diseases for example CT Scan, Ultra
sound devices and Magnetic imaging. (IMR)
 They enable online consultations by medical professionals.
 Use of computer assisted tests can be carried out before prescribing treatment.
 Use of computer assisted life saver machine.
 Enable faster communication between patients and doctors
 Can be used to monitor the patients in hospitals

Uses of ICTs in the Area of Security

 Computers aid monitoring security through cameras, Automatic number plate
recognition, etc.
 Communication systems are widely used in the military to coordinate the
personnel.
 Some computer systems can detect temperatures and alarm in case of danger of
fire outbreaks.
 Computers are used for capturing data for Police National Computer Databases –
, vehicle number plates, criminals’ fingerprints, etc.
 Computers are used to detect presence of illegal devices such as bombs.
 Computers are also used for controlling dangerous weapons such as missiles.
 Computers are used for storing criminal databases and information at Police
stations.
Uses of ICTs in the Area of Politics and Governance
 Public records -A maintained database of statistical information such as electoral
register and census data can be availed online.
 Use of electronic voting during elections. The introduction of Biometric Voters
Verification Machines during the 2016 General Elections in Uganda.
 Government departments can use a computer based platform to get feedback
from the citizens.

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Uses of ICT in Art, Leisure and Entertainment
 Computers enable people to play computer games like GTA Vice City, Need for
Speed, Solitaire etc.
 Internet has promoted social networking that has enabled interaction between
people. Examples include Twitter, Facebook, Linkedn etc.
 Computers can be used to play music during free time.
 Computers can be used to watch movies and videos.
 Digital cameras can be used to record and capture videos on parties.
 Computers are used to compose and edit songs by producers through using
audio and video production software.
 Internet enables people to read magazines online.
Uses of ICTs in the Area of Communication
 E-mail: Electronic Mail sent from one person to other using connected computers
helps a lot in the area of communication.
 Video Conferencing enables people in different locations to conduct meeting as if
they are in the same location.
 Computers are used for Faxing: Sending an image of a document electronically.
 Computers enable people to send voice, image, text and data though telephones
and mobile cell phones.
 Social Networks such as Facebook, and Twitter enable people to stay in touch
with their relatives, friends and interests
Industrial, Technical and Scientific Uses of ICTs
• In Astronomy, Computers are essential tools to study the behavior of the
complex systems in space as regards to their movements, interactions etc.
• Through Computer Aided Manufacture (CAM), computers can be used to control
the production of goods in factories.
• Computers perform Telescope pointing and tracking (including error correction),
Camera operation, image download and storage, Image reduction (the
measurement of the image), and Data processing.
• Monitoring highway traffic
• Computers are used to tell schedules of water vessels, train, buses to their
respective stations. You only need to use your PDA device or cello phone and
check it out.
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 • Computers are used very extensively in design of roads. Roadways and bridges
are designed using software programs like CAD etc.
Positive Implications of Using ICTs
• Enhancement of efficiency- ICT has brought the ability among workers to produce
good results by using the available time, money, supplies etc. in most effective
manner.
• Communication. This has been enhanced by the development in the
communication industry e.g E-mail, skype, Facebook etc.
• Networking. This is basically use of computer and other resources thus
eliminating duplication of data and other resources in the organization
• Security. Computers have generally improved security through computer
development of security conscious gadgets like automated gates CCTV cameras.
• Service delivery. It has stimulated a sustainable flow of information and
interlinking the various stakeholders within the various businesses.
• Entertainment. For example, playing computerized music, games, computer
games etc.
• Enhancement of employment opportunities e.g computer teachers, software
engineers etc which has created employment opportunities.
• ICT explore and facilitates scientific research e.g solving the problem of physics
and engineering design, explore relations of biological and physiological
processes.
Negative Implications of using ICTs
• Health problem. Computers have affected health standards of human life for stance
light from the screen affect eyes, sitting down causes back pain etc.
• Fraud. This is where one commits unacceptable activity as the way of getting
organization's information or data without permission from the owner. E.g stealing
money from one account to another in the Bank.
• Moral degeneration. through the pornographic literature, message clips etc which
have led to loss of cultural values
• Increase in the cost of production. This is because computers are expensive to buy
and maintain hence increased prices.
• Unemployment. It has negatively affected the society by replacing the workers with
no computer skills.

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 • Death and accidents. They cause death and accidents due to computer explosions
• Over reliance on computer. This has come up due to over dependence on computer
making them do everything hence causing mental decadence.
• Environmental Degradation. Computer resources and hardware components are
very harmful to the environment. They have led to soil and air pollution in the
environment.
MAJOR REASONS FOR STUDYING ICTS IN SCHOOLS TODAY
 To promote creative knowledge for problem solving.
Computing requires and develops capabilities in solving deep, multidimensional
problems requiring imagination and sensitivity to a variety of fields.
 To acquire skills in the use of IT for enhanced productivity and development. This is
because the dimensions of computing are part of the necessary skills set for an
educated person in the 21st century.
 To promote critical and analytical thinking for proactive (hands-on) solutions.
 Computing drives innovation in the sciences such as vaccine research,
environmental protection, business, entertainment and education. Through
computer studies, one can make a positive difference in the world.
 To create awareness in a learner about the developments and emerging issues
concerning computing and society. Computing is one of those highly evolving fields
where it is almost impossible to predict what will happen in the future.
 To get jobs.
Computing offers many types of highly rewarding careers. Computer studies
provides a foundation that serves as a competitive advantage in a career, in
whatever field one chooses.
Examples of such jobs include: Typists, Computer operators, Computer technicians,
System analysts, Computer programmers, Software engineers, Computer engineers,
Database administrators, website masters, Graphic designers, IT Teachers, etc.

THE CONCEPT OF GREEN COMPUTING

Green computing, green IT or ICT Sustainability, refers to environmentally sustainable
computing or IT. Green computing is environmentally responsible use of computers and
related resources.

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Green computing involves the implementation of energy-efficient central processing units
(CPUs), servers and peripherals as well as reduced resource consumption and proper
disposal of electronic waste (e-waste).
Green Computing is the study and practice of designing, manufacturing, using, and disposing
of computers, servers and subsystems in a way that does not harm the environment.

Core objectives of Green Computing strategies

• Minimizing energy consumption
• Reducing the paper and other consumables used
• Minimizing equipment disposal requirements
• Reducing travel requirement for employees/customers
How green computing is being applied
• Power- down the CPU and all peripherals during extended periods of inactivity.
• Use Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) monitors rather than Cathode Ray Tube (CRT)
monitors.
• Use notebook computers rather than desktop computers when it is possible.
• Use the power management features to turn off hard drives and display after
several minutes of not in use.
• Minimize the use of papers and properly recycle waste papers.
• Dispose e-waste according to regulations.
• Employ alternative energy sources for computing workstations, servers,
networks and data centers.
• Through promoting cloud computing and virtualization of servers.
Advantages of green computing
• Reduced energy usage from green computing helps lower carbon dioxide
emission that comes from fuel used in power plants and transportation.
• Conserving resources means less energy is required to produce, use and dispose
of products
• Saving energy and resources saves money.
• Green computing even includes changing government policy to encourage
recycling and lowering energy use by individuals and business.
• Reduce the risk existing in the laptops such as chemical known to cause cancer,
nerve damage and immune reactions in humans.

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CLOUD COMPUTING:
Cloud computing refers to storing and accessing the data and programs on remote servers
that are hosted on internet instead of computer's hard drive or local server.
Cloud computing is also referred as Internet based computing/ online storage

Cloud Computing-This is the practice of using a network of remote servers hosted on the
internet to store, manage, and process data, rather than using a local server or a personal
computers.
Examples of online file storage services
• Amazon drive • Box
• Google drive • Hightail
• I-Cloud • Media file
• Drop box • Microsoft One Drive
• Share File • Sugar Sync

Advantages of Cloud Computing

• Cloud computing reduces the cost of buying computer hardware and software.
• It is available 24 hours and allows accessibility of your data anywhere and anytime
• Efficient recovery. Cloud computing delivers faster and more accurate retrievals of
applications and data
• Flexibility of growth. The cloud is scalable so companies can add and subtract
resources based on their needs
• Cloud hosting is very easier to implement in organizations
• Allows automatic updates of software
• Cloud computing offers great security when any sensitive data has been lost.
• It helps organizations to reduce their carbon print
• Cloud applications enhance collaboration by authorizing diverse groups of people to
virtually meet and exchange information.
• It is very easier to monitor and manage.

Disadvantages of Cloud Computing

• Very expensive to install and pay subscriptions to cloud service providers
• Requires you to be online in order access the resources and services

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 • The customer has limited control over the services compared to service providers
• There is always temporary inaccessibility when service providers are upgrading and
servicing server
• There is insecurity of data due to hackers

TOPIC 2: COMPUTER MANAGEMENT

THE BOOTING PROCESS

Booting is the process of starting up a computer. During Booting, the operating system (OS)
loads from disk into working memory (RAM).

The process begins when a computer is powered on and ends when the computer is ready
to perform its normal operations.

Types of booting

There are basically two types of booting:

1. Cold booting/hard booting: This is the process of turning on a computer after it had been
powered off completely.

2. Warm booting/soft booting: This is the process of restarting a computer that already is
powered on.

WAYS OF PERFORMING A WARM BOOT

 By choosing Start>Shutdown>restart
 By pressing CTRL+ALT+DEL
 By pressing the computer’s restart button

Reasons for warm booting a computer

 When the computer stops responding

 After installing a new software program
 After uninstalling a software program
 To recover from errors
 When a computer freezes or locks
 When the computer slows down

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  When switching operating systems in case of multi-boot system
 After troubleshooting the computer
 Automated software can also cause a warm boot.
 Unexpected power loss can also cause a reboot
 Under voltage can also cause frequent warm booting.

Benefits of restarting a computer

 It flushes RAM and removes other files that could be causing computer freezing.
 Fast Performance: Reboots are known to keep computers running quickly.
 Stops Memory Leaks. These occur when a program doesn't close properly.
 Fixes Internet Connection
 Recovers the computer from errors
DANGERS OF SHUTTING A COMPUTER IMPROPERLY
 Loss of data.
 Crashing of hard disk
 Corruption of files

Step-by-step process of booting

 The system unit is switched on from the power button thus allowing the BIOS to
start up.

 The computer then goes through Power On Self Test (POST) to check whether the
computer hardware is connected and working properly.

 The results of the POST are compared with data in a CMOS chip

 The BIOS looks for boot program contained on either hard disk or compact/flashdisk
to load the operating system.

 The boot program is then loaded into memory and executed.

 BIOS then searches for the system configuration information for the OS and the rest
of OS is loaded into RAM, AND THE DESKTOP Icons display on the screen.

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Terms used in the Booting process

A boot loader is a computer program that loads the main operating system or runtime
environment for the computer after completion of self-tests. Examples of boot loaders
include NTLDR, BOOTMGR, GNU GRUB, Syslinux, etc.

A boot drive is the drive from which your personal computer boots (starts). In most cases,
drive C (the hard disk) is the boot drive.

The concept of a computer program

A computer program is a set of instructions that a computer uses to perform a specific task,
such as word processing, accounting, or data management.

Almost everything you do on your computer requires using a program. For example, if you
want to draw a picture, you need to use a drawing or painting program. To write a letter,
you use a word processing program. To explore the Internet, you use a program called a
web browser. Thousands of programs are available for Windows.

Steps of starting a program

 Click start button

 Point to all programs.

 Open programs folder by clicking on it.

 Then click on the program you want to open.

Or

 Double click on the shortcut of the program on the desktop.

INSTANCES WHEN BOOTING OF A COMPUTER MAY FAIL.

 In case of hard disk crash.

 Where there is no operating system installed on the hard disk.

 When the bootable device is unavailable such as hard disk.

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 PROGRAMS THAT ALWAYS RUN IN THE BACKGROUND WHEN THE COMPUTER IS
STARTED

 Time and date  Network connection

 Antivirus  Volume control

FILE MANAGEMENT

File management involves operations on files, programs and folders on computers disks.

File management operations include

 Restoring or emptying recycle bin  Searching and Sorting by name,

 Creating files and folders date or file extension (type)
 Moving  Printing
 Copying  Deleting
 Selecting single or multiple files
(ctrl+click / Shift+click)
 Renaming

Files and folders

A file is a collection of bits that have been processed and stored in secondary memory.
A file may be a document that may contain characters such a letter, a database, a computer
program, a song, a picture, etc.
Or A file is a specific piece of data that is held on a computer system.

Or a file is a collection of related data saved with a given name on a storage medium.

Note: All files have names, and all file names consist of two parts—the name and the
extension—separated by a period.

A folder is a directory that usually contains related information. A folder can contain both
files and other sub folders.
Folders are represented by a folder icon.

Or

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A Folder is a virtual container for storing files and subfolders in the computer.

A folder is a named storage location where related files can be stored. In contrast

Features of a folder

 A folder has a name

 A folder has a path originating from a special directory called root directory
 A folder has special access permissions for authenticated users.
 A folder or directory may be created inside another folder or directory. Such a folder
or directory is called a subfolder or a subdirectory.

Creating a new folder

 Using my computer icon, on the folder tree on the left pane, select the location
(desktop) in which you want to create a new folder.
 On the File menu tab, Click new folder
 Type a new name for the folder to Replace the temporary name, then press Enter
key or click the icon once.

OR

 Right Click on the free space on the desktop,

 Point to New, click folder. Type a new name for the folder

Renaming a folder

 Renaming refers to changing the previous name to a new name. To rename a file or
folder proceed as follows:
 Using My Computer icon, display the Explorer window.
 On the folder tree on the left pane, select the folder to be renamed.
 On the File menu, click Rename. Type the new name, and then press Enter key.
 Or Right Click on folder or file and choose Rename option from the pop up menu.
 Or Select the file or folder icon and Press F2 function key, Type the new name, and
then press Enter key

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Deleting a folder or file

In Windows, when you delete an item from the hard disk, it is temporarily held in a special
folder called the Recycle bin from where it can be restored if necessary.
Warning: Items deleted from a removable storage are not held in the recycle bin and are
completely lost.

To delete a file or folder proceed as follows:

 Using My computer icon, display the Explorer window.

 On the folder tree on the left pane, select the item that is to be deleted. On the File
menu, click Delete.
 A message appears on the screen asking whether you actually want to delete the
item. Confirm by clicking Yes

Restoring deleted files and folders

 To restore a file or folder from the recycle bin to its original location proceed as
follows:
 Double click the Recycle Bin icon.
 Select the deleted item(s) to be restored.
 Click File then Restore

Empting the recycle bin

 To completely discard files and folders you deleted, you need to empty the Recycle
Bin. To empty the Recycling Bin proceed as follows:
 Double click the recycle Bin icon on the desktop to open.
 Choose Empty Recycle Bin from File menu.
 Click Yes when prompted to confirm deletion of the files.

Copying files and folders

 Cut or copy command are used to move or create a duplicate of an item respectively.
When you cut or copy an item, it is temporarily held in a temporary storage location
known as the clipboard. To copy a file or folder:
 Using my computer icon, display the Explorer window.
 Select the file or folder to be copied.

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  On the Edit menu, click copy.
 Select the drive or folder where you want the item to be copied.
 From the edit menu, click paste. Information or item is pasted to a new location.

To move a file or folder proceeds as follows:

 Using My computer icon, display the Explorer windows.

 On the Edit menu, click Cut.
 Select the drive or folder where you want the item moved.
 From the Edit menu, click paste.
 Move progress dialog will be displayed on the screen.

Moving a folder

 To move a folder to a desired location:

 Click the folder and hold
 Drag and drop to the desired location

To sort files and folders:

 Right-click any open space within Windows Explorer and select Sort By.
 Choose to sort by Name, Date modified, Type, or Size.
 To view more sorting options, click More

FILES AND FILE EXTENSIONS

Creating a new file

To create a new text document:

 On the free space on the desktop, right click.

 Point new, click Text Document. From the list available on application.
 Type a new name for the new file to replace the temporary name and press Enter
key.
Selecting Multiple Files

Sometimes, though, you’ll want to select more than one file at a time. For example, you
might need to move a group of files, or copy several files at once.
There are many ways to select multiple files:

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  Shift+Click: If the files you want to select are listed one after another, click the first
file in the group, hold down Shift, and then click the last file in the group.
 Ctrl+Click: If the files you want to select are not listed together, hold down Ctrl while
you click each file. If you select a file that you don’t want to include in the group,
hold down Ctrl, and click the file again to deselect it.

Types of files

There are three types of files namely:

 System files: contain information that is critical for the operation of the computer.
 Application files: holds programs and are executable.
 Data files: contains user specific data

NAMING OF FILES

The name of each fie must be unique with in the directory of where its stored.

A file and folder name should be descriptive.

In windows, file name can contain up to 255 characters, including spaces but, with no
special symbols such as \ | / : * ? ” < >.

FILE ATTRIBUTES

A file attribute is a feature of a file that defines how it can be accessed and the operation
which can be performed on it.

Examples of file attributes

Read only: This protects the file from any unauthorized change.

Hidden: Files with this attribute are concealed and cannot be viewed in windows explorer
and therefore cannot be opened or deleted unless one knows their names.

Archive: This attribute shows that the file has already been modified and needs to be
backed up or archived.

Every file has the following details: A file name and a file extension. The name and
extension are separated by a period (.) e.g. Jeff.doc. In this case, the file name is Jeff and the
extension is doc. The size in bytes, date, and time the file was created.
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 Each file type is differentiated by its unique file extension.

A file extension is a suffix to the name of a file applied to indicate the file format. It is
separated from the base filename by a dot

Table below shows some file extensions and file types.

Extension File type Description

.doc Data Microsoft Word document file.e

.xls Data Microsoft Excel document file.

.ppt Data Microsoft PowerPoint document file.

.pub Data Microsoft Publisher document file.

.accdb Data Microsoft Access document file.

.txt Data A plain text file created using note pad editor

.exe Application files The file that launches a particular application, e.g. winword.exe

.bat System files Files containing a series of commands loaded during boot up.

.sys System files System files that perform fundamental operations in a computer.

Saving a file

After typing the content of the file in the work area, click file and then click save. Otherwise,
if the file will be saved with a different name or location then: Save As

 Click File menu and then

 From the Save As dialog box, select where the document is to be saved then type its
name.
 Click the save button

Finding Files When you are saving your work you must always be aware of:

22
 • The drive it is • The folder it is • The file name
saved on. placed in.
If you follow these simple rules it will make finding your files much easier. If you lose a file,
you can use the Search utility in Windows Explorer to look for the file

File Specification and File path

A file specification is the name given to identify a file.

A file path is a notation that indicates the location of a file on a computer.

Or

A file path is the general form of the name of a file or directory which specifies a unique
location in a file system.

e.g D:User\textbook\ICT essentials.docx where;

D: Drive name ICT essentials: File name

User: Profile docx: File extension

Textbook: Folder on drive D

The file specification

C:\Users\Rogers\Desktop\Music\Gospel\Worship.mp3
identifies the file named Worship.mp3 in the Gospel subfolder under Music folder on the
Desktop (Location) under Rogers’ Profile in the Users directory on Disk Drive C. The file
extension .mp3 denotes that Worship.mp3 is an audio file.

File back up

This is the activity of copying files so that they will be preserved in case of equipment
failure.

Methods of file backup:

 Offline backup (local)

 Online backup

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The Desktop

The desktop is the main screen area that you see after you turn on your computer and log
on to Windows or other operating system with a GUI.

Like the top of an actual desk, it serves as a surface for your work. When you open programs
or folders, they appear on the desktop. You can also put things on the desktop, such as files
and folders, and arrange them however you want.

FEATURES OF A DESKTOP

a) Desktop Background: Windows lets the user to customize the desktop background
by applying favorite themes, colors, pictures and wallpapers.
b) Icons: An icon is a graphical representation of a program on the screen. Icons are
mostly manipulated using a pointing device e.g. the mouse.

Examples of major icons on the desktop

 My Computer:
This is a system folder that enables to explain the contents of drives as well as
manage files.
 My documents:
This is a personal folder for storage of personal files and graphics.
 Recycle bin:
This is a temporary storage location of deleted files and folders
 Network places:
This displays shortcuts of shared computers, printers and other resources

c) Taskbar: Taskbar is the band where the buttons of currently open program windows
are displayed. You can switch between various tasks by clicking their respective
buttons on the taskbar. Whenever the user starts a program or opens a file, its
button appears on the taskbar and stays there until the user exits the program.

d) System tray/Notification area: The notification area, on the far right side of the
taskbar, includes a clock and a group of icons that communicate the status of
something on the computer or provide access to certain settings.

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 e) Start button: The left most button on the taskbar that the user clicks to display the
start menu.

CUSTOMIZING THE DESKTOP

Windows lets the user change desktop appearance, background, screen savers and
resolution

Screensavers display moving designs on the computer screen when you haven’t typed or
moved the mouse for a while.

To set a screen saver,

1. Right-click anywhere on the desktop and click Personalize.

2. Click Screen Saver at the bottom of the window.
3. Select a screensaver from the Screen Saver drop-down list.
4. Click OK when you’re done

Theme and background

To apply a new theme or wallpaper:

1. Right-click anywhere on the desktop and click Personalize.

2. Click Desktop Background at the bottom of the window.
3. When the next window opens, select one of Windows’s built-in backgrounds from
the list.
4. Click Save Changes.

COMMON UTILITIES

Utility program is system software designed to enhance the working conditions of a

computer.

Utility software refers to the system software designed to analyze, configure, optimize, and
maintain a computer is its best working state

Utility a program assists in the operation of a computer but does not do the main work for
which the computer was bought. For instance, programs that compress data or defragment
disks are utilities.

25
By contrast, word processors, financial programs, engineering programs, and other
programs that do actual work for the user are called application programs.

List of utilities

i) Search utility: used to locate a file or folder by name located on any of your hard
drives in less than a second.
ii) File compression utility: reduces the amount of space used by files stored on that
drive.
iii) Disk defragmenter: consolidates scattered file fragments so that each file occupies a
single, contiguous space on a hard drive. Disk Defragmenter rearranges fragmented
data so your disks and drives can work more efficiently.
iv) Screen saver: Takes over screen and displays graphics after some period of inactivity.
Used primarily for entertainment or security. Prevents CRT from phosphor burn-in
(ghosting).
v) Anti-virus program is a utility used to prevent, detect, scan and remove computer
viruses from storage devices and memory.

USING SEARCH TOOLS TO LOCATE FILES OR FOLDERS

• You can use the search box on the Start menu to find files, folders, programs, and
e-mail messages stored on your computer.

To find an item using the Start menu:

• Click the Start button, and then type a word or part of a word in the search box.
• As you type, items that match your text will appear on the Start menu. The search is
based on text in the file name, text in the file, tags, and other file properties.

Note: When searching from the Start menu, only files that have been indexed will appear in
search results. Most files on your computer are indexed automatically. For example,
anything you include in a library is automatically indexed. Other third party utilities like Ava
Find and Everything can be used to search files faster than the windows search utitity.

Compressing Files

Really big files can be difficult to copy or share. Fortunately, Windows lets you create
compressed folders, which take big files and compress them in size (called a “zipped” file).

26
After the file has been transferred, you can then uncompress / extract the file back to its
original state.

To compress files or folders,

1. Click the file(s) you want to compress. (To select more than one file, hold down the
Ctrl key when clicking.)
2. Right-click the selected file(s) to display the pop-up menu
3. Select Send To, Compressed (Zipped) Folder
4. Windows creates a new zipped folder in this same folder that contains copies of the
selected files.

Defragmenting a storage medium

• If you notice that your system takes longer and longer to open and close files or run
applications, it’s probably because little fragments of files are spread all over your
hard disk. You fix the problem by putting all the pieces of the fragmented files back
next to each other—which is known as defragmenting your disk.

To defragment disks on Windows,

• Click the Start button and select All Programs, Accessories, System Tools, Disk
Defragmenter.
• To manually defragment your hard drive, click Defragment Disk.
• To set up automatic disk defragmenting, click Configure Schedule.

NB: It Takes Time. Defragmenting your drive can take an hour or more, especially if you
have a large hard drive or your drive is highly fragmented.

Using Antivirus Programs

Computer viruses can be even very damaging, causing data loss and malfunctioning of the
computer. For that reason, you should install on your PC an antivirus program.

Examples of the antivirus programs include: as

• AVG Anti-Virus • McAfee VirusScan • Norton AntiVirus

Free Edition Plus (www.symantec.c
(free.avg.com) (www.mcafee.com) om)

27
 • Zone-Alarm • Kaspersky • F-Secure
Antivirus • Avast • Panda security
(www.zonealarm. • Avira • ESET nod32. etc
com) • BitDefender

THE PRINT MANAGEMENT

Printing refers to the process of producing softcopies of documents into hardcopy like a plain paper.

When you’re using a computer, you might want to keep a copy of what you can see on the screen. If
you have a printer connected to your computer, or have access to a network printer, you can create a
“hard copy” of your work

Selecting a printer

The two most common types are laser printers and inkjet printers. Laser printers work much like copy
machines, applying toner (powdered ink) to paper by using a small laser. Inkjet printers shoot jets of
ink onto the paper’s surface to create the printed image.

Installing a printer

There are several ways to connect a printer to your PC. Which option you choose depends on the
device itself, and whether you're at home or at the office.

Always consult the information that came with your model for specific instructions.

Local printers: The most common way to install a printer is to connect it directly to your computer.
This is known as a local printer. If your printer is a universal serial bus (USB) model, Windows should
automatically detect and install it when you plug it in. If it's an older model that connects using the
serial or parallel port, you might have to install it manually. You need to install print drivers which are
usually downloadable form the printer manufacturers website.

Network printers: In the workplace, many printers are network printers. These connect directly to a
network as a stand-alone device.

To select a default printer

If you regularly use multiple printers, you can pick one as your default printer. Windows and other
programs will then automatically use that printer whenever you print.

1. 28
Click to open Devices and Printers on the start menu.
2. Right-click the printer you want to use, and then click Set as default printer. (You'll see a check
mark on the printer's icon signifying that it's ready and now your default printer.)
View, pause, or cancel a print job

Once your document or photo has started to print, you can pause or cancel it via the print
queue or print spool.

The print queue shows you what's printing or waiting to print. It also displays handy
information such as job status, who's printing what, and how many unprinted pages remain.

 Click to open Devices and Printers from the start menu.

 Select your printer's icon and then click See what's printing on the command bar. The
print queue uses the FIFO principle (First in First Out)

Modes of printing

 Multiple page printing: This is when the user prints more than one page of the same
document on a single sheet of paper
 Multiple copies printing: This is where the user prints more than one copy of the same
document.
Handout printing: This is where multiple slides are printed on one page
 Slide printing: This is the mode of printing where a single slide is printed and covers the
whole page

TOPIC 3: COMPUTER LAB CARE & MAINTENANCE

COMPUTER LITERACY

Computer literacy is the ability to use computers and related technology efficiently. It’s the
level of familiarity with the basic ICT concepts that allows one to easily use personal computers.

Computer Literacy skills

To be considered computer literate, one needs to possess skills such as turning on the
computer and log in, opening and creating folders and files, Word processing, Spreadsheets
skills, Browser basics (Internet and Email), Basic hardware terminology, Virus and security
awareness.

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Advantages of Computer Literacy

 Profitable Skills: The ability to use programs such as Word Processors can aid one to
make money or get hired for a higher-level job when other candidates do not have the
skills.
 Leadership and Promotions: Computer literacy skills may get one promoted to a higher
position within your work place or be put in a leadership position in which you teach
others how to use computers or certain computer programs.
 Work Performance: Knowing how to use a computer often allows you to get work done
in a more organized, efficient and timely.
 Communication: Knowledge of how to access the Internet on a computer opens up
different possibilities for you to communicate with coworkers or supervisors.
 Being prepared For the Future; Computer technology is advancing faster, so if you are
familiar well with computer skills now this will makes you ready for bright future

 Ability to use New Media; traditional media like newspapers and television are being
replaced by computer based media such as social media, and online blogs which require
computer literacy skills to use.

 More job opportunities; since almost all workplaces use computers, the need for
people having computer skills is really in great demand.

Digital divide

Digital divide is the inequality with regard to access to information and communication
technologies (ICT). It is the lack of opportunities experienced by those with limited accessibility
to technology, especially the Internet. Is can be a result of having some societies one with very
high levels of computer literacy and others lagging far behind.

How to promote computer literacy

 Through undertaking computer training courses

 Through attending workshops

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  Through practical hands on
 Through reading computer related literature.
 Through carrying out research
 By use of the internet where resourceful tutorials can be downloaded for use.

Limitations to computer literacy

 Computer phobia - people fear to  Expensive hardware and software

use computers. components
 Myths about using a computer e.g.  Restricted to well to do people
You will kill your sight.  Some places lack connection to the
power grid.

Ways you can improve computer literacy in your school

 Through undertaking computer  Through reading computer related

training courses literature.
 Through attending workshops  Through carrying out research.
 Through practical hands on
Secure Laboratory Environment

A computer laboratory is a room that is specially designed and prepared to provide a safe and
conducive environment for using computer systems.

Or A specially designed room for computers and other devices to be stored and computer users
to carryout computing tasks under the monitoring of the systems administrator.

Factors to consider when preparing a computer laboratory

 Security of computers, programs and other resources

 Reliability of the power source.
 The number of computers to be installed and the available floor space.
 The maximum number of users that the computer laboratory can accommodate.

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  Strength of available furniture

LABORATORY SECURITY

Laboratory security is classified into two:

 Physical security

 Electrical security

Physical security threats are:

 Theft  Too much heat

 Fire outbreak  Dust

 Lightening

Areas of Physical security are:

1. Burglar proof to avoid unauthorized access to computer room.

 Burglar proofing provides protection against any forced physical entry into the
computer laboratory.
 Burglar proofing involves fitting metal grills in windows and doors.
 Consider installing security alarms at strategic access points that would alert the security
personnel in case of a break-in.
 Fit strong metallic grills and locks on doors, windows and strengthen the roof in case the
roofing is weak.
 Use Desktop locks, system unit enclosures and laptop locks

2. Install Security cameras

 Security cameras act as a deterrent to theft and other crimes in computer labs and data
centers.

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  Closed Circuit Television(CCTV) surveillance cameras are used to record video which can
be viewed in the monitoring room and played back in case of any investigations..

3. Install lightning conductor

4. Use air conditioners

5. Install alarms and fire extinguishers

 Have gaseous fire extinguishers like those filled with carbon dioxide. Water
based or powder extinguishers should be avoided since they can cause damage
to computer

6. Keep magnets away from computers

7. Shut down the computers during heavy storms

8. Control the dust

9. Avoid overcrowding of machines and users.

10. Avoid direct sunlight and high Temperatures that may damage hardware components.

etc

Electrical security threats are:

 Power surge  Abrupt load shedding

 Electrical overload

Areas of electrical security are:

 Electric power security: Place not more than two computers on each circuit. Do safe well
insulated cabling.
 Plug each computer into a surge protector or UPS (Un interruptible Power Supply Unit)
 Ensure Stable power supply by using a surge protector

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EXAMPLES OF ICT MAINTENANCE TOOLS FOUND IN THE COMPUTER LABARATORY

1. UPS-Uninterruptible Power Supply

 Computers need the time to shut down properly. Damage to devices and data
can occur when there is sudden power loss or fluctuation.
 UPS, or Uninterruptible Power Supply units, keep backup power for devices in
the event of a failure or other electrical problems.
 A UPS is essentially a small battery that keeps the power supply on for long
enough for you to switch off the computer safely when there is a sudden
blackout.
2. Blower
 This can be regularly used to blow dust out of the computer equipment.
3. Woolen carpet
 This is used to absorb dust in the computer laboratory.
4. Antiglare screens
 These regulate the excess light from monitors especially CRT monitors
5. CCTV (Closed Circuit Television)
 These act as a deterrent to theft and other crimes. They monitor data centers
and blind spots outside of doors.
6. Air conditioner
 This regulates temperatures in the computer laboratory.
7. Water proof covers
 These protect computers from moisture, water and liquids.
8. Fire extinguisher
9. Surge protector
 A surge protector can be used to protect computer equipment against under
voltage and over voltage.
10. Crimping tool
11. Screw driver

34
Software security measures

 Computers should have updated antivirus software installed to prevent malware.

 Remote administration software should be considered with high number of computers
in a computer center.
 Computer management software to monitor and limit web browsing should be installed
for.
 Assigning unique authorized log-in for authentication before granting network access

Software update and upgrade

Software update provides bug fixes and minor software improvements and is made available
by download. While

Software upgrade is the purchase of a newer version of software you currently use of more
fully-featured version of your current software. OR
The replacement of a product with a newer version of the same product.

Ways computers can be damaged in a laboratory

 Defacing computers by use of sharp objects

 Eating and drinking in the lab.
 Placing computers on non-flat surfaces.
 Using un-grounded power sources.
 Opening a computer when it is running.
 Moving the computer while it is running.
 Working with a computer in a dusty environment.

Measures to protect users

 Having all wires insulated to avoid electric shock

 Having the room well ventilated and installing air conditioners.
 Having enough space in the lab for movement.
 Avoid over-crowding.

35
  Using comfortable and standard furniture to avoid poor posture.
 Using LCD monitors other than CRT monitors or
 Providing antiglare screens and adjustable screens to avoid eye strain brought by over
bright light from the monitor screen.
 Cables should be laid away from users’ paths to avoid users falling while passing
through.

Measures to protect the computers

 Burglar proofing the room.(fitting grills on doors, windows and having a roof)
 Installing the intrusion detection system (IDS)
 Employing security guards.
 Installing fire prevention and control equipment. (fire extinguishers)
 Having stable power supply. (surge protectors, standby generator, uninterruptible
power supply)
 Installing lightening arrestors
 Insulating all power sockets.
 Follow the computer lab rules and regulations.
 Dust and dump proofing. (cleaning the computers daily, air conditioning systems, fitting
curtains into windows

Importance of servicing and maintaining a computer

 To ensure that the computer works continuously

 To ensure performance and efficiency of a computer.
 To take out dust that can spoil the internal parts of the computer
 In order to upgrade and update the computer.
 To reduce the costs of long run replacement and repairs.
 To prevent the computer from viruses and malware.

36
Activities involved in servicing and maintenance of computers

 Repairing and replacing damaged  Firewall activation

parts.  Disk defragmentation
 Upgrading software.  Upgrading software
 Installing power guards/surge  Blowing dust off
protectors.  Installing software
 Scanning devices before use  Covering computers with dust or
 Disk cleaning water proof jackets.
 Emptying recycle bin

Tools needed to service and maintain a computer

37
  Needle-Nose pliers
 Blower
 Crimping tool
 Screw drivers
 Wire cutters

System configuration

What is system configuration?

This is the process of setting up of hardware and assigning them resources so that they work together without
problems.

System specifications
System specifications

This is a structured collection of information that brings together the requirements of a system.

38
 E.g
 Processor: Intel core 2 duo  Optical storage device: DVD +/-RW
processor (CPU speed 3GHZ)  Monitor: LED 17”
 Operating system: windows 8, home  Wireless: LAN (802.11n)
premium.  Battery: 9-cell lithium ion battery
 Memory: 2GB, 800MHZ
 Boot hard drive: 160GB
 Video card:
How do you check for a computer’s specifications?

1. Go to the start menu, find the icon for “my computer”,

2. Right click on the “my computer” icon, and choose properties
3. Click the “general” tab
4. The system displays the operating system installed on the computer at the top.
5. At the computer section: it displays the computer name, speed, computer memory,
6. To see the hard drive capacity, go to start button and double click on “my computer”
icon

39
 The following are the reasons why a computer may slow down and possible solutions

Reason solution

Insufficient memory (RAM) Add more memory

Bad hard drive (disk errors creating delays) Perform a test and repair
Replace the hard drive
Low performance CPU Replace the CPU with another improved and faster CPU

Overheating due to failed fan Clean the accumulated dust using compressed air

Excessive dust blocking the heat sink

Memory leak(software bug causes program to Upgrade the software causing excessive memory usage.
use a lot of RAM) Restart the computer more frequently

Wrong video driver making the display slow Upgrade the video drivers

Low performance wireless connection due to Upgrade the wireless router.

distant antenna with weak signal

Viruses and spyware stealing memory and Use scanning tools to identify and remove extraneous
processor management. software.

Low performance hard disk Replace hard disk with a faster one

Software installation

This refers to the act of making a program ready for execution.

An installer is a computer program that loads files, such as drivers, applications, and other
software onto the computer

40
Uninstalling a program

Uninstalling is the process of removing a program from the computer

Steps followed to uninstall a program

1. Go to the start button 4. When all the installed programs

2. Open the control panel display,
3. Click on the word uninstall program 5. Click on the program you want to
under programs. remove then click on uninstall at the
top.

Requirements to perform an installation of an operating system (windows)

 A computer  Knowledge about installation

 CD/DVD with the operating system  Stable power source.

Troubleshooting

This is a form of problem solving used to repair products, processes. Troubleshooting is the
process of identifying a problem in the software or hardware device, giving possible causes
and finally finding possible solutions to the problem.

How do you troubleshoot a computer?

 Restart the computer  Check the devices for proper

 Check the cables. connection.
 Check the power source  Listen to unusual sounds.
 Disconnect peripheral devices.
Safe use of the computer laboratory

 Always sit upright: to avoid muscle pains and back aches caused by poor sitting
posture.
 A computer room should have enough light avoid eyestrain, and headaches.
 Standard furniture: Have standard furniture so that the tables are wide enough and
strong to bear the weight of the computers and accommodate all peripherals.

41
  The seat for the user must be comfortable and have a straight backrest that allows
someone to sit upright.

Laboratory rules and regulations

 Avoid smoking and exposing computers to dust since they contain small abrasive
particles that can damage computer components and cause wearing of moving
parts.
 Avoid carrying food and beverages to the computer room since these may fall into
moving parts causing rusting or electrical faults.
 Avoid unnecessary movements because you may accidentally knock down peripheral
devices.
 At all times follow the right procedures while starting and shutting down the
computer therefore abrupt switching on and off the computer should be avoided
since this can lead to damaging the computer

 Do not open up the metallic covers of computers or peripherals without permission

and particularly when the computer power is still on.

 Any repairs to the computer should be done by someone who has knowledge
regarding computer repairs.

 Any connections (keyboard, mouse, printer and monitor) to the computer should be
done when the computer power has been switched off.

 Computers should be regularly serviced and keep a regular record of computer

servicing and repair to establish maintenance costs and common problems to your
computer.

 Guard your computer against new users who might spoil the computer and data
corruption by unauthorized parties.

 Computer components should be kept dust-free. Avoid smoking and exposing

computers to dust.

42
 Never try to remove the cover on your computer or touch inside the system unit.
There are many sensitive components. Instead, take it to a qualified technician.

 Keep all liquids and food items away from your computer.

 Liquids and food crumbs can cause rusting and corrosion and damage electronic
circuits. Also, mixing liquids and electronic components can cause serious electrical
shock!

 Never use your computer during a storm. The computer is connected to electricity
and that means that lightning could be conducted to the computer.

 Physically, be careful, avoid knocking and dropping any hardware to the ground as
this could cause any of the delicate components to break or be damaged.

 Proper shut down of computers should be followed to avoid disk and system failure
(avoid abrupt switching off).

 Be careful when using the internet. Do not accept downloads from websites that you
don't know and trust.

 And never open an email attachment unless you know and trust the person who sent
it.

 Avoid making hardware connections to the motherboard when the computer is on.
Eg keyboard, monitor and mouse connections.

 Don’t bring magnetic devices to the lab. The computer has magnetic disks which can
be spoilt if they come near other magnetic fields.

 Handle delicate storage devices with care. Don’t touch the inner surface of Compact
disks and Floppy disks. Safely remove Flash disks from the system.

 Avoid excessively bright and flickering computer monitors. The brightness of the
computer monitors should be adjusted to avoid eye strai

43
Maintenance of Computers in Good Working Conditions

The following measures should always be carried out to keep computers in good working
conditions:

 Regular servicing should be done for hardware and software updates to ensure proper
working conditions of the computers.
 Computers require special cleaning even on the outside including hardware parts such
as the mouse and keyboard to perform correctly.
 Always use optimizer utilities that modify programs to make computers to improve
performance and make them to run more quickly
 Always use optimizer utilities that modify programs to make computers to improve
performance and make them to run more quickly.
 Always use and regularly updated antivirus software. Viruses and worms are horrible
computer-unfriendly programs that can crash your system and cause damage.
 Avoid Installation Marathons (Installing many new programs at the same time).
Sometimes, installing a new program can cause conflicts within your system.
 It is therefore advisable to use the computer long enough to see how your system
responds to the installation before installing the next program.
 Carry out Disk Defragmentation when necessary.
 Disk Defragmentation is the process in which scattered pieces of individual files and
free space are reorganized and stored in an adjacent manner (next to each other) on
the disk.
 Defragmentation consolidates fragmented files which makes it easy to access and
process them

HEALTH CONCERNS OF COMPUTER USE

Users are a key component in any information system. Thus, protecting users is just as
important as protecting hardware, software and data.

Wide spread use of computers has led to some important user health concerns:

Repetitive strain injury(RSI)

44
 There are a number of safety hazards linked with using computers and ICT devices.

HEALTH PROBLEM & CAUSES PREVENTION

DESCRIPTION

a) Repetitive Strain Injury (RSI) * Typing on a • Take breaks to rest

computer for too your hands.
RSI causes painful swelling of the
long.
wrist and fingers. • Use an ergonomic
* Using a mouse for keyboard/mouse.
Sufferers with really bad RSI are
long periods.
unable to use their hands at all. • Arrange your
* Holding the mouse workspace so you
RSI is caused by doing the same
incorrectly. are not cramped.
small movements over and over
again across a long period of time. * Working in a • Use a wrist rest.
For example, clicking a mouse cramped workspace.
button repeatedly.

b) Back and Neck Problems * Working in a  Use adjustable chairs

cramped workspace so you can sit in a
Back ache and neck ache can
position suitable for
cause great pain and affect the * Not sitting upright in
your height.
quality of your life. your chair.
 Sit upright against
Both back and neck ache can be * Incorrect positioning
the back rest.
caused by sitting incorrectly and of the computer
using poor quality chairs without screen.  Tilt the computer
back rests. screen so it is set just
below your eye level.
This is called poor posture.

 Keep your feet flat

on the floor.

45
c) Eye Strain and Headaches * Staring at a • Take regular breaks
computer screen for (every hour or so).
Staring at a computer screen for
a long time.
too long can strain your eyes and • Use LCD screens
cause headaches * Working in a room rather than CRT as
with bad lighting. they have less flicker.

* Using a computer
screen

d) Carpal tunnel syndrome(CTS) * Repetitive motions, • Reduce your force

like typing, or any and relax your grip. If
This is the inflammation on the wrist movements that your work involves a
you do over and over. keyboard, for
nerve that connects the forearm This is especially true instance, hit the keys
to the palm of the wrist. of things you do when softly.
your hands are lower • Take frequent
than your wrists. breaks. Gently
stretch and bend
hands and wrists
periodically.
• Improve your
posture.

46
TOPIC 4: COMPUTER WORD PROCESSING

What is word processing software?

Also known as a word processor, is an application software program used to create, edit,
format, save, and print documents that contain text and graphics.

Word processing: This is process of creating, formatting, and producing documents using a
word processor.

Examples of word processing software

 Microsoft Office Word  KWord

 AbiWord  LyX
 Bean  LibreOffice Writer
 Document.Editor  Text Maker
 EZ Word  Kingsoft writer
 Feng Office Community Edition  Word Pad
 GNU TeXmacs  Word Perfect
 Groff  WPS Office
 WPS Office  Quick Office

Documents that can be created using a word processor

 Letters  Brochures
 Memos  Calendars
 Reports  Stories
 Mailing  Simple calculations
 Labels  Newsletters.
 Certificates

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Features of a word processing software

 Word-wrap: Allows a user to type continually without pressing the enter key at the
end of each line.
 Find and search: Allows a user to locate all occurrences of a particular character,
word, or phrase.
 Replace: Allows a user to substitute existing characters, words, or phrases with new
ones.
 Spelling checker: Allows a user to check the spelling of a whole document at one
time, or to check and even correct the spelling of individual words as they are
typed (i.e., AutoCorrect).
 Grammar checker: Reports grammatical errors and suggests ways to correct them.
 Thesaurus: Suggests alternative words with same meaning (i.e., synonyms) for use in
the document.

 Mail merge: Create form letters, mailing labels, and envelopes.

 Automatic page numbering: Numbers the pages automatically in a document.

 Tables: Allows a user to organize information into rows and columns.

 Multi-columns: Arranges text in two or more columns that look similar to a

newspaper or magazine.

 Macros: Allows a user to record or save frequently used keystrokes and instructions,
which can be executed later by running the corresponding macros.

 Clip art gallery: Allows a user to insert drawings, diagrams, and photographs into a
document.

 Mathematical formulae typesetting: Allows a user to typeset complex mathematical

formulae within the program.

Other features include

 Tables of contents with section titles and their page numbers;

 Tables of figures with caption titles and their page numbers;

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  Cross-referencing with section or page numbers;
 Footnote numbering;

Functions of the word processing software

 Editing is the process of making changes or removing mistakes from the existing
content of the document.
 Formatting involves changing the appearance of a document. Formatting
characters involves changing the font, font size, or font style of text.
Formatting paragraphs involves changing the justification or the alignment of text on
a line.
Formatting pages involves changing the margins (left, right, top, bottom) or the
distances between the main body of text and the edges of the paper.
 Saving is the processing transferring the information/document from the memory of
the computer to the storage medium.
 Printing is the production of documents from soft copy to a physical material like a
plain paper

Advantages of Word processors over ordinary typewriter

 Easy and fast to make changes to the document.

 Has many features to create documents that look professional and visually
appealing.
 Documents can normally be previewed before being printed.
 Documents can be saved for future use and editing.
 Convenient to create form letters and mailing labels.
 Can be used to carry out simple calculations in a document.
 Ability to work with drawings and objects.

Disadvantages of word processors

 It takes time to learn how to use the program effectively.

 Not faster compared to pen and faster

49
  You need access to a computer with installed word processor.
 Very expensive to access compared to pen and paper.
 It is not easy to read long documents on the computer screen.
 Sometimes the printer may print not the exact copy on the screen.

TOPIC 5: COMPUTER HARDWARE

Computer hardware refers to the physical/tangible components or parts of the computer.

Hardware is any physical part of the computer that you can touch, see and pickup.

Computer hardware is categorized in the following ways;

1. Input hardware devices 3. Output devices

2. Processing devices 4. Storage devices
5. Communication/ Networking hardware

1. INPUT DEVICES

Input devices are used to enter data/instructions or commands in a form that the computer
can use. They send the data or commands to the processing unit.

According to the type of data they input, they can be grouped into the following:

a) Text input devices e) Audio input Devices

b) Pointing input Devices f) Biometric input Devices and
c) Imaging input Devices g) Other Specialized input device
d) Gaming input Devices

a) Text input devices

Text is a general word for all characters such as letters, numerical digits, symbols and marks
that combine to form words, sentences, paragraphs and so on. There is a variety of devices
that help us to input text into a computer. The following are the text input devices
commonly used.

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(i) The Keyboard

A keyboard is an input device, consisting of a set of keys (buttons) used to operate a

computer. Each press of a key corresponds to a single written character of text, but to
produce some symbols, it requires pressing and holding several keys simultaneously.
Usually a standard keyboard has between 80 to110 keys. A keyboard is the main and most
reliable computer input device.

The QWERTY is referred to as the "Universal" keyboard. The name "QWERTY" comes from
the first six letters in the top alphabet row (the one just below the numbers). There are
other setups also available such as Dvorak, ABCDE, GKOS, QWERTZ and AZERTY Keypads,
Keyers and chorded keyboards have fewer keys, specially designed for devices such a pocket
sized computers.

Advantages of Keyboard

 Keyboards are very common (commonly supplied with computers)

 Entering data and commands with keyboard is faster as compared to the mouse
 Keyboards are more reliable

Demerits of Keyboard

 It takes a lot of time to practice in order to type quickly

 Keys can easily become faulty due to dust.
 Some keyboards keys are very hard to press, causing fingers to hurt.
(ii) Voice Recognition Equipment

Voice Recognition Equipment (a.k.a Speech recognition) converts spoken words to text.
Computers with Speech recognition do not actually understand speech, but they are
programmed to recognize a vocabulary of words, which can range from two words to
millions of words.

Advantages

 No typing of data is necessary.

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  Voice recognition can be used by people whose hands are disabled.
 Dictating text is faster than typing.
 Voice Recognition systems are also ideal for the blind

Demerits of text input by speech Recognition

 Error rate is high, depending on user’s accent.

 Words with the same pronunciations (Homophones) like see and sea cannot be
distinguished
 Speech Recognition does cannot work in noisy environment
 The Voice Recognition software must be trained to recognize more words.
 It requires the user to speak in a writing style, i.e. even pronouncing the marks such
as comma.
(iii) Optical Mark Recognition (OMR)

Optical mark recognition (OMR) devices read hand-drawn marks such as small circles or
rectangles. A person places these marks on a form, such as a test, survey, or questionnaire
answer sheet.

The OMR device first reads a master document, such as an answer key sheet for a test, to
record correct answers based on patterns of light; the remaining documents then are
passed through the OMR device and their patterns of light are matched against the master
document.

(iv) Barcode readers/scanners

A bar code reader is an optical reader that uses laser beams to read bar codes that are
printed on items usually in super markets.

A bar code is an identification code that normally consists of a set of vertical lines and
spaces of different widths. The bar code represents some data that identifies the item and
the manufacturer.

(v) Optical Character Recognition (OCR)

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Optical character recognition (OCR) is a technology that involves reading typewritten,
computer-printed, or handwritten characters from ordinary documents and translating the
images into a form that the computer can understand. OCR devices include a small optical
scanner for reading characters and sophisticated software (OCR software) for analyzing
what is read.

(vi) Magnetic Ink Character Readers (MICR)

Magnetic-ink character recognition (MICR) reader is used to read text printed with
magnetized ink.

MICR readers are mainly used by the banking industry for processing checks. Each check is
inserted into an MICR reader, which sends the check information to a computer for
processing.

(vii) Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) readers

Radio-frequency identification (RFID) is a technology that uses radio waves to transfer data
from an electronic tag, attached to an object, through a reader for the purpose of
identifying and tracking the object. RFID can work over a long distance. An RFID tag can be
affixed to cars, computer equipment, books, mobile phones, etc.

(viii) Magnetic Strip Card Readers

A magnetic stripe card reader reads the magnetic stripe on the back of credit cards, bank
ATM cards, and other similar cards. Exposure to a magnet or magnetic field can erase the
information and contents of a card's magnetic stripe.

b) Pointing Devices

A pointing device is an input device, which allows users to move a pointer and make
selections on the computer screen. A pointing device is any piece of hardware that is used
to input spatial data into a computer.

There are many examples of pointing devices such as:

(i) The Mouse

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 A mouse is an input pointing device that is used to select and icons and items on the
screen. The mouse is a hand held device that lets you point to and make selections of
items on your screen.

In a PC mouse there are mostly 2-3 buttons. A ball under the mouse senses movement. An
optical mouse uses a light-emitting diode and photodiodes to detect movement relative to
the underlying surface.

The Functions of a mouse

 The mouse is used as a pointer to move to, or select a particular section of the
displayed window.
 It is used to complement the keyboard especially in a graphical interface
environment
 Its right button provides an array of time saving shortcut menus.

There are two basic types of mice:

(i) Mechanical: Has a rubber or metal ball on its underside that can roll in all directions.
Mechanical sensors within the mouse detect the direction the ball is rolling and
move the screen pointer accordingly.
(ii) Optical: Uses a laser (light to detect the mouse's movement. but they are also more
expensive. Mice connect to PCs in one of several ways: Serial mice connect
directly to an RS-232C serial port or a PS/2 port. This is the simplest type of
connection. PS/2 mice connect to a PS/2 port. USB mice connects to a USB
(Universal Serial Bus) port

Advantages of using a mouse

 Moves cursor around the screen faster than using keystrokes

 A mouse is user-friendly for computer beginners.
 A mouse is easy and convenient to use with a graphical user interface.

Disadvantages of using a mouse include

 It is not easy and convenient to input text with a mouse.

54
  Issuing commands by using a mouse is slower than by using a keyboard.
 It needs some practice in order to control a mouse properly.
 A mouse is not accurate enough for drawings that require high precision.
 A mouse usually requires a flat surface to operate.
 A mouse needs more desk space to operate when compared with a trackball or a
touchpad
 Requires moving hand from keyboard to mouse and back.
 Repeated motion can lead to carpal tunnel syndrome

Operations of a mouse/What can a mouse do?

 Clicking: It is an act of pressing and releasing the left hand button of the mouse
once.
 Right clicking: It is an act of pressing and releasing the right mouse button once
 Double clicking: Is the act of pressing a computer mouse twice quickly without
moving the mouse
 Dragging: Is an act of pointing at an item, then hold down the left mouse button as
you move the mouse.
 Scrolling. It is an act of navigating the window page up or down by moving the wheel
like button.
 Dropping. This refers to the release of the left button mouse after dragging an item.

(ii) Cordless Mouse/Wireless mouse

The cordless mouse is a lot better than a normal mouse. It reduces the amount of work
space needed to move the mouse around. This mouse runs on a battery. When you move
the mouse it sends an infrared beam to a sensor which interprets it causing the pointer to
move.

(iii) Stylus pen & digitizing tablet

Stylus pen- The pen lets you draw on what is called a digitizing tablet that mirrors the
surface area of the computer screen. The pen can be used as a standard mouse (without

55
wires connected to it) or also as a free flowing drawing device. The pen is useful for drawing
since drawing graphics with a mouse tends to be somewhat difficult.

(iv) Trackball

The trackball is an upside-down mouse that remains stationary on your desk. It is the same
principle as the mouse except that the rollers are reversed and the ball is on top. This ball
does not need as much attention as the normal mouse because the only thing that touches
it is your hand as the normal mouse touches a surface.

(v) Touchpad

The touchpad has sensors that sense your touch. When they sense your touch they send a
signal to the computer to move the mouse pointer to that location on the screen. Common
on laptop computers.

(vi) Light pen

Light pen- is a form of a light-sensitive wand used in conjunction with a computer's CRT TV
set or monitor. It allows the user to point to displayed objects, or draw on the screen, in a
similar way to a touch screen but with greater positional accuracy. A light pen can work with
any CRT-based display, but not with LCD screens, projectors and other display devices.

(vii) Touch Screens

A touch screen is a touch-sensitive input and display device. Users can interact with these
devices by touching areas of the screen.

You touch words, pictures, numbers, letter, pointers or special locations identified on the
screen. With some smart phones, portable media players, and other personal mobile
devices, you can touch the screen to perform tasks such as dialing telephone numbers,
entering text, and making on-screen selections.

Kiosks, which are freestanding computers, usually have touch screens. Many ATMs also
have touch screens.

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(viii) Track Point

A Track Point, also called a pointing stick, is a cursor control device located in the middle of
the keyboard between the G, H, and B keys. The control buttons are located in front of the
keyboard toward the user. The Track Point is operated by pushing in the general direction
the user wants the cursor to move. Increasing pressure causes faster movement.

c) Imaging Devices

Imaging input Devices are devices that input images such as still photos, motion pictures,
graphics, video etc. into the computer for processing.

(i) Image scanner

A scanner is a light-sensing input device that converts hardcopy documents, drawings, or

pictures to an electronic version (softcopy), which can then be stored on a disk. The
electronic version of scanned material is in the form of rows and columns of dots called a
bitmap

Each dot on a bitmap consists of one or more bits of data.

Common types of scanners include:

 A flatbed scanner works like a copy machine except that it creates a file of the
document rather than a paper copy.
 A sheet feed scanner has motorized rollers that can feed the source document
across the scanning head during the scanning process.
 A handheld scanner can be manually passed over the image to be scanned.
 The quality of a scanner is determined by its resolution and color depth.

(ii) Digital Camera

A digital camera allows users to take pictures and store the photographed images digitally
instead of storing on a traditional film.

57
When you take pictures, the images are electronically stored in the camera. Later, you
transfer a copy of the stored pictures to your computer or printer by connecting a cable
between the digital camera and your computer.

What are the advantages of a digital camera over a traditional film camera?

 Ability to store images on media

 Ability to edit images
 Faster at taking images
 Images can be sent to other devices via a network
(iii) Digital video (DV) camera

A digital video (DV) camera, by contrast records video as digital signals instead of analog
signals. To transfer recorded images to the computer hard disk, users connect DV cameras
directly to a port on the system unit. After saving the video on a storage medium, you can
play it or edit it and burn it to a DVD using software programs on the computer.

(iv) Camcorder

This is a light weight video camera that records data in digital form onto a storage device
such as a videotape.

(v) Web cam

A Web cam, also called a PC video camera, is a type of digital video camera that usually sits
on top of the monitor. Some laptop computers have built-in Web cams.

Webcams enable users to:

 capture video and still images,

 send e-mail messages with video attachments,
 add live images to instant messages,
 broadcast live images over the Internet,
 and make video telephone calls

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d) Gaming input Devices

Gaming input devices are devices specifically designed to be used for playing computer
games.

(i) Gaming keyboard

Gaming keyboards typically include programmable keys so that gamers can customize the
keyboard to the game being played. The keys on gaming keyboards light up so that the keys
are visible in all lighting conditions.

Some have small displays that show important game statistics, such as time to targets
remaining.

(ii) Gaming wheels

A gaming wheel is a steering wheel-type input device. Users turn the wheel to simulate
driving a vehicle using programs on a computer. Most gaming wheels also include foot
pedals for acceleration and braking actions. Gaming wheels include buttons, called triggers
that you press to initiate certain events

(iii) Joystick

Joystick- Consists of a stick that pivots on a base and reports its angle or direction to the
device it is controlling. Joysticks are often used to control video games, and usually have one
or more push-buttons whose state can also be read by the computer.

(iv) Gamepad

A gamepad controls the movement and actions of players or objects in video games or
computer games. On the gamepad, users press buttons with their thumbs or move sticks in
various directions to trigger events. Gamepads communicate with a game console or a
personal computer via wired or wireless technology.

(v) Light gun

A light gun is used to shoot targets and moving objects after you pull the trigger on the
weapon. Instead of emitting light, most light guns work by detecting light. When the user

59
pulls the trigger, the screen uses one of several techniques to send light, which is received
by a receptor in the barrel of the gun.

(vi) Dance pad

A dance pad is a flat electronic device divided into panels that users press with their feet in
response to instructions from a music video game. These games test the user’s ability to
step on the correct panel at the correct time, following a pattern that is matching with the
beat of a song.

(vii) Motion sensing game controllers

These are devices that allow the user to guide onscreen elements by moving a handheld
input device in predetermined directions through the air. Examples include the power glove,
play station move gadgets, among others.

e) Audio input Devices

Audio input is the process of entering any sound into the computer such as speech, music,
and sound effects. To enter sound into a computer, it must have a sound card. Audio input
devices are plugged into a port on the sound card.

(i) Sound Card

A sound card is a device that can be slotted into a computer to allow the use of audio
components for multimedia applications. Without a sound card, Audio input and output is
not possible.

(ii) Microphones
A microphone is an instrument for converting sound waves into electrical energy variations,
which may then input into the computer for processing, recording or audio playback.
Microphones are connected to the sound card in the system unit.

(iii) Musical Instrument Digital Interface (MIDI) devices

MIDI is the standard that defines how digital musical devices represent sound electronically.
MIDI devices such as electronic pianos allow users to record and edit music. For example,
you can set the beat speed, and add notes, to produce sound.

60
(iv) Dictaphone

This the earliest device most commonly used to record speech for later playback or to be
typed into print. It was established by Alexander Graham Bell in Washington, D.C. in 1881.

e) Biometric input Devices

A biometric device translates a biological personal characteristic into a digital code that is
stored or compared with a digital code stored in the computer.

(i) Fingerprint scanner

A fingerprint scanner captures curves and indentations of a fingerprint. Some grocery and
retail stores now use fingerprint readers as a means of payment, where the customer's
fingerprint is linked to an account or credit card.

(ii) Face Recognition systems

A face recognition system captures a live face image and compares it with a stored image to
determine if the person is a legitimate user. Some buildings use face-recognition systems to
secure access to rooms.

(iii) Hand geometry system

Biometric devices measure the shape and size of a person's hand using a hand geometry
system. Some large companies use this system as time and attendance devices or as
security devices. Day-care centers use this system to verify parents who pick up their
children.

(iv) Signature verification systems

A signature verification system recognizes the shape of your handwritten signature, as well
as measures the pressure exerted and the motion used to write the signature. Signature
verification system uses a specialized pen and tablet.

(v) Iris recognition system

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 These are devices that use iris recognition technology to read patterns in the iris of the eye.
These patterns are as unique as a fingerprint. Iris recognition systems are used by
government security organizations, the military and financial institutions that deal with
highly sensitive data.

f) Other Specialized input devices

There are many other special input devices that are used for doing special customized tasks.

(i) Remote Control

Remote control devices emit a beam of infrared light, which carries data signals. Remote
control is commonly used with TVs but many laptop computers being produced come with
remotes and a form of input device, which allow you to operate the laptop from a distance.

(ii) Sensors

Chemical responses to the physical environment or movement can be converted to

electrical signals by devices known as sensors, which input them it to the computer for
processing. Various sensors can be used to measure heat, light, pressure, acidity, oxygen
concentration, water flow, etc.

2. PROCESSING DEVICES

Processing devices are the computer electronic components and chips housed in the system
unit. They are used to interpret, manipulate, convert, translate and transform input data
into information. Therefore a processing device handles the intermediate stage in the
computer.

(i) The system unit

The system unit is a box-like case/chassis that houses all the internal components of the
computer like motherboard, the disks and drive bays, the power supply and cooling
systems. The system unit gives shape and appearance of the computer. It also protects the
internal components against damage. The components in the system unit are connected to

62
 the motherboard. A drive bay is a rectangular opening inside the system unit that typically
holds disk drives.

(ii) The Motherboard

The motherboard is a single circuit board that provides the path through which the
processor communicates with internal and peripheral devices. The motherboard is also
called the system board.

The components attached to the motherboard include the processor chip (the CPU),
memory chips, support electronic circuitry, buses, and Expansion Slots for Adapter Cards.

(iii) The Power Supply Unit

The power supply is the component of the system unit that converts the wall outlet
Alternating Current (AC) power of 110 to 240 volts into Direct Current (DC) power of 0.5 to
12 volts. Built into the power supply is a fan that keeps the power supply cool. Processor
chips generate heat, which could cause the chip to burn up. A heat sink is a small ceramic or
metal component with fins on its surface that absorbs and disperses heat produced by
electrical components such as a processor.

(iv) The Central Processing Unit (CPU)/

The central processing unit/ microprocessor/processor (CPU) is a chip that interprets,

carries out the basic instructions and manages most of a computer's operations. It is at
times referred to as the ‘brain’ of the computer. It has two basic sections: the control unit
(CU) and the arithmetic/logic unit (ALU), which work together to perform the processing
operations. Other CPU components are the Registers and the System Clock.

The basic sections/Components of the CPU

 Control Unit  Arithmetic Logic  Registers

Unit

(a) The control unit (CU)

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The control unit is the component of the processor that directs and coordinates most of the
operations in the computer.

It interprets each instruction issued by programs and then initiates the appropriate action to
carry out the instruction. For every instruction, the control unit repeats a set of four basic
steps called the machine cycle steps:

The machine cycle steps

The machine cycle steps: refers to the series through which data is converted into
information in the central processing unit.

 Step 1: Fetching the instruction. The instruction to be executed is obtained from

memory.
 Step 2: Decoding the instruction. The instruction is translated into commands the
computer understand and sent to the ALU.
 Step 3: Executing the instruction. The commands are carried out.
 Step 4: Storing results. The results are stored in registers or memory.

(b) Arithmetic/logic unit (ALU)

The ALU performs the arithmetic, comparison, and logical operations in a computer. It
performs the execution step of a machine cycle.

Arithmetic operations include addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division.

Logical operations work with conditions and logical operators such as AND, OR, and NOT.

For example, if you wanted to search a student database for Candidates of Computer
studies, you would search for any students classified under ‘Computer studies AND listed
under Candidates.

(c) Registers

Registers are high-speed working storage areas that temporarily hold instructions and data
during processing. Registers work under the direction of the control unit to accept, hold,
and transfer instruction or data and comparisons at high speed. Registers are not part of

64
Memory or Secondary Storage: Registers hold data immediately related to the operation
being executed. Memory is used to store data that will be used in the near future.
Secondary storage holds data that may be needed later (in future)

Types of registers

 Instruction register, which contains the instruction being executed.

 Address register, which keeps track of where a given instruction or piece of data
is stored in memory.
 Storage register, which temporarily holds data taken from or about to be sent to
memory.
 The Accumulator, which collects the result of computations.
 General-purpose register, which is used for several functions, as assigned by the
Control Unit

(v) The system clock

The system clock is a small chip that is used by the CPU to synchronize the timing of all
computer operations. The system clock generates electronic pulse or ticks at a fixed rate,
which set the operating pace of components in the system unit. Each tick is called a clock
cycle, which affects machine cycle time. The faster the clock, the more instructions the CPU
can execute per second.

Clock speed

This refers to the speed at which a processor executes instructions. Clock speed is measured
in hertz. A hertz is one cycle or tick per second. A Megahertz (MHz) equates to one million
ticks of the system clock per second. Processor's speed is sometimes measured according to
the number of MIPS (millions of instructions per second) it can process.

(vi) Buses

The bus is a common electrical path that enables data flow between the various system
components. A bus allows the various devices inside and attached to the system unit to
communicate with each other.

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All buses consist of two parts:

 The data bus which transfers actual data bits and

 The address bus which transfers information about where the data should go in
memory.

(vii) Expansion slots and Adapter cards

An expansion slot is a socket on the motherboard that can hold an adapter card. An adapter
card, also called expansion card, is a circuit board that increases the capabilities of the
system or provides connections to peripherals. Some motherboards include all necessary
capabilities and do not require adapter cards. Adapter cards are used for many
supplemental capabilities, such as more memory, higher-quality sound devices, a modem,
extra ports, or graphics capabilities.

(viii) Plug and Play (PnP)

In the past, installing a card was not easy and required you to set switches and other
elements on the motherboard. Today, many computers support Plug and Play. PnP refers to
the computer’s capability to automatically configure adapter cards and other peripherals as
you install them when the computer is still running.

(ix) Ports

A port is the point at which a peripheral attaches the system unit. Through a port, the
peripheral can send data to or receive information from the computer.

A peripheral device, such as a keyboard, monitor, printer, mouse, digital camera, and
microphone, often attaches by a cable to a port on the system unit.

Note: A peripheral device is hardware device connected/attached to the computer

externally.

Common ports on a computer

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 (a) A serial port is a type of interface that connects a device to the system unit by
transmitting data one bit at a time. It usually used to connect devices that do not
required fast data transmission rates, such as a mouse or keyboard.
(b) Personal System PS/2 port, sometimes called a mouse port, was developed by IBM.
It is used to connect a computer mouse or keyboard. Most computers come with
two PS/2 ports.
(c) Parallel ports allow the parallel transmission of data; that is, several bits are
transmitted simultaneously. These ports provide the interface for such devices as
high-speed printers.
(d) USB (Universal Serial Bus) ports are used in high-speed device interfaces.
(e) Bluetooth ports use radio waves to transmit data between two devices, without
using cables.
(f) Video graphics array (VGA) is used to connect a monitor or a data projector. It is
shaped like a letter D with 15 pins.
(g) Audio interface is used to connect speakers and microphone.
(h) Fire wire or IEEE 1394 has the same features as the USB but transmits data faster
than USB. It is mostly used for streaming video from a digital video camera.
(i) Infrared, also referred to as infrared Data Association (IrDA) is a wireless interface
that uses infrared to connect to infrared-enabled devices.

(x) Connectors

A connector joins a cable to a port. A connector at one end of a cable attaches to a port on
the system unit, and a connector at the other end of the cable attaches to a port on the
peripheral. Most connectors are available in one of two genders: male and female.

 Male connectors have one or more exposed pins.

 Female connectors have matching holes to accept the pins on a male connector.

Memory (internal/primary storage)

While performing a processing operation, a processor needs a place to temporarily store

instructions to be executed and the data to be used with those instructions.

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The CPU cannot process data on an input device or disk directly; the data must first be
available in memory. A computer's memory in the system unit is located physically close to
the CPU to decrease access time. It provides the CPU with a working storage area for
program instructions, data and information. Memory is also known as primary storage or
internal storage. Memory usually consists of one or more chips on the motherboard.

Types of memory

The system unit contains two types of memory: volatile and non-volatile. The contents of
volatile memory are lost when the computer power is turned off.

The contents of nonvolatile memory are not lost when power is turned off. RAM is the most
common type of volatile memory. Examples of non-volatile memory include ROM, flash
memory, and CMOS.

Below, we discuss these types of memory.

(a) Random Access Memory (RAM)

Random Access Memory (RAM) is the memory chips that are mounted directly on the
motherboard or mounted on peripheral cards that plug into the motherboard. The RAM
chips consist of millions of switches that are sensitive to changes in electric current. When
the computer is powered on, certain operating system files are loaded from a storage device
such as a hard disk into RAM.

These files remain in RAM as long as the computer is running. As additional programs and
data are requested, they are read from storage into RAM. The processor acts upon the data
while it is in RAM. During the running time, the contents of RAM may change as the
program is executed.

The amount of RAM a computer requires often depends on the types of applications you
plan to use on the computer. A computer only can manipulate data that is in memory. A
computer needs a certain amount of memory to store programs, data and information.

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 The more RAM a computer has, the faster the computer will respond.

A software package usually indicates the minimum amount of RAM it requires. RAM in
computers purchased today ranges from 128MB, 512MB, 1GB to 64GB.

Basic types of RAM

 Dynamic RAM (DRAM) must be refreshed (or recharged) constantly by the CPU.
 Static RAM (SRAM) is faster and more reliable than any form of DRAM. The term
static refers to the fact that it does not have to be re-energized as often as DRAM.
 Magneto resistive RAM (MRAM), stores data using magnetic charges instead of
electrical charges. MRAM has greater storage capacity, consumes less power, and
has faster access times.
 Virtual RAM (VRAM): Modern operating systems can use spare storage space on the
hard disk as if it is working memory and this is referred to as Virtual memory or
Virtual RAM

Read-only memory (ROM)

Read-only memory (ROM) refers to memory chips storing permanent data and instructions.
That is, the items stored in ROM chips cannot be modified—then, the name read-only.

ROM is usually nonvolatile. In ROM, the combination of circuit states is fixed, and therefore
its contents are not lost if the power is removed. The data, instructions, or information
stored on ROM chips often are recorded when the chip is manufactured. ROM chips that
contain permanently written data, instructions, or information are called firmware.
Firmware can be read and used, but cannot be changed by user.

Basic types of ROM

(a) Programmable read-only memory (PROM) is a blank ROM chip on which you can
permanently place data and programs.

Once the data and instructions are programmed into PROM chip, the chip functions like a
regular ROM and cannot be erased or changed. A variation of the PROM chip, called

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 electrically erasable programmable read-only memory (EEPROM) chip, allows a programmer
to erase the microcode with an electric signal.

Differences between RAM and ROM

RAM ROM

1. Volatile, temporally 1.Non Volatile, permanent

2. Contents lost when power goes off 2. Contents remain when power goes off

3. Read and Write 3. Read Only

4. Can be increased 4. Cannot t be Increased

5. Not installed at Factory 5. Installed at Factory

(b) Memory cache

A cache is a relatively small block of very fast memory designed for the specific purpose of
speeding up the internal transfer of data and software instructions.

Cache uses internal storage technologies that are much faster than conventional RAM.
Cache speeds up processing time because it stores frequently used instructions and data.

(c) Flash memory

Flash memory is a chip also that keeps its contents when the power is shut off. Flash
memory can be erased electronically and reprogrammed. Most computers use flash
memory to hold their startup instructions because it allows the computer easily to update
its contents.

(xi) Complementary Metal-Oxide Semiconductor (CMOS)

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CMOS technology provides high speeds and consumes little power. CMOS technology uses
battery power to retain information even when the power to the computer is off. Battery-
backed CMOS memory chips, for example, can keep the calendar, date, and time current
even when the computer is off.

Units of Measuring Computer Memory

The smallest unit of measuring Computer Memory is a Binary digit (Bit).

Binary digits are the numbers 1 and 0 which can be represented in a computer by switching
voltage on and off. Eight little bits make one BYTE. The storage capacity of computers
(RAM and ROM) and that of auxiliary storage units like disks are generally given in bytes.

One BYTE stores approximately one character.

1 byte=1 character=8bits

3. SECONDARY STORAGE DEVICES

Secondary storage devices refers to the category of hardware devices that stores, holds and
keeps data and information permanent in the computer. They are non-volatile devices.

When a user issues a command to start an application program, the operating system
locates the program in secondary storage, and loads it into primary memory. In this Unit, we
shall focus on secondary memory

Common terms related to storage devices.

(a) A Storage medium is the physical material on which a computer keeps data. There is
a variety of storage media available.
(b) Capacity is the number of bytes (characters) a storage medium can hold.
(c) A Storage Device reads and writes data to and from a storage medium.
(d) Reading is the process in which a storage device transfers data, from a storage
medium into memory.
(e) Writing is the process in which a storage device transfers data from memory to a
storage medium (saving).

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 (f) Access time, is a measure of the amount of time it takes a storage device to locate
an item on a storage medium.
(g) Transfer rate is the speed with which data, instructions, and information move to
and from a device. Transfer rates for storage are stated in Kbps (kilobytes per
second).

Categories of Secondary Storage Media

There is a wide variety of storage devices in the following categories.

 Magnetic storage media

 Optical storage media
 Solid-state storage devices

(a) MAGNETIC STORAGE MEDIA

The term magnetic storage refers to the storage of data on a magnetized device. Therefore
magnetic storage devices are devices that store data using magnetized technology. These
media stored data using a combination of magnetic fields and binary data.

Magnetic storage media represent data as magnetic spots on the tape or disk, with a
magnetized spot representing a 1 bit and the absence of such a spot representing a 0 bit. As
advances in technology allowed these drives to hold magnetic fields more efficiently, their
size advanced from kilobytes - thousands of binary entries -- to terabytes --
1,000,000,000,000 or more binary entries.

Common examples of magnetic media include:

 Magnetic tape  Zip and Jazz disks

 Floppy disk,  Hard disk drives (HDD

(i) Magnetic tape

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Magnetic tape is a magnetically coated ribbon of plastic capable of storing large amounts of
data and information at a low cost. Tape storage requires sequential access, i.e. data must
be accessed in the order in which it is stored. If the computer is to read data from the
middle of a tape, all the tape before the desired piece of data must be passed over
consecutively. Today, magnetic tape storage is no longer used for routine processing.

Advantages of using a tape for data storage:

 Can hold thousands of megabytes (MB) of data depending on the length of the tape.
 Useful for daily backups of all work and programs on a large network.
 Can be set to run automatically during the night and then will only be needed in an
emergency.

Disadvantages of using tapes:

 Very slow, as need to wind tape (perhaps a long way) to find any specific position.
 Random data access is not possible.
 Magnetic Tape Data storage has a limited shelf life of about 2 years only.

ii) The Hard Disk

A hard disk is a principal mass storage medium in a computer system that stores data
magnetically.

Made of stronger thick non-flexible disk material (aluminum)or (ceramic)coated with

magnetic materials and fixed permanently together with its drive mechanism inside the
computer. Data is stored magnetically. Spinning at the required speed all the time it is very
much faster to access than a floppy disk or CD-ROM (faster than 1 MB per second).

They can hold thousands of megabytes (gigabytes) of data. A hard disk is used for storing all
programs and work files for very fast access by the computer.

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Characteristics of hard disks

 They store mass volumes of programs and data thus increases the productivity of a
computer
 They are faster in loading or retrieving data and programs than other forms of
secondary storage.

(ii) Floppy disk (diskette)

A floppy disk, or diskette, is a portable, inexpensive storage medium that consists of a thin
circular, flexible plastic disk with a magnetic costing enclosed in a square-shaped plastic
shell.

A standard floppy disk is 3.5-inches wide and has storage capacities up to 1.44 MB. A floppy
disk drive is a device that can read from and write to a floppy disk. Before you can write on a
new disk, it must be formatted.

Formatting is the process of preparing a disk for reading and writing by organizing the disk
into storage locations called tracks and sectors. It involves erasing and deleting all the data
on the storage media

Care for diskettes

 Keep diskettes away from magnet fields, such as near wire telephones, loud
speakers, and other appliances, which contain magnets.
 Do not keep heavy objects on top of the diskettes.
 Do not fold or bend diskettes.
 While labeling or writing on the diskettes use felt tip pen, not pencil or ballpoint pen.
 Do not expose the disk to excessive heat or light.
 Do not pull out the diskette from its drive when the drive light is still on.
 Do not use alcohol thinners, to clean the disk surface.
 Do not touch the disk surface.
 Do not bang, drop etc
 Do not splash liquids eg water etc

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  Keep out of moisture

Advantages of Floppy Disks

 Floppy diskettes are portable

 Floppy diskettes are cheap
 Random Data Access on a diskette is possible
 A floppy diskette can be write- protected from being changed.

Disadvantages of Floppy Disks

 Floppy diskettes are not reliable – they need to be handled with a lot of care, else
risk losing data.
 Floppy diskettes are not durable.
 Data Access time is relatively slow.
 They have limited Storage capacity (only 1.44MB)

(iii) Zip drive

The Zip drive is a medium-capacity removable disk storage system with capacities of 100 MB
to 750 MB that was introduced by Iomega in late 1994.

However it was never popular enough. Zip drives fell out of favor for mass portable storage
during the early 2000s due to emergence of much better USB flash drives CDs, and DVDs.

(iv) The Jazz drive

Similar the Zip drive, The Jazz drive was a removable disk storage system, introduced by the
Iomega Company in 1995. The Jazz disks were originally released with a 1 GB capacity. The
rising popularity and decreasing price of CDs and DVDs greatly hurt the success of the Jazz
Drive and the Jazz line was ultimately discontinued in 2002.

(b) OPTICAL STORAGE MEDIA

Optical storage refers to recording of data by making marks in a pattern that can be read
back with the aid of light, usually a beam of laser light.

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The reflected light is converted into a series of bits that the computer can process. An
optical disc is a flat, round, portable storage medium made of metal, plastic, and lacquer
that is written and read by a laser. Optical discs used in personal computers are 4.75 inches
in diameter. Smaller computers and devices use mini discs that have a diameter of 3 inches
or less.

Care for Optical Disks

 The following should be done for the safety of data on Optical disks:
 Do not expose the disc to excessive heat or sunlight
 Do not eat, smoke or drink near a disc.
 Do not stack disks.
 Do not touch the underside of the disk.
 Always store the disc in a jewel box when not in use
 Always hold a disc by its edges.
 Do not drop the disk to the ground.
 Don't bend the disk.

a) A compact disc (CD)

A compact disc (CD) is a flat, round, portable, storage medium that is usually 4.75 inches in
diameter and less than one-twentieth of an inch thick.

Compact discs store items by using microscopic pits and land that are in the middle layer of
the disc. A compact disc stores items in a single track, which is also divided into evenly sized
sectors, that spirals from the center of the disc to the edge of the disc.

b) Picture CD

A Picture CD is a compact disc that only contains digital photographic images saved in the
jpg file format. You can purchase Picture CDs that already contain pictures. A Picture CD is a
multisession disc, which means you can write additional data to the disc at a later time.

c) CD-R (compact disc-recordable)

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CD-R (compact disc-recordable) is a technology that allows you to write on a compact disc
using your own computer’s CD-R drive.

Once you have recorded the CD-R, you can read from it as many times as you desire. A CD-R
is a multisession optical disc which allows you to write on part of the disc at one time and
another part at a later time. However, you cannot erase the disc's contents.

d) CD-RW (compact disc-rewritable)

A CD-RW (compact disc-rewritable) is an erasable multisession disc that you can write on
multiple times. Reliability of the disc tends to drop, however, with each successive rewrite.
To write on a CD-RW, you must have a CD-RW drive and CD-RW software. A CD-RW drive
has a lower read and write speed as compared to CD-Rs.

iii) Magneto-optical (mo) disk

This is a hybrid disk, which combines the best features of magnetic and optical disk
technologies. It has the erase and rewrite capabilities of magnetic disks, but it also has the
very high-volume density capabilities of optical disks. MO disks are not popular because
they are too expensive, and not as reliable as magnetic media.

e) DVD-ROM

A DVD-ROM (Digital Video Disc-ROM) is an extremely high capacity compact disc capable of
storing from 4.7 GB to 17 GB. A DVD-ROM drive or DVD player is required to read a DVD-
ROM. Although the size and shape of a DVD-ROM and a CD-ROM are similar, a DVD-ROM
uses one of the following three storage techniques to increase its storage capacity

The first technique involves making the disc denser by packing the pits closer together. A
second technique involves using two layers of pits, which doubles the capacity of the disc.
Finally, some DVD-ROMs are double-sided, which means that they can be removed and
turned over to read the other side.

Advantages & Disadvantages of CD

Advantages of compact disc over hard disk include

 A compact disc is more portable than a hard disk.

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  Less prone to viruses than any other medium

Advantages of compact disc over floppy disk include

• The storage capacity of a compact disc is very much larger than that of a floppy disk.
• The average access time of a compact disc is faster than that of a floppy disk.

Disadvantages of compact disc include

• Some kinds of compact discs are read only (CD-ROM and DVD-ROM).
• The average access time of a compact disc is slower than that of a hard disk.
f) High Capacity DVD formats

A Blu-ray Discs-ROM (BD-ROM) has storage capacities of up to 300 GB. The HD (high-
density) DVD-ROM has storage capacities up to 60 GB. A mini-DVD that has grown in
popularity is the UMD (Universal Media Disc), which can store up to 1.8 GB of games,
movies, or music.

(c) SOLID-STATE STORAGE MEDIA (SSS)

Solid state storage (SSS)/flash memory: is a type of computer storage media that is made
from silicon microchips. SSS stores data electronically instead of magnetically. Flash memory
stores the binary data of zeros and ones, but it does so with electrons that shuttle through
the device's circuitry instead of magnetic poles on a disk. Because electrons store the data,
the devices have no moving mechanical parts. This allows the drives to consume less power
than traditional magnetic drives and to retrieve data faster.

Examples of solid –state storage media are:

a) USB flash drive

A USB flash drive is a flash memory storage device that plugs in a USB port on a computer.
USB flash drives are convenient for mobile users because they are small and lightweight
enough to be transported in a pocket. Current USB flash drives have data storage capacities
ranging from 256 MB to 64 GB. USB flash drives have become the mobile user's primary
portable storage device, making the floppy disk nearly outdated.

b) Smart Card

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Smart Card: Contains a processing microchip to provide it with intelligence as well as
memory it is really a tiny computer, eg. the SIM card used in a mobile phone identifies you
through a PIN number, identifies and connects to your service provider and provides a menu
of options, as well as storing phone numbers and phone settings.A smart card, which is
similar in size to a credit card or ATM card, stores data on a thin microprocessor embedded
in the card.

An intelligent smart card contains a CPU and has input, process, output and storage
capabilities.

Applications of smart cards include

• Storing a prepaid dollar amount (e.g., a prepaid telephone calling card).

• Storing patient records and other health-care information.
• Tracking information of customers and employees.
c) Memory card/Memory Stick

Flash memory cards are a type of solid-state media, which means they consist entirely of
electronic components and contain no moving parts. Common types of flash memory cards
include; CompactFlash (CF), SmartMedia, miscroSD, miniSD, xD, Picture Card, etc. They are
commonly used in electronic devices such as digital cameras and mobile phones. They are
tiny, re-recordable, and able to retain data without power. Depending on the device,
manufacturers claim these storage media can last from 10 to 100 years.

Other Types of Storage Media

a) Punched Cards

A punched card, punch card, IBM card, or Hollerith card is a piece of stiff paper that contains
digital information represented by the presence or absence of holes in predefined positions.
They were used through the 20th century in unit record machines for input, processing, and
data storage. Early digital computers used punched cards, often prepared using keypunch
machines, as the primary medium for input and storage of both computer programs and
data.

b) Photographic film

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Photographic film is a sheet of plastic such as polyester coated with a light sensitive
emulsion that is used to record and store photographs. Normal film is shipped in small
canisters (boxes) that protect it from the light. When exposed to light, it forms an invisible
image. Chemical processes can then be applied to the film to create a visible image, in a
process called film developing. A normal photographic film can hold up to 40 pictures.

c) Microfilm and Microfiche

These are media used to store microscopic images of documents on roll or sheet film. The
images are recorded onto the film using a device called a computer output microfilm
recorder. The stored images are so small they can be read only with a microfilm or
microfiche reader. Microfilm and microfiche have the longest life of any storage medium.
Libraries use these media to store back issues of newspapers, magazines, and genealogy
records.

4. OUTPUT DEVICES

These are devices that are used to convey and display information to the user. A display
device is an output device that visually conveys text, graphics, and video information.
Output is data that has been processed into a useful form called information. Computers
generate several types of output, depending on the hardware and software being used and
the requirements of the user.

Commonly used output devices include

a) Display devices
b) Printers
c) Audio Output Devices
d) Other

Categories of Computer output

While working with a computer, a user encounters four basic categories of output:

 Text, (characters that are used to create words, sentences, and paragraphs)

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  Graphics (non-text information such as drawings and charts)
 Audio (music, speech, or any other sound)
 Video (full-motion images played back at various speeds)

a) Display Devices/ Visual Display Units

A display device is an output device that visually conveys text, graphics, and video
information. Information shown on a display device often is called soft copy, because the
information exists electronically and is displayed for a temporary period of time. Display
devices are also known as (Visual Display Units (VDUs). Commonly used display devices
include

 CRT Monitors  Projectors

 LCD Monitors  Headgears
 Plasma monitors  LED displays

i) CRT Monitors

A CRT (cathode ray tube) monitor is a desktop screen that contains a large sealed glass
cathode-ray tube. Inside the CRT, an electron beam moves back and forth across the back of
the screen. This causes dots on the front of the screen to glow, producing an image on the
screen. Each dot consists of a red, a green, and a blue phosphor, which combine to make up
a pixel. A pixel is a single point in an electronic image.

Advantages of CRT Monitors

 They are less expensive.

 They operate at any resolution, geometry and aspect ratio without the need of
rescaling the image.
 CRTs run at the highest pixel resolutions generally available.
 Produce a very dark black and the highest contrast generally available.
 Produce the very best color and gray scale.
 Have fast response times and no motion artifacts

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  Can also be viewed from a wide angle.
 They are very durable/lasts long

Disadvantages of CRT Monitors

 They consume a lot of electric energy.

 Affected by magnetic fields from other equipment including other CRTs
 Have a rounded spherical or cylindrical shape
 Emit electric, magnetic and electromagnetic fields.
 They are large, heavy, and bulky.
 All color CRTs produce annoying Moiré patterns.
 They are subject to geometric distortion and screen regulation problems.
 Produce a lot of heat.

ii) Flat-Panel Displays

A flat-panel display is a lightweight display device with a shallow depth and flat screen that
typically uses LCD (liquid crystal display) or gas plasma technology. Examples of flat -panel
displays include LCD monitors, and plasma monitors. Many are widescreen, i.e. much wider
than they are tall. Screens are measured diagonally from one corner to the other. Common
sizes are 17”, 19”, 20”, 22”, 24” and 27”, 45” and 65 inch screens

Advantages of LCD Monitors

 They consume less electrical energy.

 They are portable in size, light,thin,
 The image is perfectly sharp at the native resolution of the panel.
 There is minor distortion from other resolutions because the images must be
rescaled.
 Produce very bright images.
 The screens are perfectly flat.
 Produce little energy

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Disadvantages of LCD Monitors

 They are very expensive

 Limited viewing angle
 Each panel has a fixed pixel resolution format determined at the time of
manufacture that cannot be changed.
 Have difficulty producing black and very dark grays.
 The bright end of the LCD intensity scale is easily overloaded.
 The internal Gamma and gray-scale of an LCD is very irregular.
 Can have many weak or stuck pixels which are permanently on or off.
 LCDs have fixed resolution and aspect ratio

iii) Data Projectors

A data projector takes the image that displays on a computer screen and projects it onto a
large screen or wall so that an audience of people can see the image clearly. For example,
many classrooms use data projectors so that all students easily can see an instructor's
presentation on the screen. Presence of excess light affects data projectors and so they
perform well in dark rooms.

Head Mounted Display (HMD) / Headgear

A headgear is made up of two tiny display and sound systems that channel images and
sound from the source to the eyes and ears, thus presenting a stereo three dimensional
sound effect in the virtual world.

The wearer may also put on a body suit that senses the body movement and relays the data
into the virtual reality system which in turn adjusts the position of the user in the system.

iv) Light Emitting Diodes (LED) displays

A LED display is a flat panel display, which uses light-emitting diodes as a video display. A
LED panel may be a small display, or a component of a larger display. They are typically used
outdoors in store signs and billboards.

More Terms associated with Display Devices

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1. Resolution is the number of horizontal and vertical pixels in a display device. A higher
resolution uses a greater number of pixels and thus provides a smoother, sharper, and
clearer image. Resolution is measured in dpi (dots per inch)

2. Dot pitch, aka pixel pitch, is the distance in millimeters between pixels on a display
device. Text created with a smaller dot pitch is easier to read.

(b) Printers

A printer is a device that produces a hard copy output such as text and graphics on a
physical material like paper. Printed information (hard copy) exists physically and in a more
permanent form than a soft copy on a display device. Printers with different speeds,
features, quality, and capabilities are available in a range of prices.

Printers can be grouped into two categories:

 Impact printers
 Non-impact printers.

1. IMPACT PRINTERS

An impact printer forms characters and graphics on a piece of paper by a striking

mechanism against an ink ribbon that physically contacts the paper. Impact printers are
noisy because of this striking activity.

Large Businesses use impact printers because these printers can withstand dusty
environments, vibrations, and extreme temperatures. Commonly used types of impact
printers include Daisy wheel, dot-matrix, Braille and line printers.

Characteristics/features of impact printers

 Very low consumable costs

 They are very noisy
 Useful for bulk printing due to low cost

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  There is physical contact between the papers to produce an image.
 They are relatively very slow.
 They do not print transparencies
 Multiple carbon copies may be printed at once.
 Print quality is relatively low.

a) Daisywheel printer

This is a kind of impact printer where characters are arranged on the ends of the spokes of a
wheel. The wheel (usually made of plastic) is rotated to select the character to print and
then an electrically operated hammer bends the selected spoke forward slightly, squeezing
in an ink ribbon between the character and the paper, as in a typewriter. One advantage of
this arrangement over that of a typewriter is that different wheels may be inserted to
produce different typefaces (font styles and sizes)

Low speed and noise are its disadvantages. The speeds are between 20 to 90 characters per
second (cps)

b) Dot-matrix printer

A dot-matrix printer produces printed images when tiny wire pints on a print head
mechanism strike an inked ribbon like in a type writer. When the ribbon presses against the
paper, it creates dots that form characters and graphics. Most dot-matrix printers use
continuous-form paper, in which thousands of sheets of paper are connected together end to
end. The papers have holes along the sides to help feed the paper through the printer. Dot
matrix printers provide cheap but low quality printing.

Advantages of Dot matrix printers

 They are versatile

 Print letters in italics or bold
 Relatively inexpensive
 Used to print carbon copies.

Disadvantages of Dot matrix printers

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  Very noisy
 Slow speed
 Space consuming
c) Drum printer

An old line printer technology that used formed characters around a cylindrical drum as its
printing mechanism. When the desired character for the selected position rotated around
to the hammer line, the hummer hit the paper from behind and pushed it into the ribbon
onto the character.

d) Braille printers

A Braille printer, commonly known as a Braille embosser, is an impact printer that renders
text as tangible dot cells which are felt and read by the blind.

Using Braille translation software, a document can be embossed with relative ease and
efficiency. They need special Braille paper which is thicker and more expensive than normal
paper. Once a copy produced, printing further copies is often quicker by means of a device
called a "thermoform", which produces copies on soft plastic

e) Line printers

A line printer is a high-speed impact printer that prints an entire line at a time. The speed of
a line printer is measured by the number of lines per minute (lpm) it can print. Some line
printers print as many as 3,000 lpm. Mainframes, servers, or networked applications, such
as manufacturing, distribution, or shipping, often use line printers.

2. NON-IMPACT PRINTERS

A nonimpact printer forms characters and graphics on a piece of paper without actually
striking the paper. Some spray ink, while others use heat or pressure to create images.
Commonly used nonimpact printers are ink-jet printers, laser printers, thermal printers,
plotters, and mobile printers.

Advantages of Non-Impact –printers.

 They print high quality images

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  They are very speedy
 The printer does not make contact with the paper
 They print on most types of paper
 They can also print on transparencies.
 They do not make noise when printing.

a) Ink-jet printer

An ink-jet printer forms characters and graphics by spraying tiny drops of liquid ink onto a
piece of paper. Ink-jet printers produce text and graphics in both black-and-white and color
on a variety of paper types & sizes. The print head mechanism in an ink-jet printer contains
ink-filled print cartridges. Each cartridge has very many small ink holes, or nozzles. The ink
propels through a combination of the holes to form a character or image on the paper.

b) Laser printer

A laser printer is a high-speed, high quality nonimpact printer. Operating in a manner

similar to a copy machine, a laser printer creates images using a laser beam and powdered
ink, called toner, which is packaged in a cartridge. When printing a document, laser printers
process and store the entire page before they actually print it. For this reason, laser printers
sometimes are called page printers. Storing a page before printing requires the laser printer
to have a certain amount of inbuilt memory.

c) Thermal printers

A thermal printer generates images by pushing heated pins against a coated heat-sensitive
paper. The coating turns black in the areas where it is heated, producing an image. Basic
thermal printers are cheap, but the print quality is low and the images tend to fade over
time. Thermal printing technology is, however, ideal for use in small devices e.g. ATM
receipt printers.

d) Plotters

Plotters are printers used to produce large, high-quality, vector graphic drawings such as
blueprints, maps, posters, and signs. These printers are usually very costly, and are used in

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specialized fields such as engineering, and graphic art. They use ink-jet printer technology,
on a much larger scale, to print professional quality displays.

e) Mobile Printers

A mobile printer is a small, lightweight, battery powered printer that allows a mobile user to
print from a notebook computer, Tablet PC, PDA, smart phone or other personal mobile
device while traveling. They fit easily in a briefcase alongside a notebook computer. Mobile
printers mainly use ink-jet, thermal, wax-transfer, or dye-sublimation technology.

Terms associated with Printers

1. Toner is a powder used in laser printers and photocopiers to form the printed text and
images on the paper.

2. dpi. (Dots per inch) is a measure of the number of individual dots printed in a line within
the span of 1 inch (2.54 cm). The DPI value correlates with image resolution.

3. Hard copy is a permanent reproduction, on the form of a physical object, of any media
suitable for direct use such as paper.

4. Ink Cartridge. This is a component/container for the liquid ink that is deposited onto
during printing of characters on a paper. Used mainly by inkjet printers.

5. Toner Cartridge: This is a component/container for the liquid ink that is deposited onto
during printing of characters on a paper. Used mainly by laser printers.

6. Page orientation is the way in which a rectangular page is focused on for normal viewing.

The two most common types of orientation are portrait and landscape.

A page in portrait orientation is taller than it is wide, with information printed across the
shorter width of the paper.

A page in landscape orientation is wider than it is tall, with information printed across the
widest part of the paper.

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AUDIO OUTPUT DEVICES

Audio output devices are the components of the computer system that produce music,
speech, or other sounds, such as beeps.

a) Computer Speakers

Computer Speakers typically have tone and volume controls, allowing users to adjust
settings. To boost the low bass sounds, surround sound speaker systems also include a
woofer, with one or two center speakers and two or more satellite speakers that are
positioned so that sound emits from all directions. Some Computer Speakers use Wireless
technology.

b) PC internal Speakers

Most personal computers have a small internal speakers that basically output beeps and
low-quality sound.

c) Headphones and Earphones

In a crowded computer laboratory environment, speakers might not be applicable. Instead,

users can plug head-phones or earphones in a port on the sound card, in a speaker, or on
the front of the system unit. With the headphone or earphone, only the individual wearing
the headset hears the sound from the computer.

Other Output Devices

There are very many kinds of emerging output devices. Some are both input and output
devices. Examples include:

 Fax (or facsimile) machine  LED displays.

 Interactive whiteboard.  Multifunction peripherals
 Machine Tools.
.
a) Fax (or facsimile) machine

A fax machine is a device that transmits and receives typed or hand written documents over
telephone lines. A stand-alone fax machine scans the original document, converts the image
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into digitized data, and transmits the digitized image. A fax machine at the receiving end
reads the incoming data, converts the digitized data into an image, and prints or stores a
copy of the original image. Fax capability also can be added to a computer using an external
fax modem.

b) Interactive whiteboard (IWB)

An interactive whiteboard is a touch-sensitive device, resembling a dry-erase board that

displays the image on a connected computer screen. The presenter can use bare hands, a
special tablet, or remote control to interact with the device. Notes written on the interactive
whiteboard can be saved directly on the computer. Interactive whiteboards are used
frequently in classrooms as a teaching tool.

Three basic technologies exist for displaying computer images on an interactive

whiteboard:

(1) Front projection:

A separate projector displays an image from the computer screen on the interactive
whiteboard;

(2) Rear projection:

A projector built into the back of interactive whiteboard displays an image from the
computer screen on the whiteboard; and

(3) An interactive whiteboard fits over an LCD screen or a plasma display.

c) Machine Tools

A machine tool is a machine for shaping metal or other rigid materials, usually by cutting,
boring, grinding, or shearing. Through Computer-aided manufacturing (CAM) computers are
used to control the output of machine tools and related machinery in the manufacturing of
work pieces.

d) Multifunction peripheral (MFP)

A multifunction peripheral (MFP) is a device that performs a variety of functions that would
otherwise be carried out by separate peripheral devices.

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As a rule, a multifunction peripheral includes at least two of the following:

 A printer  A photocopier
 A scanner  A fax machine

Merits and Demerits of MFPs

Advantages of a multifunction device are that

• It takes up less office space.

• It is significantly less expensive than if you purchased each device separately.

The major disadvantage of the machine is that if it breaks down you lose all functions.

TOPIC 6: COMPUTER SOFTWARE

Computer software refers to the electronic instructions and procedures that command and
control the operation of a computer.

Illustration of computer software

TYPES OF SOFTWARE

There are mainly two types of software.

 System Software
 Application software

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SYSTEM SOFTWARE

System software refers to a category of software that enables the computer to work and as
well control devices connected to it.

Or It refers the software that performs tasks related to the operation and performance of
the computer system.

System software is a set of programs designed to manage operations of the computer and
avail computer resources to the user.

Functions of system software

 Booting the computer

 Making sure that all hardware elements are working properly
 Performing operations such as retrieving, loading, executing and storing
application programs
 Storing and retrieving files
 Performing a variety of system utility functions.

CATEGORIES OF SYSTEM SOFTWARE

There are three categories of system software.

• Operating system • Utility programs • Programming

OPERATING SYSTEM SOFTWARE

Operating system is a type of system software that performs daily activities of a computer.
These are programs that manage the computer resources.

Types of operating system

 Stand-alone operating system

 Network operating system
 Embedded operating system

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Examples of Operating System Software

 Windows operating system

 Linux , Unix, Ubuntu Operating System
 Macintosh(MAC)
 Chrome operating system
 Novell operating system
 Android for mobile phones

Function of Operating System (Os)

 It helps in processor management e.g. multitasking and time sharing.

 Control the use of peripheral devices.
 It provides an environment that enables installation of application software
 Controls the booting process of a computer
 Monitors system performance.
 Helps in administering security
 It helps in file management.
 It helps in connecting devices to work with computer(configuring of devices)
 Responsible for scheduling computer tasks/jobs
 Helps to establish network connections.

Forms of Operating System User Interfaces

There are two forms of Operating user interfaces.

 Command-Line User Interface:

 Graphical User interface

Command-Line User Interface:

With a command line interface, a user types keyboard or press special keys on the keyboard
to enter data and instructions. The set of commands a user uses to interact with the
computer is called command language. Examples are DOS, UNIX, Linux.

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You are provided with a virtually empty screen with a blinking cursor where commands are
keyed and the computer executes them by pressing the enter key.

Advantages of Command User Interface:

 Commands are executed faster.

 Consumes limited Random Access Memory
 Cannot easily affected by viruses
 Ideal for programming and programmers
 Commands can be grouped together.

Disadvantages of Command User Interfaces

 Commands are not easily memorized

 Requires a lot of knowledge to master the commands
 Commands have to be typed correctly
 No graphics on the screen.
 A mouse cannot be used

Graphical User Interface (GUI)

Graphical user interface allows the user to use menus and visual images such as icons,
buttons and other graphical objects to issue commands.

Advantages of Graphical User Interface (GUI)

 It is user friendly because it is easy to learn and work with

 There is no need to type and memorize any command language.
 The interface is similar for any application.
 You are provided with a coloured screen with icons each representing a
program.
 A mouse may be used.

Disadvantages of Graphical User Interface (GUI)

 Require much more memory and as well as the processor

 Require much more desk space to hold the files
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  Difficult to automate for expert users
 Easily affected by viruses
 Not good for programmers.

UTILITY SOFTWARE

This is parts of system software which are designed to configure, analyze, optimize and
maintain a computer in its operation.

Functions of the Utility Programs

 It detects and protects a computer against computer viruses

 It reduces screen burnout (ghosting) by playing a screen saver
 It increases desk space by compressing data files
 It checks disk errors and sometimes fixes them
 It stores the system functionality (i.e. system store)
 It enables computers to sort files in order.
 It enables a user to merge files
 It defragments hard disks
 It enables a user to encrypt files.

Common Utilities used

Antivirus utility: used to search, find and remove viruses from the computer

System archives: These output a stream or a single file when provided with a directory/set
of files.

Disk checkers: these scan an operating hard drive for logical (file system) and physical errors

Backup utility: makes a copy of all information stored on the hard disk onto another storage
medium e.g external hard disk, dvds, etc.

Cryptographic utilities: used to encrypt and decrypt streams of files.

Data compression utilities: output a smaller file when provided with a file.

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Disk compressors: these compress/reduce the size of the file thus increasing the capacity of
the disk.

Disk defragmenters: These detect computer files whose content is scattered in several
locations on the hard disk and move fragments to one location to increase efficiency.

Screen savers: these prevent phosphor burn-in on CRT and plasma monitors by filling it with
moving images, patterns when the computer is not in use.

Sorting utilities: these help to organize data in a given order.

Memory testers: these check for memory failures.

Disk partition editors: these divide a drive into multiple logical drives, each with its own file
system which can be mounted by the operating system to be treated as an individual drive.

File synchronization utilities: these maintain consistency between two sources. They enable
redundancy or making copies of data.

System profilers: provide detailed information about the software installed and hardware
attached to the computer.

Network utilities: these analyze a computer’s network connectivity, configure network

settings, check data transfer or log events.

DEVICE DRIVERS

This is a small program that tells the operating system how to communicate with the device.
Each device on a computer (e.g. a mouse) has its own specialized set of commands and thus
requires its own specific driver. The operating system loads each device’s driver when the
computer boots up.

To communicate with the hardware devices, the operating system relies on device drivers.

• A device driver is a program that accepts instructions and then converts them into
commands that the device understands.

• Each device on a computer, such as the keyboard, mouse, monitor, printer, card
reader/writer, and scanner, has its own device driver.

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PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES

These refer to the languages used to write a computer instruction, program software. A
person who writes a program is called a programmer.

Functions of Software Programmer

 He writes a computer program

 He maintains a computer program
 He upgrades a computer

TYPES OF PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES

Programming languages are of two types

 Low level programming language

 High level programming language

Low level languages

This is a computer program written in machine code language, the language understood by
a computer. It is also referred to as binary language because it consists of only two digits.
The digits of 0s and 1s

Types of low-level languages

 Machine code language (First generation)

 Assembly language (Second generation)

Assembly (low-level) languages

This is a language which consist of mnemonic symbols (English like words) used to represent
the binary digits of zeros and ones of machine language. Assembler languages are used to
develop system software.

However computers can only understand machine language, thus assembler languages must
be translated into machine language for execution.

Advantages of Low level languages/Machine code

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  Machine code program are executed faster.
 They don't require either a compiler or interpreters except assembly
 They are suitable to developing operating systems.

Disadvantages of Low level languages

 They are difficult to learn and understand.

 The instructions are expressed in binary form ( 0 and 1s)
 The programs are machine dependent hence difficult to be used by other
machines of different family.

High level programming languages

This is a computer program written in official language (known to man) but should be
converted to machine code for a computer to understand.

High level languages consist of statements or sequences text including words, numbers and
punctuation, much like written natural languages.

Advantages of High level Languages

 They are machine independent and can be used by other computers.

 They are user friendly and problem oriented.
 They are easier to learn, write, correct and revise than assembler and machine
languages.
 They can be used for development of application software.

Disadvantages of High level Languages

 They require to be translated to machine code

 They are not executed faster.

Examples of high level languages

COBOL  Ruby
PASCAL  C++
Python  C#(C-sharp)
 PERL
Java Script 98  FORTRAN
Java  PHP
C
LANGUAGE PROCESSORS/TRANSLATORS

Language processors: These have to translate high level languages to machine code
languages which the processor can understand. They are software designed to translate
from high level language to low-level language.

Examples of language processors

A compiler: a compiler is a program which translates a whole source program from high
level language to low level language which can easily be understood by the computer.

An interpreter: This is a program that translates the source program line by line while the
program is running from high level language to low level language.

The assembler: This translates assembler instructions from assembley language to machine
code language or the binary code.

The linkers: These combine compiled programs and determine where the program will be
located in the memory.

Language editors

These are applications/software used to write computer language/codes. Some also

compile.

Examples of language editors

 Notepad  Sublime Text

 Trouble c  Dev C, C++
 Borland  CodeBlocks

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  Notepad +

Common terms used in programming

Source code is a program instruction written as text file by the programmer that must be
translated by a compiler or interpreter or assembler into an object code before execution.

Source code cannot be understood by the computer until it has been translated into
machine code.

Execution is the process by which a computer system performs the instructions of a

computer program.

Object code is a program code in machine language that is ready for execution by the
computer.

Bug is a logical problem in the program source code that stops the program to give wrong
results/ from running

Debugging is the process of detecting, checking and identifying problems and errors in the
source code.

APPLICATION SOFTWARE

This is a software program that performs a specific and user function. Application software
is installed on operating system.

Application software consists of programs designed to perform specific tasks for end-users.
For example typing a letter.

CLASSIFICATIONS OF APPLICATION SOFTWARE

Application software is categorized into two:

• Off-shelf packages

• Customized programs/ Bespoke/ Tailor-made programs

OFF SHELF PACKAGES

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 • These are programs already written and ready to be run upon their purchase.

Examples of off shelf packages

Word processors

These are programs that enable you to perform word processing functions, they are
document production applications.

Word processing software

An application software with which a user creates, edits save, format and print letters
reports and other documents.

Spreadsheet software

An application with which a user can organize data in rows and columns create graphs and
can perform calculations e.g. Ms excel, Lotus 123, VisiCalc

Presentation software

An application with which a user can organize content on a slide for viewing by the
audience. Ms power point, Harvard graphics, Corel presentation

Database software

An application with which one can store lots of data for future manipulation

Desktop publishing software

Application software with which one can design publications like news papers, wedding
cards certificates etc

Imaging software application software with which one can edit, retouch a photograph.

Web browsing software

Web browsing software used for displaying and viewing webpages from the internet or html
documents on computers.

Examples of web browser software Include:

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  Mozilla Firefox,  Opera
 Internet Explorer  Netscape Navigator
 Safari  Chrome

Web authoring software

Web authoring software – These are used by webmasters for building websites. Examples
include:

 Microsoft FrontPage,  Antenna Web Design Studio

 Adobe Dreamweaver,  Sublime text 3
 Microsoft Expression Web,
Media Players for Audio and Video

Media Players for Audio and Video playback on computers. Examples include:

 Windows Media Player,  Power DVD,

 Nero Showtime,  VLC Media Player
 Jet-Audio,  Virtual DJ, e.t.c.

Graphics software

Graphics software – Used by graphic designers to create and design artistic graphics and to
manipulate visual images on a computer such as

logos, cartoons etc.

Examples include

 Paint,  Corel Draw,

 Adobe Photo shop,  Adobe Illustrator etc

Accounting software

Accounting software helps companies to record and report their financial transactions. With
accounting soft-ware, you perform accounting activities related to the general ledger,

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accounts receivable, accounts payable, purchasing, invoicing, job costing, payroll functions,
etc. Examples include Quick Books

Audio and video editing software

Audio editing software lets users produce studio quality soundtracks. With video editing
software, you can modify video clips: you can reduce the length of a video clip, reorder a
series of clips, or add special effects such as words that move horizontally across the screen
etc.

 Adobe Premier Video Editor  Adobe Audition for –audio

 Ulead Video Editor  Fruity Loops Studio-audio

Images viewing software

This refers to computer applications primarily used for previewing digital photographs on
the computer screen.

Many have basic features such as viewing thumbnails, slideshows, printing and simple
editing such as cropping and resizing.

Examples of Image viewers include: Microsoft Office Picture Manager, Windows Photo
viewer, Picasa photo viewer, etc.

Reference software

Reference software provides valuable and thorough information for all individuals. Popular
reference software includes encyclopedias, dictionaries, health/medical guides, and travel
directories.

Examples include: Encyclopaedia Britannica 2011 Ultimate Reference DVD

Microsoft Student with Encarta Premium, e.t.c.

Note Taking software

Note taking software enables users to enter typed text, handwritten comments, drawings,
or sketches anywhere on a page and then save the page as part of a notebook .The software

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can convert handwritten comments to typed text or store the notes in handwritten form.
Examples include Microsoft Office OneNote

Text Editors

Text editors are simple word processors that are generally used to type without any special
formatting. Text editors are mainly used to create small notes, memos and programs.
Examples of common text editors are: Notepad,

Notepad++, Sublime Text, Gedit etc.

Gaming Software

These are programs developed as electronic game that involve human interaction with a
user interface to generate visual feedback on a computer.

Common computer games include solitaire, chess titans, Racing, StarCraft, Need for Speed,
GTA Vice City, and Alien Shooter.

Email Software / Email client

Email software (Commonly known as email client) is a computer program used to access and
manage a user's email account.Web applications that provide message management,
composition, and reception functions are sometimes also commonly referred to as webmail.

Popular locally installed email clients include Microsoft Outlook, Pegasus Mail, Mozilla's
Thunderbird, KMail, Evolution and Apple Mail. Popular web-based email clients include:
GMail, Yahoo! Mail, mail.com, Lycos mail, and Hotmail.

Advantages of off-shelf packages

 They are relatively cheaper than bespoke packages.

 They are readily available for purchase.
 They are user friendly; many have a graphical user interface, sample manuals
provided on purchase.
 The user does not face research and development costs or problems since the
package is already in operation.

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  The user faces limited risk since the user has an option to seek information from
existing users about the package before making a decision to purchase.

Disadvantages of off-shelf packages

 They hardly full fill users’ specific needs perfectly.

 They are standardized implying it may be hard to make adjustments.
 They may not be recommended where a particular company wants to gain
competitive advantage over others.
 Where the package does too much compared to the company needs, the amount
of extra space occupied in the hardware can lead to memory wastage.
 The package may also be limited to a particular operating system like Microsoft
Office for Windows operating system.
 It may be easy to manufacture viruses that may tamper with such application
programs.

CUSTOMIZED/TAILOR-MADE/BESPOKE PROGRAMS

These are tailor made programs constructed to meet specific user requirements. They are
specifically designed to meet user requirements.

Merits of customized programs

 Ability to satisfy user’s specific needs

 The company will be able to perform tasks with its software that its competitors
cannot do with theirs thereby gaining a competitive advantage.
 They can easily be modified or upgraded.
 Ownership is to the company that ordered for the software.

Disadvantages of customized software

 Time taken to develop the package may be long yet requirements could be urgent.
 The cost of paying programmers makes them expensive. The organisation has to
incur development and consultancy costs in this case.
 They are not flexible i.e. not meant to do various tasks.

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  They are expensive to maintain. When they breakdown programmers who are
expensive have to be called in
 In-case of breakdown, the company may be brought to a standstill
 There is a greater probability of bugs in bespoke programs.
 They are not compatible with all computer types i.e. they are designed for specific
computer types.
 The program may not run which means that the programmer has to design
another one. This could even lead to more costs on the side of the user as well as
causing delays

Shareware

Shareware is copyrighted software that is distributed at no cost for a trial period. To use a
shareware program beyond that period, you send payment to the program developer. In
some cases, a scaled-down version of the software is distributed free, and payment entitles
the user to the fully functional product.

Copyrighted software

Copyrighted software refers to computer programs with restrictions regarding use,

modification, and redistribution. You have to pay for copyrighted software and must not
copy it without permission from the manufacturer. Copying copyrighted software without
paying for it is clearly unethical and illegal.

Freeware

Freeware is copyrighted software provided at no cost by an individual or a company that

retains all rights to the software. Therefore, other programmers cannot include freeware in
applications they intend to sell.

Open-source

Open source software is software provided for use, modification, and redistribution. This
software has no restrictions from the copyright holder. Open source software usually can be
downloaded from the Web at no cost.

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Public-domain software

Public-domain software has been donated for public use and has no copyright restrictions.
Anyone can copy or distribute public domain software to others at no cost.

Web-based software

Web-based software refers to programs hosted by a Web site. Users access and interact
with Web-based software from any computer or device that is connected to the Internet.
Many Web sites allow free access to their programs; some charge a fee. Examples of Web-
based software include e-mail,

Website builders, online games, travel and mapping software ,e.t.c.

Special Purpose (Specialized) Software

This refers to computer programs developed and dedicated to accomplish particular jobs
only. Programs that run on special purpose computers like ATMs are special purpose
software.

Other Examples of specialized software include:

 Business – Transaction and Sales Management software.

 Science and Engineering software etc..

General purpose

This refers to a Wide a variety of application programs that perform many common tasks.

• Varieties of General purpose application programs include Word processing programs,

Spreadsheet programs, web browsers, Graphics programs, etc.

SOFTWARE SUITE

A software suite is a collection of several applications that are bundled together and sold or
distributed as a single package. The software programs may have correlative features and
functionality or they may be completely different from one another but share a similar
theme.

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When you install the suite, you install the entire collection of applications at once instead of
installing each application individually. At a minimum, suites typically include the following
software applications: word processing, spreadsheet, database, and presentation graphics,

Examples of software suites

 Microsoft Office
 Apple iWork
 Celframe Office
 Ability Office
 Kingsoft Office
 Libre Office Productivity Suite.
 Open Office.Org
 Word Perfect Office X5
 Zoho
 Quickoffice & OfficeSuite
 ProOffice Free 3.0
 KOffice
 Lotus Smart Suite

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Advantages of using software suites

 Costs significantly cheaper than buying each of the application package separately
 Easy to learn and use because applications within a suite usually use a similar
interface and share common features such as clip art and toolbars.
 Easy installation because all the various applications can be installed at once.

Common Terminologies used in Software

Software needs to be accessed before it can be used. There are many terms used for the
process of accessing software including running, executing, starting up, opening, and others. A
program can also be referred to as an application and the two words are used interchangeably.

Software license

This is a document that provides legally binding guidelines for the use and distribution of
software.

Software agreement

This refers to the legal contact between licensor and /or author and the purchaser of a piece of
software which establishes the purchaser’s’ rights.

Software piracy This is the illegal duplication of copyrighted software.

Software bug refers to an error in the programming code that does not permit it to function
well.

Beta software is a type of software provided to people for testing purposes.

Software release is the process of issuing/letting the software or application for publication,
use and distribution.

Software version refers to variation of an earlier or original type with minor changes to the
existing version or type. Eg. ITunes 12.0, ITunes 12.2.3

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Hot fix: This is a software program that is designed to fix a bug or security hole in software
program.

Spy ware: This is a software application that is designed to gather information about a person
or organization without their knowledge that may send such information to another entity.

Software Patch: This is a software program that is designed to modify, correct, and fix problems
in software.

Software update: This is a software application that provides fixes for features that are not
working as intended or adds minor software enhancements and compatibility.

Software upgrade: This is a process of replacing a product with a newer version of the same
product.

Firmware: This is a permanent software that is programmed or embedded in a hardware

usually read-only-memory by the manufacturer.

Characteristics of Good computer software

• ...provides the required functionality.

• ...is usable by real (i.e. simple) users.

• ...is predictable, reliable and dependable.

• ...functions efficiently.

• ...has a "life-time" (measured in years).

• ...provides an appropriate user interface.

• ...is accompanied by complete documentation.

• ...can be easily customized/configured.

• ...can be "easily" maintained and updated.

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Factors to consider before obtaining a software program

 Correctness — does the software do what it is suppose to do (according to the design

specs)?
 Robustness — how does the software respond to unexpected conditions (wrong
input)?
 User-friendliness — is the software easy to use by users from the intended audience?
 Adaptability — how difficult is it to modify the software to adjust to an ever-changing
world?
 Cost effectiveness

Characteristics of good software

 Suitability. This is the essential Functionality characteristic and refers to the
appropriateness (to specification) of the functions of the software.
 Accurateness. This refers to the correctness of the functions, an ATM may provide a
cash dispensing function but is the amount correct?
 Interoperability. A given software component or system does not typically function in
isolation. It concerns the ability of a software component to interact with other
components or systems.
 Compliance. Where appropriate certain industry (or government) laws and guidelines
need to be complied with. This s addresses the compliant capability of software.
 Security. This relates to unauthorized access to the software functions.
 Fault tolerance. The ability of software to withstand (and recover) from component, or
environmental, failure.
 Understandability. Determines the ease of which the systems functions can be
understood, relates to user mental models in Human Computer Interaction methods.
 Learnability. Learning effort for different users, i.e. novice, expert, casual etc.
 Maintainability. Characterizes the amount of effort to change a system.

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  Stability. Characterizes the sensitivity to change of a given system that is the negative
impact that may be caused by system changes.
 Replace ability. Characterizes the plug and play aspect of software components, that is
how easy is it to exchange a given software component within a specified environment.

TOPIC 7: ELECTRONIC SPREADSHEETS

Spread sheet software

This is an application software program used to organize data in rows and columns, and
perform calculations on the data.

A spreadsheet page is often called a work sheet. A collection of worksheets give rise to a
workbook. On each worksheet, data is organized vertically in columns and horizontally in rows.
Each column is identified by a letter (i.e., A, B, C, ...) and each row is identified by a number (i.e.,
1, 2, 3, ...).

What is Microsoft Excel?

This is a full-featured spreadsheet program that allows you to organize data, complete
calculations, make decisions, graph data, and develop professional looking reports.

Types of spreadsheets

1. Manual spreadsheet; is the most commonly used by book keepers such as ledger books
with many sheets of papers divided into rows and column on which various amount of
money are entered manually using a pen and pencils.
2. Electronic spreadsheet; it is prepared using a computer program that enables a user to
enter values in rows and columns similar to the ones of the manual spreadsheet and to
manipulate them using formulae

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Examples of spreadsheet software

 Microsoft Office Excel  EasyOffice

 Lotus 1-2-3  WordPerfect Office Quattro Pro
 Lotus Symphony  Framework
 OpenOffice  Kinggsoft Office
 VisiCalc  Lotus SmartSuite Lotus 123
 OpenOffice.  MarinerPak Mariner Calc
 Ability Office  Star office
 Apple works  PlanMaker

Features of a spreadsheet software

• A cell is the intersection of a column and a row.

• Labels are text that identify the data and help organize the worksheet. (They are not used
in a calculation.)

• Values are numbers to be used for calculations.

• A formula performs calculations on the data in the worksheet, and displays the resulting
value in the cell that contains it.

• Functions, which are predefined formulae to perform common calculations on the data

• A column is the vertical arrangement of data in a worksheet

• Row : this the horizontal arrangement of data in a worksheet

• Auto-fill: This allows to automatically fill cells with the same formula

• Relative cell Referencing: This one changes cell range when the formula has been copied
to another cell.

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 • Absolute cell referencing: The cell range remains constant when the formula has been
copied to another cell.

• Graphs: The spreadsheets allows to represent your data on graphs and make
comparisons

Areas of application of spreadsheets

 Budgeting  Statistics

 Accounting  Marketing

 Finance  Mathematical and scientific research

 Economics  Graphical analysis

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Advantages of spreadsheet software

 Easy to make changes and corrections to data on the worksheet

 The rest of the worksheet is recalculated whenever data on a worksheet changes.
 Operation is fast with the help of built-in functions and macros.
 Calculation is always accurate, provided that data and formulae entered are correct
 Easy to create different kinds of charts, or to change chart types.
 Information on charts is updated automatically whenever related data on the
worksheet changes.
 It produces clean, error free and reliable results.

Disadvantages of spreadsheet software

 They are susceptible to trivial human errors.

 Data accuracy is difficult
 Consumes a lot of time in validating and tracking data
 It can be extremely challenging to spot and correct errors especially with larger
volumes of data.
 Keeping your spread sheet updated is also a hassle

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TOPIC 8: THE INTERNET AND THE WORLD WIDE WEB

THE INTERNET

The Internet, sometimes called simply "the Net," is a worldwide system of computer
networks - a network of networks in which users at any one computer can, if they have
permission, get information from any other computer (and sometimes talk directly to users
at other computers). The Internet is a worldwide collection of networks linked together.

HISTORY OF THE INTERNET

History of the Internet: In 1969 the U.S. Department of Defence commissioned the
Advanced Research Projects Agency Network (ARPANET). The purpose was to provide
communication links between supercomputers located at various regional sites (Universities
and defence bases) within the United States.

It is this ARPANET that evolved into the Internet after computer networks were connected
to it in different parts of the world. By1992, more than 1 million hosts existed on the
Internet

THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE INTERNET

Requirements for Connecting to the Internet:

These include:

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(a) Computer / Device with a Network Interface Card. The NIC may be based on
Ethernet or wireless technologies.
(b) An Internet Service Provider (ISP): the company that takes care of the technical
aspects of connecting to the internet. ISPs available in Uganda include Mobile
telephone companies like Orange, MTN, Airtel, UTL, Smile etc
(c) Modem: This is a device that converts analogue telephone signals into digital
computer information and vice-versa. Some computers have internal / inbuilt
modems.
(d) Required Software: programs necessary to use the internet services such as web
browsers and Email Clients, FTP software, etc.

Methods/ Ways of connecting to the internet

As technologies develop, bigger, better and faster Internet connections methods evolve.
ISPs provide internet connectivity through the following

(a) Dial Up/ Analogue access / Phone Line Connection,

(b) Broadband (cable or Digital Subscriber Line (DSL))/ Fibre

(c) Satellite Connection

(d) Wireless broadcasts e.g Wi-Fi hotspots and Wi-Max.

FACTORS TO CONSIDER WHEN CHOOSING ISPs:

 Availability: Not all ISPs offer services in on all areas.

 Speed/ Network Performance
 Price. Prices vary by package
 Support Services / Customer care
 Restrictions of use
 Reliability: How long the ISP has been in business
 Compatibility: That the speed of their modems and their software should match
the speed of yours
 Email addresses: Check whether the ISP has email and WWW services. Some ISPs
can set up a custom email address when you activate your account. This would
appear something like [email protected].

FACTORS AFFECTING THE SPEED OF AN INTERNET CONNECTION:

 Computer Processor speed

 Distance the data travels
 Traffic / number of users on the network
 Malware, Spyware and Viruses.
 Modem speed.
 Natural Conditions
 Positioning of wireless access points

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  Memory available.
 Computer internet settings
 Technological Circumstances such as loose connections of cables or maintenance
works being
done by the ISP.
 Cookies: Over time, cookie files saved by websites in browser can compromise the
speed .

Implications of the Internet (advantages/Disadvantages)

• Interactive communication; internet offers several communication tools such as

emails, chatting, instant messaging, audio and video conferencing, online telephone
calls etc.

• Resource sharing; data, information, software programs can be shared over the
internet.

• Research; internet helps in conducting research using books online, encyclopaedia,

audio and video tutorial to answer research questions.

• Entertainment tools for leisure; through on-line games, online chats, multimedia
(audio, video) etc

• Interactive communication; internet offers several communication tools such as

emails, chatting, instant messaging, audio and video conferencing, online telephone
calls etc.

• Resource sharing; data, information, software programs can be shared over the
internet.

• Research; internet helps in conducting research using books online, encyclopaedia,

audio and video tutorial to answer research questions.

• Entertainment tools for leisure; through on-line games, online chats, multimedia
(audio, video) etc.

Disadvantages of using the Internet

• Computer viruses can be spread over the internet.

• Internet provides access to unsuitable material such as Pornography, the biggest

threat to healthy mental life.

• Theft of Personal information: If you use the Internet, you may be facing grave
danger as your personal information such as name, address, credit card number etc.
can be accessed by hackers or thieves.

• Spamming: Spamming refers to sending unwanted e-mails in bulk, which provide no

purpose and needlessly obstruct the entire system.

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 • Some people get addicted to the internet, causing problems with their social
interactions of friends and loved ones.

• The initial cost of connecting to the internet is high. e.g. buying computers.

• Many people are computer illiterate and so cannot use internet, hence miss.

• There is a lot of wrong information on the internet. Anyone can post anything, and
much of it is garbage/ inaccurate.

SERVICES OFFERED BY THE INTERNET

a. Telnet – enables users to use the resources of a computer in another part of the
world. This is done by remotely logging to the distant computer which is called the
host.

b. Email – It allows the transfer of messages, documents, and pictures among others,
across the Internet.

c. Mailing list – This is based on the email protocol. As an electronic mailing list
it is very convenient when somebody wants to send a message or newsletter, for
example, to many people in one go.

d. Internet Relay Chat (IRC) – A live interactive discussion in which parties on the
network exchange ideas and observation electronically. Chats are usually organized
in what we call chat rooms.

e. File Transfer Protocol – The standard method for transferring files, whether
downloading or uploading, to and from your computer with another computer on
the Internet.

f. Newsgroups – Worldwide discussion areas where notices can be posted for anyone
to view. They are equivalent to a discussion group or an electronic bulletin board.
There are newsgroups for every conceivable topic and more, e.g. educational
technology.

g. World Wide Web – This refers to the global collection of websites consisting of
linked electronic documents called Webpages stored on internet servers all over the
world.
The www is the most exciting service that has revolutionized the Internet, people
use this service to browse for information.

h. Instant Messaging: A combination of real-time chat and e-mail by which short text
messages are rapidly exchanged over the Internet, with messages appearing on
recipient’s display screen immediately upon arrival.

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 i. Usenet: A system of worldwide discussion groups

j. Internet Telephony or Voice over IP: Real-time voice conversations transmitted

between computers on the Internet.

k. Web Directory: A listing of Web sites and their URLs, categorized by topic.

l. Electronic Commerce/e-commerce: Conducting commercial activities on the

Internet.

m. Social Networking. A type of service where users can seek others who share their
interests, find out what's going on in their areas of concern, and share information
with one another (e.g. Facebook, Twitter).

n. Cloud Computing: A service in which computer software, hardware and data are
used remotely over the Internet, instead of acquiring and using them on a local
computer.

o. Search Engines: Software programs that look through the Web to locate sites
matching a keyword entered by the user. Keyword: A string of letters or words that
indicates the subject to be searched.

ELECTRONIC MAIL COMMUNICATIONS

Email communications refers to the transmission of messages via computer networks such
as; a local area network, WANs, or internet.

The email can be simple text, or include an attachment such as a word processing
document, PDF or graphic. Email software (Commonly known as email client) is a computer
program used to access and manage a user‘s email account. It may be web based or not.
Popular locally installed email clients include Microsoft Outlook, Pegasus Mail, KMail,
Evolution and Apple Mail. Popular web-based email clients / webmail include: GMail,
Yahoo!, Lycos mail, and Hotmail.

Advantages of using e-mail as a means of communication

1. Easy to use. Emails applications have user friendly tools that help during composing
messages.

2. Email supports sending of attachments like documents, zipped files, e.t.c

3. It is very fast in terms of speed: The e-mail is delivered instantly, anywhere across the
globe.

4. Easy to prioritize: Since the mails have subject lines, it is easy to prioritize them and
ignore unwanted mails.

5. Email messages can be sent to many recipients at the same time

6. Emails can also carry hyperlinks that lead to other webpages with just a click

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7. One can subscribe to news and other online services through email

8. Email software have management features that help users to organize their messages in
folders like inbox, sent, draft, etc.

9. Easier for reference: When one needs to reply to a mail, there is a provision in the
mailing system to attach the previous mails as references. This refreshes the recipient's
knowledge, on what he is reading.

10. Environment friendly: Compared to postal mails which use paper and fuel to transport
letters. Electronic mail saves a lot of trees from being axed. It also saves fuel needed in
transportation.

11. Email software have address book features that may be sorted in alphabetical order.

12. Email software has a good degree of security features such as username and password
before sign in

13. Email applications have inbuilt English dictionary which safeguards the sender from
incorrect spelling and grammar.

14. Email is a relatively cheap means of communication since there are no printing or
postage expenses involved.

15. 24/7 any time access. At any time of the day or night, one can communicate with
friends, relatives, professors and business associates.

16. Messages remain permanent for future access from anywhere.

17. Use of graphics such as colorful greeting cards and interesting pictures can be sent
through e-mails.

18. Advertising tool: many individuals and companies are using e-mails to advertise their
products, services, etc.

Limitations of using Email as means of communication.

1. Emails can spread Viruses: The recipient needs to scan the mails, as viruses are
transmitted through them and have the potential to harm computer systems.

2. Spam and Junk: E-mails when used to send unsolicited messages and unwanted
advertisements create nuisance called Spam. Checking and deleting these unwanted
mails can unnecessarily consume a lot of time, and it has become necessary to block or
filter the unwanted e-mails by means of spam filters.

3. E-mail spoofing is another common practice. Spoofing involves disguising as different

sender by altering the e-mail headers or the addresses from which the mail is sent.

4. Hacking and email interception: The act of unauthorized attempts to bypass the
security mechanisms of an information system or network is termed as hacking. After

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 the e-mail is sent and before it is received by the desired recipient, it "bounces"
between servers located in different parts of the world. Hence, the e-mail can be
intercepted by a professional hacker.

5. Misinterpretation: One has to be careful while posting any kind of content through an e-
mail. If typed in a hurry, the matter could be misinterpreted. Since the content posted
via e-mails is considered informal, there is a chance of business documents going
unnoticed. Thus, vital communications and especially those requiring signatures are not
managed through e-mails

6. Crowded inbox: Over a period of time, the e-mail inbox may get crowded with mails. It
becomes difficult for the user to manage such a huge chunk of mails.

7. Need to check the inbox regularly: In order to be updated, one has to check his e-mail
account regularly, which may be expensive in the long run.

8. Email cannot be used without computers especially in remote areas without electricity.

9. In case one forgets his/her password, signing in is not possible and this can lead to loss
of information.

10. Email may violate privacy in case someone else gets to know your user password since
the other may check your mails.

COMPONENTS/ STRUCTURE OF AN E-MAIL

1. Headers: The message headers contain information concerning the sender and
recipients. The exact content of mail headers can vary depending on the email
system that generated the message. Generally, headers contain the following
information:

 Subject. The theme of the email message

 Sender (From). This is the senders Internet email address.

 Date and time received (On). The time the message was received.

 Recipient (To :). First/last name of email recipient, as configured by the sender.

 CC: “Carbon copy” enables copies of the email message to be sent to third party while
acknowledging other recipients

 Bcc: Enables copies of the mail message to be sent to the third party without
acknowledging nay other recipients.

 Reply-to. This is the Internet email address that will become the recipient of your reply
if you click the Reply button.

2. Body:

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 – The body of a message contains text that is the actual content.

– The message body also may include signatures or automatically generated

text that is inserted by the sender's email system.

3. Attachments

– Attachments are optional and include any separate files that may be part of
the message.

NETIQUETTE

Netiquette: rules of behaviour when using the Internet "Netiquette" refers to Internet
etiquette. This simply means the use of good manners in online communication such as e-
mail, forums, blogs, and social networking sites.

It is important to use netiquette and communicate to people online in the same manner you
would communicate physically.

Netiquette guidelines:

• Be clear: Make sure the subject line (e-mail) or title (web page) reflects your content

• Use appropriate language: Avoid sending Abusive and Emotional messages.

• Don't use ALL CAPITAL LETTERS--it's equal to shouting or screaming

• Be brief: If your message is short, people will be more likely to read it

• Make a good impression: Your words and content represent you; review/edit your
words and images before sending.

• Don’t Forward e-mail messages you receive without permission of the original sender.

• Obey copyright laws: Don't use others' images, content or use web site content without
permission.

• Do not send SPAM: Spamming is posting or e-mailing unsolicited e-mail, often

advertising messages, to a wide audience (another way of thinking of it is electronic junk
mail).

• Don't respond to "flames" or personal attacks

• Always keep messages brief and use proper grammar and spellings.

• Never read someone’s private mail.

• Don’t Click on hyperlinks to unknown sites, especially on adverts and popups.

• Don’t download attachments from unknown sources.

• Avoid impersonation.

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• Adhere to the same standards of behaviour online that you follow in real life.

• Respect other people’s time and bandwidth.

• Respect other people’s privacy.

• Logout or log off your account after use.

• Post only acceptable information that has no harm to the public.

• Remember you are not anonymous. What you write in an e-mail and web site can be
traced back to you.

THE WORLD WIDE WEB

The World Wide Web (WWW), also called the Web, consists of a worldwide collection of
electronic documents that can be access over the internet. Each of these documents on the
Web is called a Web page

Web browsers

This is the type of software that is used for displaying Webpages from the internet or html
documents on computers. It enables people to browse the World Wide Web.

Examples of web browsers

 Chrome  Opera Mini

 Mozilla Firefox  Apple Safari
 Internet Explorer  Netscape

Search engines

The world wide web is a big place. If you know the web address, or URL, of a site you can
find it by typing it into the address bar along the top of your browser. But what if you don’t
know the URL? You can find pages easily search by using a search engine.

A web search engine is a system that takes in user keywords, looks for information on the
World Wide Web and return a line of results (hits), usually in form of a mix of links to
matching web pages.

How search Engines Work

Web search engines work by storing information about many web pages, which they
retrieve by a spider (an automated Web crawler) which follows every link on the web pages.

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The search engine analyzes the contents of web pages and determines words to store in an
index database.

Index words can be extracted from the

 titles,
 page content,
 headings (eg <H1>, <H2>), etc or
 Special fields called meta tags.

Popular search engines on the world wide web include

 Google  Bing search

 Yahoo Search  Bing
 Wikipedia  Ask. Com
 Baidu

Effective Internet Searching

The challenge is to ask your question the right way, so that you don’t end up overwhelmed
with too many search results, underwhelmed with too few, or simply unable to locate the
material that you need.

Keywords: Search engines don’t read sentences the way people do: instead, they look for
the key words in your query in the websites they search. Common words are ignored (that,
to, which, a, the, …)

• Use “quotation marks” to search as a phrase and keep the words linked together.

• + and – can be used to include or exclude a word

• Boolean Syntax: Enter words and connect with Boolean Operators: AND, OR, NOT

– AND will include sites where both words are found. Uses: joining different
topics eg (ie. “global warming” AND California).

– OR - requires at least one of the terms is found Uses: join similar or

synonymous topics (ie. “global warming” OR “greenhouse effect”)

– NOT – searches for the first term and excludes sites that have the second
term Uses: join similar or synonymous topics (ie. Washington NOT school)

Other Syntax:

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 • The wildcard operator (*): Google calls it the fill in the blank operator. For example,
amusement *

• Site search: Many Web sites have their own site search feature, but you may use a
search engine to get results from one website Example: site:www.newvision.co.ug
ICT in schools.

• Related sites: For example, related:www.youtube.com can be used to find sites

similar to YouTube.

WEBSITES

The Web (World Wide Web) consists of websites hosted on servers on the internet globally.
Websites contain information organized into Web pages.

Web pages are electronic documents with text and graphic images, written in Hyper Text
Markup Language (HTML).

It contains hypertext links, or highlighted keywords and images that lead to related
information.

A Web site is a collection of linked Web pages with a common theme or focus.

The main page that all of the pages on a particular Web site are organized around and link
back to is called the site’s home page.

Client/Server Structure of the Web

Web is a collection of files that reside on computers, called Web servers, that are located all
over the world and are connected to each other through the Internet.

When you use your Internet connection to become part of the Web, your computer
becomes a Web client in a worldwide client/server network.

A Web browser is the software that you run on your computer to make it work as a web
client.

Hypertext Markup Language (HTML)

WebPages are written in HTML, which is interpreted by web browsers.

HTML uses codes, or tags, to tell the Web browser software how to display the text
contained in the document.

For example, a Web browser reading the following line of text:

<B> A Review of the Book<I>Wind Instruments of the 18th Century</I></B>

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recognizes the <B> and </B> tags as instructions to display the entire line of text in bold and
the <I> and </I> tags as instructions to display the text enclosed by those tags in italics.

Website Addresses

Each computer on the internet does have a unique identification number, called an IP
(Internet Protocol) address.

The IPv4 addressing system uses a four-part number. For example, 106.29.242.17

Most web browsers do not use the IP address to locate Web sites and individual pages.

They use domain name addressing.

• A domain name is a unique name associated with a specific IP address by a program

that runs on an Internet host computer.

• This program, which coordinates the IP addresses and domain names for all
computers attached to it, is called DNS (Domain Name System ) software.

Uniform Resource Locators

The IP address and the domain name each identify a particular computer on the Internet.
However, they do not indicate where a Web page’s HTML document resides on that
computer.

To identify a Web pages exact location, Web browsers rely on a Uniform Resource Locator
(URL).

URL is a four-part addressing scheme that tells the Web browser:

 What transfer protocol to use for transporting the file

 The domain name of the computer on which the file resides

 The pathname of the folder or directory on the computer on which the file
resides

 The name of the file

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STRUCTURE OF A UNIFORM RESOURCE LOCATOR

READING WEB ADDRESSES

Let's look at the parts of a typical URL:

• http://www.sc.edu/beaufort/library/pages/bones/lesson1.html

• Here's what it all means:

• "http" means hypertext transfer protocol and refers to the rules used to transfer and
deal with information

• "www" stands for World Wide Web and is the general name for the host server that
supports text, graphics, sound files, etc. (It is not an essential part of the address,
and some sites choose not to use it)

• "sc" is the second-level domain name and usually designates the server's location, in
this case, the University of South Carolina

• "edu" is the top-level domain name (see below)

• "beaufort" is the directory name

• "library" is the sub-directory name

• "pages" and "bones" are the folder and sub-folder names

• "lesson1" is the file name

• "html" is the file type extension and, in this case, stands for “hypertext mark-up
language" (that's the language the computer reads).

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 TYPES OF WEBSITES

1. Web portal : An internet-based website that can perform many electronic functions and
provide the user with quick access to a variety of information and services. EG. UNEB Results
Portal

2. Content aggregator: Combines information such as news and entertainment, sports

scores, weather forecasts, photographs and video from a variety of sources and makes the
combined content available to its customers e.g Web-based feed readers like RSS Feeds,
delicious.com, etc.

3. A wiki: A website that allows collaborative editing of its content and structure by its
users. E.g. Wikipedia

4. A blog: A blog is a website in which journal entries are posted on a regular basis. A person
who posts entries is called a blogger

Blog posts are typically displayed in reverse chronological order (the most recent post
appears first).A majority are interactive, allowing visitors to leave comments.

Difference between a blog site and wiki site

Blog Wiki

Blog usually has a single author a Wiki usually has many authors

Blog is usually in reverse a Wiki has a structure determined by content and users
chronological structure

Blog is usually personal/someone’s a Wiki is usually objective

opinion

The public can’t edit someone’s blog, a Wiki can be edited by the public users.
can only add comments to a blog.

5. Media sharing website

Media sharing sites allow you to upload your photos, videos and audio to a website that can
be accessed from anywhere in the world. E.g youtube.com, dailymotion.com, blip.tv,
slideshare.net, archive.org, podbean.com, and many, many others.

6. Social networking Website

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An online service, platform, or site that focuses on building social relations among people
who share interests by posting information, comments, messages, images, etc.

A type of website where users can seek others who share their interests, find out what's
going on in their areas of concern, and share information with one another

Examples Social Networking sites include

 Facebook
 Twitter
 Google Plus,
 Linkedn
 Whatsapp
 Instagram
 YouTube
 Pinterest
 Skype

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Advantages of Social Networking Websites

Staying Connected: The main purpose of social media is to be able to stay connected to friends
and families The main purpose of social media is to be able to stay connected to friends and
families

Finding People with Common Interests: Social networking is also a great way to meet peers.

Invaluable Promotional Tool: Companies, artists, etc use Social Media for advertising to the
masses

Information Spreads Incredibly Fast

Breaking news and other important information can spread like wildfire on social media sites.

Helps to Catch And Convict Criminals: The Police uses social media to persecute criminals.

Disadvantages of Social Networking Websites

Perpetuates False and Unreliable Information: Anyone can post any unverified rumours which
cause panic and severe misinformation in society.

Causing Major Relationship Problems: Online social interactions have cause many breakups.

Cyber Bullying: A new trend of cyber bullying is wreaking havoc all across the world. This is
especially true with young children publicly harassing one another, and posting mean or
slanderous things which are broadcasted to the entire cyber world.

Used to Profile and Discriminate In The Job World: Employers are using social media to pre-
screen their applicants.

The Addiction Is Real: One of the biggest problems with the social media craze is that people
are becoming more and more addicted to using it. It is the number one-time waster at work, in
school, and at home.

Privacy Violation: Social Networks may violate privacy in case someone else gets to know your
user password.

Misinterpretation: One has to be careful while posting any kind of information on social
networks. If typed in a hurry, the matter could be misinterpreted

Evaluating the reliability of information found on a website

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Check the last part of the URL. The top level domain can help to identify reliability (for example
.gov, .ac, .ed, .sch are usually fairly reliable, while.org, .co, .com are less reliable).

See if responsible bodies have endorsed the site e.g. UNEB. If site is endorsed by
reliable/reputable people/organizations it can be accepted as being reliable.

Checking the author’s credentials. If the author’s credentials are good it is likely to be reliable.

Can compare information from sites to see if it is reliable. If information is comparable to

information from reliable/ authenticated/text books it is likely to be reliable.

Check the date of the last update. If the date of the last update was a long time ago it is likely
to be unreliable.

Are any advertisements present? If site has excessive advertising it could be unreliable. If the
advertising is related only to its own products it could be unreliable. If it has testimonials it is
likely to be reliable.

CLOUD COMPUTING

Cloud computing is Internet-based computing, whereby shared resources e.g hardware,

software and information are provided to other devices on-demand.

In simple terms, Cloud computing is using the internet to access someone else's software
running on someone else's hardware in someone else's data center.

Cloud computing operates on a similar principle as web-based email clients, allowing users to
access all of the features and files of the system without having to keep the bulk of that system
on their own computers. In fact, most people already use a variety of cloud computing services
without even realizing it such as Gmail, Google Drive, Google Docs, etc.

The online software services ‘on the cloud’ have long been referred to as Software as a Service
(SaaS) and the hardware as Infrastructure as a service (IaaS).

Advantages of Cloud Computing

Lower computer costs:

– You do not need a high-powered and high-priced computer to run cloud

computing's web-based applications.
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– Since applications run in the cloud, not on the desktop PC, your desktop PC does
not need the processing power or hard disk space demanded by traditional
desktop software.

Improved performance: With few large programs hogging your computer's memory, you will
see better performance from your PC.

Reduced software costs:

– Instead of purchasing expensive software applications, you can get most of what
you need cheaply, e.g most cloud computing applications today, such as the
Google Docs suite better than paying for similar commercial software.

Better Security: By using encryption, information on the cloud is less accessible by hackers or
anyone not authorized to view the data. As an added security measure, with most cloud-based
services, different security settings can be set based on the user.

Instant software updates:

– Another advantage to cloud computing is that you are no longer faced with
choosing between obsolete software and high upgrade costs.

– When the application is web-based, updates happen automatically.

Improved document format compatibility

– You do not have to worry about the documents you create on your machine
being compatible with other users' applications.

Unlimited storage capacity: Cloud computing offers virtually limitless storage on servers in
powerful datacenters.

Increased data reliability/ safety: Unlike desktop computing, in which if a hard disk crashes and
destroy all your valuable data, a computer crashing in the cloud should not affect the storage of
your data.

Universal document access: That is not a problem with cloud computing, because you can
access it whenever you have a computer and an Internet connection.

Easier group collaboration: multiple users can collaborate easily on documents and projects

Device independence: Even to a portable device, and your applications and documents are still
available.

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Disadvantages of Cloud Computing

Requires a constant Internet connection: Cloud computing is impossible if you cannot connect
to the Internet. A dead Internet connection means no work.

Does not work well with low-speed connections: Web-based applications require a lot of
bandwidth to download, as do large documents

Features might be limited: Many web-based applications simply are not as full-featured as their
desktop-based applications. For example, you can do a lot more with Microsoft PowerPoint
than with Google Presentation's web-based offering.

Stored data might not be secure: With cloud computing, all your data is stored on the cloud.
Any unauthorized users gaining access to your password may access confidential data.

Migration issues: Each cloud system uses different protocols and different APIs, so your normal
applications will have to be adapted to execute on these platforms.

TOPIC 9: ELECTRONIC PRESENTATION

Definition of presentation software

Presentation software refers to an application software program that is used to create content,
which can communicate ideas and other information to a group of audience on slides.

The presentation can be viewed as a slide show, which usually displays on a large monitor or on
a projection screen.

Some presentation software can convert an existing slide show into a format that can be
accessed on the Web.

Examples of presentation software

 Microsoft Office PowerPoint  Hewlett Packard Bruno (software),

 Corel Presentations,  King soft Presentation
 Lotus Freelance Graphics,  Libre Office Impress (open source)
 Apple Keynote,  OpenOffice.org Impress (open source)
 Corel Presentations,  PresentiaFX
 Custom Show,  Prezi
 Ease,  Slide Rocket
 Google Docs (web-based),  Slide Wiki
 Harvard Graphics (obsolete

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Functions of a presentation software

 An editor- This allows text to be inserted and formatted

 Method for inserting and manipulating graphic images or animations with these objects
 Slide show system: This allows you to display the designed slide content

The principles of a good presentation

 Use simple background

 Text should be clear and that it can be seen from a distance
 There should be no clash between text colour and the background colour
 Use relevant pictures
 Use minimal effects
 Insert your picture in the appropriate place
 For automatic presentation rehearse the timing

Features of a presentation software

 Slide: it is an individual page found in a presentation file.

 Slide layout: refers to the physical arrangement of content on a slide.
 Slide sorter: a facility that enables the user to view displays all of the slides in the
current presentation in thumbnail form for easy re-arranging.
 Slide master: a slide that controls appearance of all slides in the presentation.
 Placeholders: are boxes with dotted borders that contain content and reside within a
slide layout. All built-in slide layouts contain content placeholders.
 Slide transitions: are the animation-like effects that occur in Slide Show view when you
move from one slide to the next during an on-screen presentation.
 Action buttons: are buttons that if clicked, leads a user to either next or previous slide.
 Speaker notes: are notes added to the presentation slides as a reference for
the presenter.
 Slide show: is a presentation of a series of still images on a projection screen or
electronic display device, typically in a prearranged sequence.
 Animation: is the process of creating the continuous motion and shape
change illusion by means of rapid display of a sequence of static images that minimally
differ from each other.

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Advantages of electronic presentations

 Presentation software usually provides a wide variety of presentation formats and

layouts for the slides.
 Multimedia components such as clip art images, video clips, and audio clips can be
incorporated into the slides.
 The timing of the slides can be set so that the presentation automatically displays the
next slide after a predetermined period of time.
 Special transition effects can be applied between each slide.
 The presentation can normally be viewed and printed in different formats.

a) An outline format includes only the text from each slide.

b) An audience handout format includes images of one or more slides on a page.

c) A notes page format shows a picture of the slide along with any notes concerning the
slide.

Disadvantages of Presentation Software

 They cannot be used to perform calculations.

 Requires technical knowledge and basic equipment to use presentation.
 Over simplification of the subject
 Difficult to take notes while presenting
 Presenters just read from the audience which is boring.
 Too easy to make a bad presentation with too many animation effects.

Areas where presentations are used

 Church – for casting the hymn.

 Big shops – for showing a list of goods and other related offers.
 Advertising – for example outdoor advertising media.
 School – for teaching and learning in schools.
 Seminars and workshops – to enhance speaker’s notes and speeches

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TOPIC 10: DATA COMMUNICATION& NETWORKING

DATA COMMUNICATION

This refers to the electronic transfer of data, instructions, and information from one device to
another via a transmission media.

ELEMENTS FOR DATA COMMUNICATION

Sender: The computer or device that generates and sends data is called the sender, source or
transmitter. It can be a computer, workstation (node), telephone handset, video camera. Etc
Message: This is the information or data to be communicated. It consists of text, numbers,
pictures, sound or video.
Transmission Medium: is the physical pathway by which a message travels from sender to
receiver.
Receiver: The device or computer that receives the message is called receiver. The receiver can
be a computer, printer, a fax machine, etc.
Protocol: This is a set of rules that allow devices to exchange information
A protocol defines the format for communication between systems. For example the Hyper
Text Transfer Protocol (HTTP) defines the format for communication between Web browsers
and Web servers on the internet
Other examples of communication protocols include: Internet Protocol (IP) Transmission
Control Protocol (TCP), Trivial File Transfer Protocol (TFTP), Wireless Application Protocol
(WAP), and Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) for emails

Data communication tools

Data communication tools are devices that enable the users to send and receive messages. Etc.

Data communication tools can be categorized into two: electronic and manual data
communication tools.
Electronic data communication tools use electric power. Examples include Computers, Mobile
phones and internet.
Manual data communication tools don’t use electricity. Examples include drums, bells and
messengers.

Examples of data communications tools include:

Computers, Fax machines, Radio and Television, Mobile Devices like phones and PDAs, internet
services (Email, Websites, Social networking, chartrooms Forums, etc)

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Data transmission media

The term transmission media refers to any physical or non-physical link / pathway between two
or more devices and in which a signal can be made to flow from source to destination. A data
signal cannot be sent from one place to another without a medium of communication.

Data communication media can be divided into two:

1. Physical /Wired / Bounded/ Guided transmission media

2. Wireless / Unbounded / Unguided transmission media

Physical /Wired / Bounded/ Guided transmission media

Physical transmission media use wire, cable, and other physical materials to send
communications signals. Physical media transmits data signals from the source to the destination
through a restricted pathway such as a cable.

Examples of physical transmission media

 Twisted Pair Cable  Coaxial Cable

Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) Cable  Fiber Optic Cable
Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) Cable

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AN ILLUSTRATION DATA TRANSMISSION MEDIA

Transmission media

Physical/Guided/ Bounded Wireless/Unguided/ Unbounded

Twisted Pair Coaxial Coaxial Radio wave Microwave Infrared

Cable Cable Cable Wave

Shielded Bluetooth Satellite

Unshielded WIFI Terrestrial

RIFID

WIMAX

Twisted pair cable: Twisted pair cable is made up of solid copper wire strands wound in pairs
within a single media. The winding of the wires is meant to avoid the development of an
electromagnetic field around the two wires as they transmit data. TP is commonly used to
interconnect devices on a Local Area Network

There are two common types of twisted pair cabling, STP and UTP. The S stands for
Shielded, the U stands for Unshielded.
The extra covering in shielded twisted pair wiring protects the transmission line from
electromagnetic interference leaking into or out of the cable, but makes it more expensive.

Coaxial cables
The Coaxial cable has a single copper conductor at its center. A plastic layer provides insulation
between the center conductor and a braided metal shield . The metal shield helps to block any

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outside magnetic interference from fluorescent lights, motors, and other

Coaxial cables have bandwidths in Gigabits per second. Hence, they are installed in a network
to form the network backbone.

Although coaxial cabling is difficult to install, it is highly resistant to signal interference. In

addition, it can support greater cable lengths between network devices than twisted pair cable.
The two types of coaxial cabling are thick coaxial and thin coaxial.

Fiber Optic Cable

The fiber optic cable consists of a center glass core surrounded by several layers of protective
materials. It transmits light rather than electronic signals eliminating the problem of electrical
interference.
This makes it ideal for certain environments that contain a large amount of electrical
interference.
It has also made it the standard for connecting networks between buildings, due to its
immunity to the effects of moisture and lighting.

Fibre optic cable utilizes light to transmit data from one point to another on the
network. The electrical signal from the source are converted to light signals, and then
propagated along the fiber optic cable.

Advantages of physical transmission media

 It is fast and supports high bandwidth

 Can be used in hazardous places (high flammable) because they do not generate
electrical signal
 They can carry voice, data and video signal simultaneously.
 They are more resistant to radio and electromagnetic interference.
 Installation equipment are cheap and readily available.

Disadvantages of physical transmission media

 Connectivity devices and media are expensive.

 Installation is difficult because the cable must be carefully handled.
 It is relatively complex to configure
 It covers short distance since they use the physical wires
 Inconvenience due to inflexibility of restrictive cables.

Wireless / Unbounded / Unguided transmission media

Wireless or unbounded media is that is where data signals flow through the air
In this case transmitting antenna and receiver’s aerial facilitates the communication.
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Wireless media send communications signals through the air or space using radio, microwave,
and infrared signals (electromagnetic waves).

Examples of wireless transmission media

 Microwaves
 Radio waves
 Infrared
MICROWAVES: Microwaves are high-frequency electromagnetic radiations that are sent through
space to deliver telecommunications services. Microwaves are dependent on line of sight.
Microwave communication systems are mainly classified into satellite and terrestrial.

 Terrestrial microwave signals are sent from one ground-based antenna to another.
 Satellite microwave signals travel from Earth to a satellite in space and then back to
a station on the earth.

RADIO WAVES: Radio waves frequencies are easy to generate and are widely used for
communication, both indoors and outdoors. Examples of communication technologies using
radio waves include Bluetooth, Wireless Fidelity (Wifi)

Bluetooth is a short range wireless based information transmission system which works on the
basis of microchips embedded in the digital devices like mobile phones, speakers and laptops.
Wireless Fidelity (WiFi) is used to create a hotspots from where information signals can be
easily accessed by Wi-Fi enabled devices, forming a wireless local area network (WLAN).

HOTSPOT
A hotspot is a specific location that provides Internet access via a wireless local area network
(WLAN). The term is generally synonymous with a Wi-Fi connection. A network that creates a
hotspot primarily includes a modem and wireless router. The radio frequency (RF) waves sent
by the wireless network extend in different directions from its centralized location. These
signals become weaker as they travel, either further from the central location or due to
interference.

Wimax stands for Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access. It is a telecommunication

technology providing wireless data over long distances in a variety of ways from point to point
links to full mobile cellular type access.
Radio-frequency identification (RFID) uses radio waves to automatically identify and track tags
attached to objects. The RFID tag can be affixed to an object and used to track and manage
inventory, assets, people, etc. For example, it can be affixed to cars, computer equipment, books
etc.

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INFRARED uses electromagnetic waves with a smaller wavelength than radio. A TV remote
control is an example of an Infrared application.
IrDA (Infrared Data Association) ports transmit data via infrared light waves. As long as the
devices are within a few feet and nothing obstructs the path of the infrared light wave, data can
be transferred without the use of cables

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Asynchronous and Synchronous transmissions

With asynchronous transmission, transmission occurs at irregular intervals in small bits (i.e.,
not synchronized).
Asynchronous transmission is relatively slow.
With synchronous transmission, large blocks of bytes are transmitted at regular intervals
without any start/stop signals.
Synchronous transmission requires that both the sending and receiving devices be
synchronized before any bytes are transmitted.
Synchronous transmission requires more expensive equipment but provides greater speed and
accuracy than asynchronous transmission.
Characteristics of Asynchronous Transfer Mode
• It is scalable and flexible. It can support megabit-to-gigabit transfer speeds and is not
tied to a specific physical medium.
• It efficiently transmits video, audio, and data through the implementation of several
adaptation layers.
• Bandwidth can be allocated as needed, lessening the impact on and by high-bandwidth
users.
• It transmits data in fixed-length packets, called cells, each of which is 53 bytes long,
containing 48 bytes of payload and 5 bytes of header.
• It is asynchronous in the sense that although cells are relayed synchronously, particular
users need not send data at regular intervals.
• It is connection oriented, using a virtual circuit to transmit cells that share the same
source and destination over the same route.

Transmission Direction

The direction in which data flows along transmission media is characterized as simplex, half-
duplex, full-duplex or multiplex.

Simplex transmission

Simplex transmission sends data in one direction only. Simplex transmission is used only when
the sending device does not require a response from the receiving device. Examples of simplex
transmission is television broadcasting and radio broad casting

Half-duplex transmission

Half-duplex transmission allows data transmission in either direction, but only one way at a
time. Many fax machines, police radio calls, credit card verification systems and automatic
teller machines use half-duplex transmission

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Full-duplex transmission

In full-duplex transmission, data can flow in both directions at the same time. A regular
telephone line, for example, supports full-duplex transmission, allowing both parties to talk at
same time.

Multiplex transmission

In multiplex transmission, several different types of signals can be carried at once through the
same line. E.g. During Video calls where Images

PACKET SWITCHING

When a computer sends data over the Internet, the data is divided into small pieces called packets.
Each packet contains the data, as well as the recipient (destination), the origin (sender), and the sequence
information used to reassemble the data at the destination.
Each packet travels along the fastest individual available path to the recipient's computer via
communications devices called routers.
This technique of breaking a message into individual packets, sending the packets along the best route available,
and then reassembling the data is called packet switching.

Services offered by data communication tools

Data communication tools offer services like Telephone, SMS, E-mail, Skype, Newsgroups
and instant messaging.

Telephone voice calls help keep people talking even when they are distant and mobile.
Short Messaging Services SMS facilitate sending and receiving of brief text messages.
Electronic mail and fax: An electronic mail is the message transmitted electronically over
the internet, from one user to another. A fax machine is a device that transmits and
receives typed or hand written documents over telephone lines.
Skype supports voice and video calls, text, instant messaging and sharing conversation
with (someone) over the Internet using the software application Skype, frequently also
viewing by webcam.
Newsgroups are organized group of internet users who wish to share ideas and interests
through discussion forums and debates.
Instant messaging: This is a more enhanced messaging service that allows two or more
people to chat directly in real time.
Social networking e.g. Facebook and Twitter create digital societies through linking
people of common interests.

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Implications of using data communication services

Positive Implications
 Have led to faster, simpler communications between people e.g.through electronic-mail,
mobile phones, social networks etc
 Communications costs have become lower e.g. Making cheap internet calls, for example
via Google talk and Skype
 Community mobilization now easier - its now very simple to send a message to many
people in one go e.g using Mailing lists and group chats.
 Data communication tools like the internet have facilitated emergence of the worldwide-
web where there is a wealth of information, such as news, weather reports, and airline
schedules.
 Data communication tools like telephones and SMS Have revolutionized the way people
transact businesses e.g access to mobile money services using phones.

Negative Implications
 Security and privacy: data communication services have made it easy access private
information e.g. on social networks, hence posing security concern.
 Spamming is high especially by advertisers who send unwanted e-mails in bulk, such as
email adverts.
 There has been emergency of new kinds of crimes facilitated by data communication
services, such as cyber-bullying.
 Inaccurate information on the internet can be misleading and lead to dire consequences
to the users.
 Data communication services have facilitated the digital divide in society, hence
disadvantaging the computer illiterate people when it comes to opportunities like jobs
and government services.

INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER NETWORKS

Definition of a computer Network

A computer network is defined as a collection of computers linked together using transmission
media for the purpose of communication and resource sharing.
Some of the shared resources include internet connectivity, printers, fax machines, modems,
storage devices, networked software programs etc.

Basic requirements for setting up a computer network

1.NETWORKING HARDWARE includes all computers, peripherals and Communications devices

that enable two or more computers to exchange items such as data, instructions, and information
with each other.
Examples include: a network interface card, modem, Hub/Switch, Router, repeater, network

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Bridge, Firewall etc.

A network interface card (NIC), is a device that enables the computer or device that does not
have built-in networking capability to access a network. Examples include adapter card, PC Card,
USB network adapter, flash card e.t.c

A modem is a device which Modulates a digital signal from computers into an analog one to
send data out over the phone line. Then for an incoming signal it Demodulates, the analog signal
into a digital one.

A hub, (also called a multi-station access unit (MAU)) is a device that provides a central point for
cables in a network. Unlike the hubs, a switch does not broadcast the data to all the computers,
it sends the data packets only to the destined computer.

A Router connects multiple networks and routs communications traffic to the appropriate
network using the fastest available path. A router allows multiple computers to share a single
high-speed Internet connection such as through a cable modem
A repeater is a device that accepts a signal from a transmission medium, amplifies it, and
retransmits it over the medium. As a signal travels over a long distance, it undergoes a reduction
in strength, an occurrence called attenuation.
A network bridge is device that connects two networks making each accessible to the other. A
bridge knows all of the addresses on each side of the bridge and sends information accordingly
A firewall is a networking device that is installed at the entrance to a LAN, particularly when
connecting a private network to a public network, such as the internet. The firewall uses rules to
filter inbound traffic into the private network, to protect the private network users and data from
malevolent hackers. Unauthorized traffic is rejected, and authorized traffic passes as illustrated
below.

A multiplexer is a device that combines two or more input signals from various devices into a
single stream of data and then transmits it over a single transmission medium. By combining
the separate data streams into one, a multiplexer increases the efficiency of communications
and reduces the need for using multiple separate transmission media.

2.Networking / communications software

This consists of programs and applications that aid the setup and use of a network. It includes
network operating.

A network operating system (NOS) is the system software that organizes and coordinates
the activities on a network.
NOS software consists of programs that help users establish a connection to another computer
or network, such as network drivers, and manage the transmission of data, instructions, and

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 information.
Examples of NOSs include: Novell NetWare, Microsoft Windows server 2008, 2012, 2016, Sun
Solaris, etc.

3.Network application software: These are programs that provide an interface for users to
communicate over computer networks. A variety of examples of application software for
communications include:
 E-mail client applications,
 FTP programs,
 Web browsers like Internet Explorer,
 Newsgroup/ message boards
 Chat apps,
 Instant messaging,
 Video conferencing applications e.g. Skype, and VoIP.

TYPES OF NETWORKS

1.Personal Area Network

A personal area network (PAN) is the interconnection of computer devices within the range of
an individual person, typically within a range of 10 meters.

2.Local Area Network

A local area network (LAN) is a network that connects computers in a small geographic area
such as a building like a computer laboratory, or an office. The nodes are connected to the LAN
via cables. A wireless LAN (WLAN) is a LAN that does not use physical wires, but uses wireless
media such as radio waves

Types of Local Area Networks

 Peer-to-peer Network.
 Client-Server Network

1. Peer-to Peer Network

This is a type of network where each computer can share the hardware, data, or information
located on any other computer on the network. Each computer stores files on its own storage
devices. Each computer on the network contains both the network operating system and
application software.

Advantages of Peer-to Peer Network

 A peer-to-peer network is simple to setup i.e. does not require too much configuring
 It is not expensive to set up
 It does not require a dedicated server to control the network
 It is perfect for home and small business users.

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Disadvantages of a Peer to Peer Network
 The system is not centralized, making administration difficult.
 Lack of security i.e. files can be accessed by any one on the network.

2. Client-Server Network
A client/server network has one or more computers acting as a server while the other
computers (i.e., clients) on the network can request services from the server.

A client computer is a computer that can access the resources on a network. While
A server is a computer that provides a centralized storage area for programs, data, and
information.
A dedicated server is a server that performs a specific task. Examples of dedicated Servers
include: file server, print server, database server, and a network server

Roles of Dedicated Servers

 A file server stores and manages files on a network

 A print server manages printers and print jobs.
 A database server stores and provides access to a database
 A network server (e.g., a DNS) manages network traffic.

Requirements of a server computer

 It needs a computer with very high processing speed

 It needs large amounts of RAM
 It needs a very big storage capacity
 It needs a very fast Network interface card
 It needs network operating system such as Novell Netware, Windows NT Server or
Apple Share

Advantages of Client-Server Network

 All Resources are centralized and easier to access.
 Easy management and administration of the network.
 More data security since all network access is controlled through the server.
 The network is flexible, because changes and new technology can be easily included into
system.
 Client /Server network is faster than P2P since data and resources are handled by a
dedicated machine

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  It is to Backup all data stored centrally on the server.
 Client Server network can support many computers as compared to a P2P network

Disadvantages of a Client /Server Network

 It is expensive to set up as compared to a P2P network.
 It requires an extra computer to serve as a dedicated server.
 Maintenance – large networks will require an administrator staff to ensure efficient
operation
 Dependence – When the server goes down, operations will cease across the network
 Server can get overloaded since all the processing is controlled at one point.

3.A Campus Area Network (CAN) is a network that connects two or more LANs but is limited to
a specific and contiguous geographical area such as a college campus, industrial complex, or a
military base. It spans multiple LANs but smaller than a MAN

4.A metropolitan area network (MAN) is a large computer network that usually spans a city or
a large campus. A MAN usually interconnects two or more LANs using a high-capacity
backbone technology, such as fiber-optical links or other digital media. A MAN covers a smaller
geographic area than a WAN.

5.A wide Area Network (WAN) is a network that covers a large geographic area. An example of
a WAN is a network that connects the district office computers of a company across the country
or across several counties in the world. Computers are often connected to a WAN via public
networks such as the telephone system or by dedicated lines or satellites.

6.A virtual private network (VPN) extends a private network across a public network, and
enables users to send and receive data across shared or public networks as if their computing
devices were directly connected to the private network. Applications running across the VPN may
therefore benefit from the functionality, security, and management of the private network.
VPNs may allow employees to securely access a corporate intranet while located outside
the office. They are used to securely connect geographically separated offices of an
organization, creating one cohesive network.

Advantages of wireless networks:

Mobility - With a laptop computer or mobile device, access can be available throughout a
school, at the mall, on an airplane, etc.

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Fast setup - If your computer has a wireless adapter, locating a wireless network can be as
simple as clicking "Connect to a Network" -in some cases, you will connect automatically to
networks within range.

Cost - Setting up a wireless network can be much more cost effective than buying and installing
cables.

Expandability - Adding new computers to a wireless network is as easy as turning the computer
on (as long as you do not exceed the maximum number of devices).

Speed - The transmission speed of wireless networks is improving; however, faster options
(such as gigabit Ethernet) are available via cables. If you are also moving large amounts of
data around a private network, a cabled connection will enable that work to proceed much
faster.

Disadvantages of wireless networks:

Security - Be careful. Be vigilant. Protect your sensitive data with backups, isolate
private networks, provide strong encryption and passwords, and monitor network
access traffic to and from your wireless network.
Interference - Because wireless networks use radio signals and similar techniques for
transmission, they are susceptible to interference from lights and electronic devices.
Inconsistent connections - Wireless connections are not nearly as stable as those
through a dedicated cable.

Network Protocol
This refers to a set of rules and procedures governing transmission between components in a
computer network.

The role played by networking protocols as used in Networking

 Identifying each device in the communication path;

 Securing the attention of the other device;
 Verifying correct receipt of the transmitted message;
 Determining that a message requires retransmission if it is incomplete or has errors;
 Performing recovery when errors occur.
Common protocols as used as in networking

Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) - an internet protocol for transferring of e-mails.
File Transfer Protocol (FTP): It allows files containing text, programs, graphics, numerical
data, and so on to be downloaded off or uploaded onto a network.

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 Internet Protocol (IP) - does the packet forwarding and routing.
Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) is a network standard that
defines how messages (data) are routed from one end of a network to the other, ensuring
the data arrives correctly.
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) :responsible for delivery of data over the network.
Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP): It allows Web browsers and servers to send and
receive Web pages.
Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP): It allows the management of networked
nodes to be managed from a single point.

Telnet Protocol: It provides terminal emulation that allows a personal computer or

workstation to act as a terminal, or access device, for a server.
Sequential Packet Exchange (IPX/SPX):works with the Novell's internet work' packet /
sequential exchange; responsible for delivery of sequential data over the network

INTRANET, EXTRANET & INTERNET

Intranet refers to a connection of private computer networks within an organization.

Intranet refers to a connection of private computer networks within an organization.
An intranet has tools to facilitate communication between organization's employees or
workgroups to improve the knowledge and data sharing capability.
Many schools and non-profit groups have deployed intranets. A simple intranet consists of an
internal email system.
More complicated intranets include Web sites and databases containing company news, forms,
and personnel information.

Advantages of Installing an Intranet

Sharing resources such as laser printers, fax machines, modems, scanners, etc. is simplified
Electronic Mail: Electronic mail on a LAN can enable students to communicate with teachers
and peers at their own school.
Flexible Access: School networks allow students to access their files from computers
throughout the school. Students can also work cooperatively through the network.

Disadvantages of Installing a School Network

 Expensive to Install. Although a network will generally save money over time, the initial
costs of installation can be prohibitive.
 Requires Administrative Time. Proper maintenance of a network requires considerable time
and expertise.
 Must Monitor Security Issues. Wireless networks are becoming increasingly common;
however, security can be an issue with wireless networks

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Extranet is a computer network that allows controlled access from the outside for specific
business or educational purposes. Extranets are extensions to, or segments of, private intranet
networks that have been built in many corporations for information sharing.
An extranet is a computer network that allows controlled access from the outside for specific
business or educational purposes.
Extranets are extensions to, or segments of, private intranet networks that have been built in
many corporations for information sharing.
Most extranets use the internet as the entry point for outsiders, a firewall configuration to limit
access and a secure protocol for authenticating users

Advantages of extranet
 Exchange large volumes of data using Electronic Data Interchange (EDI)
 Share product catalogs exclusively with trade partners
 Collaborate with other companies on joint development efforts
 Jointly develop and use training programs with other companies
 Provide or access services provided by one company to a group of other companies,
such as an online banking application managed by one company on behalf of affiliated
banks.
 Share news of common interest exclusively

Disadvantages of extranet
 Extranets can be expensive to implement and maintain within an organization (e.g.,
hardware, software, employee training costs)
 Security of extranets can be a concern when hosting valuable or proprietary
information.

The internet is a global connection of computer networks. The internet links together millions
of computers, to exchange and share information all over the world.
Benefits of installing an internet in a school
 Facilitates internal emails
 Provides access to company contacts information, procedure manual and other
frequently updated documents
 Used for posting and updating employee forms
 Posting internal job listings
 Provides electronic catalogs for ordering supplies
 Facilitates collaborative computing
 Scheduling meeting and appointments.
 Posting financial statements and other types of corporate information
 Maintains shared calendars, projects timelines and other project documents
 Provides access to company databases and other systems
 For monitoring internal security.

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 TOPIC 11: ELECTRONIC PUBLICATION

Electronic Publishing refers to the use of digital resources and equipment to create and
disseminate information by electronic means.

Desktop publishing refers to the process of producing publications like cards, newsletters,
brochures, etc, by designing their texts and graphics layout and inserting editing, formatting
and printing of text and graphical objects using publishing software installed on the computer
or

Publishing is the process of producing publications like newspapers, cards, calendars, etc that
have special texts and graphic layouts and designs

Desktop Publishing Software

This refers to an application software program that is used in the production and designing
publications with advanced features and graphics by use of the computers

Examples of Electronic Publishing Software

 Microsoft Office Publisher  Flip B

 Adobe InDesign  In House Digital Publishing Software.
 Adobe Illustrator  FrameMaker
 Corel Draw  HTML5 Page Flip
 Prince XML  Hyphen
 PUB HTML5  InPage
 QuarkXPress  Maul Publisher
 Quick silver  Page Plus
 Rag-Time  Page Stream

Examples of publications that can be produced by DTP

 Business cards  Post Cards

 Brochures  Labels
 Identity cards  Newsletters
 Flyers  Calendars
 Invitation cards  Menus

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 Certificates  Letterheads
 Greeting cards  Catalogs
 Banners

Features of desktop publishing software

 Page layout: The ability to define the layout of a page using frames to place text and
pictures.
 Font and styles: A wide range of fonts and styles.
 Drawing facilities: Some drawing facilities, although they may be limited.
 Importing pictures and text: The ability to incorporate pictures and text from other
packages into a document.
 Clip art: A library of pictures for you to include in your document.
 Accurate positioning: The ability to position objects extremely accurately on the page
using guidelines or a grid.
 Frame-This contains a variety of objects such as graphics, tables, text boxes which can be
resized, moved and manipulated to suite the user needs.
 Handles-They enable you resize your frame by clicking and dragging around them.
 Template-These are pre-defined and pre-chosen design styles and formats that you can
use.

Characteristics of Desktop Publishing Software

 They have color libraries.

 They have drawing and picture editing tools.
 They allow color separation.
 They do high quality graphics work.

Advantages of electronic publishing

 It is speedy and easily searchable.

 Rapid communication between the participants on the network.
 Electronic interaction with the buyer or user of an e-publication where the producer can
collect valuable market research data very cheaply.
 Lower costs of review to changes and additions.
 E-publishing is accessible to all users regardless of a geographical location.
 Saves time and storage as more information can be stored electronically than on paper

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Disadvantages of electronic publishing

 Computers may not be available everywhere.

 Many people will need training to use the resource.
 It requires computing equipment to use.
 Publications may experience inconsistency of appearance between different computer
architecture.
 Update is not of all pages.

Areas of application areas/ uses of electronic publishing software

 Used in designing email publishing content.

 Producing electronic books
 Producing electronic journals
 Used in web publishing
 Developing digital content

TOPIC12: DATABASES

Database Management systems: refers a piece of software that manages databases and lets
you create, edit, maintain, and delete databases and their tables and data. It can also be
software which can be used to manage the data by storing it on to the data base and by
retrieving it from the data base.

Database is any collection of interrelated data that allows access, retrieval, updating and
manipulation; it can be words that you write on a piece of paper in a digital form.

Popular examples of Database Management System software

 Microsoft Office Access • Amazon simple DB  IBM DB2

 My Structured Query • File Maker  Bento
Language(SQL) • Informix  Borland Database Engine
 My SQL Server • ADABAS  DBase
 Oracle • Teradata  FoxPro
 Postgress • Microsoft SQL server  Paradox
 SQLite

Functions of the Database Management Systems

 Enables one to create summary reports

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 It provides an interface for a user to enter data
 Enables the use to create forms
 Allows easy access and retrieval of data
 Allows querying/filtering of some data

Common types of databases

A flat file database is made up of only one table.

A relational database can take information from two or more database tables and combine
them into a new table or report through the use of a key field.

Features of Database Management Software

Field-A field is a column in a table that contains a specific piece of information within a record.

Record A record is a row in a table that contains information about a given person, product, or
event.

Validation rule-Is a method used to check that data falls within the appropriate range or
parameter defined by the database user.

Primary Key Is a field that uniquely identifies a record in a table. Before saving a table, you
should insert a primary key.

Foreign key: A key used in one table to represent the value of a primary key in a related table.

Field name- Database feature assigned to each field to identify the different fields

Field properties-Determine how data is handled, stored and manipulated -Further define data
types and formats like field size, default values

Data type-Specify the kind of data a field can contain and how the field is used.

Queries-These allows you to filter and extract specified data from tables in the databases

Relationships: These are mainly used in relation to relational databases. Relationships allow
relating tables with similar records and fields. One to one, One to Many, many to many
relationships can be created.

Forms allow you to enter or view data stored in your tables

Reports allow you to print data based on queries/tables that you have created

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Advantages of using electronic database system

 A database can be used by many people at the same time.

 Data is frequently updated after each single entry.
 Data is automatically saved as soon as data is entered into a database.
 Data can be retrieved in different formats e.g query, forms, reports, e.t.c

Disadvantages of using electronic database

 They are very expensive to maintain and require initial cost

 They are very complicated and complex to us.
 They need technical requirements and knowledge.
 Require extra cost of hardware and software
 They consist of data failure.
 Consumes a lot of space on the hard drives
 Requires a lot of system currency and updating

Areas where a database can be used/applied

 Report card generation: a database can be used by schools to generate report cards and
necessary academic summaries.
 POS (Point of Sale): in a supermarket, a database is used to design and automate a point
of sale interface to manage money coming in, stock movement, e.t.c. e.g. Standard
Supermarket in Kampala.
 Banks: a big database is used to manage details about a customer’s transaction with the
bank.
 Electoral commission: it manages a database archive for all eligible voters in a given
country.
 Data warehouses: information bureau use a database to manage and distribute
information to users for example information about air travel by various air companies.
 Stores: a database keeps consistent and reliable data. Very big stores used databases to
store, manage and automate store records.

Data validation checks

a) Presence check is to make sure that data is actually present.

b) Length check is to make sure that the number of characters entered is within the limit.

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 c) Range check is to make sure that the data entered lies within a certain range.
d) Type check (also known as character check or alphanumeric check) is to make sure that
the data entered is of the correct data type (e.g., numeric or alphabetic).
e) A check digit is an extra digit appended to a code consisting of a series of numbers or
characters to detect errors arising from transcription

TOPIC 13: SYSTEM SECURITY, ICT ETHICAL ISSUES & EMERGING TECHNOLOGIES

Sub Topic 1: Computer System Security

Sub Topic 2: Privacy and ICT Ethical Issues
Sub Topic 3: Emerging Technologies
Sub Topic 4: ICT Industry

Sub Topic 1: Computer System Security

Computer security
Refers to safe guarding computer resources, ensuring data integrity, limiting access to
unauthorized users, and maintaining data confidentiality.

Computer Integrity refers to methods and procedures of ensuring that data is real, accurate
and safeguarded from unauthorized user modification in the computer.

Information security means protecting information and systems from unauthorized access, use,
disclosure, disruption, modification, perusal, inspection, recording or destruction.

Computer security is security applied to computing devices such as computers and

smartphones, as well as computer networks such as private and public networks, including the
whole Internet. - The purpose is to have digital equipment, information and services to be
protected from unintended or unauthorized access, change or destruction. - It includes physical
security to prevent theft of equipment and information security to protect the data on that
equipment. It is sometimes referred to as "cyber security" or "IT security.

Cyber security is the process of applying security measures to ensure confidentiality, integrity,
and availability of data. Cyber security assures protection of assets, which includes data,
desktops, servers, buildings, and most importantly, humans. - The goal of cyber security is to
protect data both in transit and at rest. Measures put in place to ensure cyber security include
access control, awareness training, audit and accountability, risk assessment, penetration
testing, vulnerability management, and security assessment and authorization.

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Physical Security refers to the measures put in place by protect computer systems from
physical damage and mitigate physical security risks.

Physical security includes:

 Locked doors
 Burglar proofs.
 Parameter fences.
 Security guards.
 Server room environmental
protection
 Concrete walls.
 Lightening conductors.
 Fire extinguishers.
 Strategic server and storage
placement

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What is a computer security risk?

A computer security risk is an action that causes loss of or damage to computer system.
Security threats to computers-based information systems, private or confidential data
include:

 System failure
 information theft
 computer viruses, worms and Trojan horses
 unauthorized access and use
 hardware theft
 software theft
 unauthorized alteration
 malicious destruction of hardware software, data or network resources, as well as
sabotage

ii. Security threats for (hardware and software)

Some of the causes of computerized information system failure include

• Hardware failure due to improper use.

• Unstable power supply as result of brownout or blackout and vandalism.
• Network breakdown.
• Natural disaster
• Program failure

What is hardware theft and hardware vandalism?

Hardware theft is act of stealing computer equipment and components. Cables sometimes
used to lock equipment like some notebook computers use passwords, possessed objects,
and biometrics as security methods. For PDAs, you can password-protect the device

Hardware vandalism is act of defacing or destroying computer equipment

Security threats for (hardware and software)

Software theft is the act of stealing or illegally copying software or intentionally erasing
programs.

Software piracy is illegal duplication of copyrighted software. To guard against software

theft and piracy, product activation is used.

Product activation allows user to input product identification number online or by phone
and receive unique installation identification number

License agreement

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A license agreement gives the right to use software. Single-user license agreement allows
user to install software on one computer, make backup copy, and sell software after
removing from computer.

Control measures against hardware failure

• Protect computers against brownout or blackout which may cause physical damages
or data loss by using surge protectors and Uninterruptible power supply (UPS). For
critical systems, most organizations have put into place fault tolerant systems.
• A fault tolerant system has redundant or duplicate storage, peripherals devices and
software that provide a fail-over capability to backup components in the event of
system failure.
• Disaster recovery plans Disaster recovery plan involves establishing offsite storage of
an organization’s databases so that in case of disaster or fire accidents, the company
would have backup copies to reconstruct lost data

Computer Crimes

Computer crimes are criminal activities, which involve the use of information technology to
gain an illegal or an unauthorized access to a computer system with intent of damaging,
deleting or altering computer data. - Computer crimes also include the activities such as
electronic frauds, misuse of devices, identity theft and data as well as system interference.

This is the criminal offence illegal or unauthorized use of computer technology to

manipulate critical user data. It refers to any crime that involves a computer and a network.

Computer crimes may not necessarily involve damage to physical property. They rather
include the manipulation of confidential data and critical information. - Computer crimes
involve activities of software theft, wherein the privacy of the users is hampered. These
criminal activities involve the breach of human and information privacy, as also the theft
and illegal alteration of system critical information.

Types of computer crimes

Hacking: The act of defeating the security capabilities of a computer system in order to
obtain an illegal access to the information stored on the computer system is called hacking.
It may involve hacking of IP addresses in order to transact with a false identity, thus
remaining anonymous while carrying out the criminal activities.

Phishing is the act of attempting to acquire sensitive information like usernames, passwords
and credit card details by disguising as a trustworthy source. - Phishing is carried out
through emails or by luring the users to enter personal information through fake websites. -

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Criminals often use websites that have a look and feel of some popular website, which
makes the users feel safe to enter their details there.

Cyber stalking is the use of communication technology, mainly the Internet, to torture other
individuals which include activities such as false accusations, transmission of threats and
damage to data and equipment.

The physical theft of computer hardware and software is the most widespread related
crime especially in developing countries. The most common issues now, we here cases of
people breaking into an office or firm and stealing computers, hard disks and other valuable
computer accessories. In most cases such theft can be done by untrustworthy employees of
firm or by outsiders. The reason behind an act may be commercial, destruction to sensitive
information or sabotage

Control measures against theft

• Employ security agents to keep watch over information centers and restricted
backup sites.
• Reinforce weak access points like windows, door and roofing with metallic grills
and strong padlocks.
• Motivate workers so that they feel a sense of belonging in order to make them
proud and trusted custodians of the company resources.
• Insure the hardware resources with a reputable insurance firm.
• Piracy is a form of intellectual property theft which means illegal copying of
software, information or data. Software, information and data are protected by
copyright and patent laws.

Control measures against piracy

There are several ways of reducing piracy

• Enforce laws that protect the owners of data and information against piracy.
• Make software cheap enough to increase affordability.
• Use licenses and certificates to identify original software.
• Set installation passwords that deter illegal installation of software.

Fraud is stealing by false pretense. Fraudsters can be either employees in a company, non-
existent company that purports to offer internet services such as selling vehicles etc. other
form of fraud may also involve computerized production and use of counterfeit documents.
This is due to the dynamic growth of internet and mobile computing, sophisticated
cybercrimes.

Sabotage refers to illegal destruction of data and information with the aim of crippling
services delivery, or causing great loss to an organization. Sabotage is usually carried out by

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disgruntled employees or competitors with the intention of causing harm to an
organization.

Identity theft-Act of pretending to be someone else by using another person’s identity

Computer industrial espionage-Involves stealing of trade secrets or spying through tech

means for bribery, blackmail, etc

Software piracy-The illegal act of duplicating copyrighted software.

Phreaking-The act of illegally breaking into a communication system to make calls without
paying

Unauthorized use This is the use of a computer or its data for illegal/unapproved activities.

Spoofing Is a malicious practice in which communication is sent from an unknown source

disguised as a source known to the receiver.

Spamming=Sending of unwanted e-mails.

Knowingly selling-Is the act of distributing and selling child pornography.

A backdoor is a method of bypassing normal authentication, securing remote access to a

computer, obtaining access to plaintext, and so on, while attempting to remain undetected.
- The backdoor may take the form of an installed program or could be a modification to an
existing program or hardware device. - A specific form of backdoor is a rootkit, which
replaces system binaries and/or hooks into the function calls of an operating system to hide
the presence of other programs, users, services and open ports. - It may also fake
information about disk and memory usage.

Denial of Service attack-This is an attack designed to render the system unusable. Attackers
can deny service to individual victims, such as by deliberately entering a wrong password
enough consecutive times to cause the victim account to be locked, or they may overload
the capabilities of a machine or network and block all users at once. - These types of attacks
are, in practice, difficult to prevent, because the behaviour of whole networks needs to be
analyzed, not just the behavior of small pieces of code.

Eavesdropping is the act of secretly listening to a private conversation, typically between

hosts on a network or telephone conversations. - For instance, programs such as Carnivore
and NarusInsight have been used by the FBI and NSA to eavesdrop on the systems of
internet service providers.

Cyber extortion is a form of cyber terrorism in which a website, e-mail server, or computer
system is subjected to repeated denial of service or other attacks by malicious hackers, who
demand money in return for promising to stop the attacks.

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Information disclosure (privacy breach or data leak) describes a situation where
information, thought to be secure, is released in an untrusted environment.

Others include

• Cyber terrorism
• Cyber bullying
• Cyber harassment.

COMPUTER VIRUSES

A computer virus is a program designed specifically to damage, infect and affect other
programs, data or cause irregular behavior to the computer. OR

A computer virus is a piece of software that can replicate itself and infect a computer, data
and software without the knowledge of the user.

Computer Malware

Malware or short for malicious software is any software used to disrupt computer
operation, gather sensitive information, or gain access to private computer systems. -
Malware is defined by its malicious intent, acting against the requirements of the computer
user, and does not include software that causes unintentional harm due to some deficiency.
- Malwares include computer viruses, worms, Trojan horses, ransom ware, spyware,
adware, scare ware, and other malicious programs. Malware is often disguised as, or
embedded in, non-malicious files

Symptoms of a computer infected by virus

• System slows down.

• System crushes and hangs up.
• Hard disk wont boot.
• Corrupted hard disk data.
• Program sizes keep changing.
• Computer programs take long to boot than normal.
• Files won’t open.

TYPES OF VIRUSES

A boot sector virus-This executes when a computer starts up because it resides in the boot
sector of a floppy disk or the master boot record of a hard disk.

A file virus-This attaches itself to program files, and is loaded into memory when the
infected program is run.

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 A macro virus -This uses the macro language of an application (e.g., word processor or
spread sheet) to hide the virus code.

A logic bomb-This is a virus that activates when it detects a certain condition.

A time bomb-This is a kind of logic bomb that activates on a particular date.

A worm -This copies itself repeatedly in memory or on a disk drive until no memory or disk
space remains, which makes the computer stops working.

A Trojan horse -This is a program that hides within or looks like a legitimate program, but
executes when a certain condition or action is triggered.

A polymorphic virus -This modifies its program code each time it attaches itself to another
program or file, so that even an antivirus utility has difficulty in detecting it

Scare-ware is a type of malware designed to trick victims into purchasing and downloading
useless and potentially dangerous software. – Scare-ware, which generates pop-ups that
resemble Windows system messages, usually purports to be antivirus or antispyware
software, a firewall application or a registry cleaner.

Adware-The term adware is frequently used to describe a form of malware (malicious

software), usually that which presents unwanted advertisements to the user of a computer.
The advertisements produced by adware are sometimes in the form of a pop-up.

Spyware is software that aids in gathering information about a person or organization

without their knowledge and that may send such information to another individual without
the consumer's consent, or that claims control over a computer without the consumer's
knowledge.

A blended threat is a more sophisticated attack that bundles some of the worst aspects of
viruses, worms, Trojan horses and other malicious codes into one single threat. - Blended
threats can use server and Internet vulnerabilities to initiate, then transmit and also spread
an attack.

Viruses are activated in three basic ways

• Opening an infected file

• Running an infected program
• Starting up the computer with an infected floppy disk, flash disk

How viruses are spread

• Through E-mail attachments.

• Rogue websites. E.g. some adult sites, gambling sites, e.t.c.
• Sharing infected disks.

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 • Through networks.
• Through infected software.
• Hackers.
• Through downloads from the internet.
• Through software updates

Precautions to prevent virus infection

• Ensure that the e-mail is from a trusted source before opening or executing any e-mail
attachment.
• Install an antivirus utility and update its virus definitions frequently for detecting and
removing viruses.
• Never start up a computer with a floppy disk in the floppy drive.
• Scan all floppy disks and files for possible virus infection before opening them.
• Set the security level for macros in an application so that the user can choose whether
or not to run potentially unsafe macros.
• Write-protect the recovery disk before using it.
• Back up important files regularly.
• Ensure that there is a policy of how computers are used and protected.

How to protect data from viruses in a computer system

• Make a back-up of all important files.

• Always update your software.
• Perform regular maintenance.
• Scan all disks from other computers.
• Protect your password and change it after some time.
• Use anti-virus software.

Anti-Virus Software

Anti-Virus Software Antivirus software is a set of utility programs that looks for and
eradicates a wide range of problems, such as viruses, Trojan horses, and worms.

Examples of Anti-Virus Software

• AVG Anti-Virus
• Avira Anti-Virus
• Norton Anti-Virus Software
• Kaspersky Anti-Virus
• Avast Anti-virus
• Smadav USBAnti-Virus

How to protect Computer Systems

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Installing Antivirus Program:- Computer programs that attempt to identify, prevent and
eliminate computer viruses and other malicious software (malware).

Installing Firewall:- This serves as a gatekeeper system that protects a company's intranets
and other computer networks from intrusion by providing a filter and safe transfer point for
access to and from the Internet and other networks.

Data Encryption:- This method is used to alter the information in a form that it cannot be
understood or followed by other people during transmission.

Data Backup:- Users should frequently duplicate (copy) the information to different storage
devices such as DVDs, external hard disk to be able to recover their information in case of a
disaster.

User ID and Passwords:- This is to restrict access to the computer systems, only allowing
authorized users. A password is a secret code that combines characters and numbers that
allow a user to access a computer or a network.

Access rights:- Access rights help to protect the IT system and the data stored on the
system by restricting who can do what. Most company networks will be set up so that
different users have appropriate levels of access rights. For example a manager of the
company will have higher level access right than his subordinate staffs.

Audit Logs:- Network managers should ensure that their system is able to create an audit
log. An audit log will record every important event in an 'audit file such as who logged on to
the system at what time and onto which computer, which files were opened, altered, saved
or deleted or log events such as attempts to access proxy servers

Rules for creating Secure Passwords

• Do not use your name or names of your close friends.

• Pick a mix of alphabetic and numeric characters. Never use an all-numeric password
(especially your phone number or social security number).
• Pick long passwords. If your password is only a few letters long, an attacker will find it
easy to try all combinations.
• Pick different passwords for the different machines or network nodes you access.

Intellectual property (IP)

Is a legal term that refers to creations of the mind that may include software, music,
literature, discoveries and inventions.

Intellectual property rights are the rights given to persons over the creations of their minds.
They usually give the creator an exclusive right over the use of his/her creation for a certain
period of time. - Intellectual property rights include patents, copyright, industrial design
rights, trademarks, trade dress, and trade secrets.
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A patent grants an inventor the right to exclude others from making, using, selling, offering
to sell, and importing an invention for a limited period of time, in exchange for the public
disclosure of the invention. - An invention is a solution to a specific technological problem,
which may be a product or a process.

A copyright is the exclusive legal right that prohibits copying of intellectual property without
permission of the copyright holder. - A copyright gives the creator of original work exclusive
rights to it, usually for a limited time. Copyright may apply to a wide range of creative,
intellectual, or artistic forms, or "works". Copyright does not cover ideas and information
themselves, only the form or manner in which they are expressed.

A trademark is a recognizable sign, design or expression which distinguishes products or

services of a particular trader from the similar products or services of other traders.

Cryptography includes techniques such as microdots, merging words with images, and other
ways to hide information in storage or transit. - It is the process of scrambling plaintext
(ordinary text, sometimes referred to as clear-text) into an unreadable format (a process
called encryption), then back again (known as decryption). Individuals who practice this field
are known as

Cryptographers. - It is a technique used to defend data in transit between systems, reducing

the probability that data exchanged between systems can be intercepted or modified. - The
art of protecting information by transforming it (encrypting it) into an unreadable format,
called cipher text. - Only those who possess a secret key can decipher (or decrypt) the
message into plain text.

As the Internet and other forms of electronic communication become more prevalent,
electronic security is becoming increasingly important. - Cryptography is used to protect e-
mail messages, credit card information, and corporate data. - Cryptography systems can be
broadly classified into symmetric-key systems that use a single key that both the sender and
recipient have, and asymmetric-key systems (public-key systems) that use two keys, a public
key known to everyone and a private key that only the recipient of messages uses.

Secret Vs. Public Key

Secret Keys (Symmetric Systems):- Both sender and receiver use the key to encrypt and
decrypt. This is the fastest computation method, but getting the secret key to the recipient
in the first place is a problem.

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Public Keys (Asymmetric Systems):- Each recipient has a private key that is kept secret and
a public key that is published for everyone. - The sender is sent the recipient's public key
and uses it to encrypt the message.

The recipient uses the private key to decrypt the message and never publishes or transmits
the private key to anyone. - Thus, the private key is never in transit and remains
invulnerable.

Use of Biometrics

Biometrics is the identification of a person by the measurement of their biological features.

- For example, users identifying themselves to a computer or building by their finger print or
voice is considered a biometric identification. - When compared to a password, this type of
system is much more difficult to fake since it is unique to the person. Below is a listing of all
known biometric devices.

Types of biometric devices

• A fingerprint scanner, which captures curves and indentations of a fingerprint

• A hand geometry system, which can measure the shape and size of a person's hand
• A face recognition system, which captures a live face image and compares it with a
stored image
• A voice recognition system, which compares a person's live speech with their stored
voice pattern
• A signature verification system, which recognizes the shape of handwritten
signature of a person
• An iris recognition system, which reads patterns in the tiny blood vessels in the back
of the eye, which are as unique as a fingerprint.

Computer Ethics

These refer to a set of moral principles that regulate the use of computers. The human
values and moral conduct relating to right and wrong decision made when using computers.
Moral guidelines that govern use of computers and information systems

A code of conduct is a written guideline that helps determine whether a specific action is
ethical or unethical.

Three useful ethical principles

• An act is ethical if society benefits from the act.

• An act is ethical if people are treated as an end and not as a means to an end.
• An act is ethical if it is fair to all parties involved.

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Computer ethics involves use of computers & software in morally acceptable way.
Standards or guidelines are important in this industry, because technology changes are
outstripping the legal system’s ability to keep up

Computer Ethics for Computer Professionals

• According to the Association for Computing Machinery (ACM) code, a computing

professional:
• Contributes to society and human well-being.
• Always avoids harm to others.
• Should be honest and trustworthy.
• Should exercise fairness and takes action not to discriminate.
• Honors property rights, including copyrights and patents
• Gives proper credit when using the intellectual property of others.
• Respects other individuals’ rights to privacy.
• Honors confidentiality.

Information privacy

Right of individuals and companies to restrict collection and use of information about them.

Private data or information is the collection and use of personal information. This
information should not be accessed or disclosed to any other person unless permitted by
the owner.

Data held by an organization or government that should be disclosed to authorized people

only is said to be confidential.

Concerns related to collection and use of private data

• Data should not be disclosed to other people without the owner’s permission.
• Data and information should be kept secured against loss or exposure
• Data and information should be kept longer than necessary
• Data and information should be accurate and up to date.
• Data and information should be collected, used and kept for specified lawful
purposes.

What are some ways to safeguard personal information?

• Limit the amount of information you provide to Web sites; fill in only required
information
• Inform merchants that you do not want them to distribute your personal information

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 • Set up a free e-mail account; use this e-mail address for merchant forms
• Sign up for e-mail filtering through your Internet service provider or use an anti-spam
program
• Do not reply to spam for any reason
• Install a personal firewall
• Turn off file and print sharing on your Internet connection
• Surf the Web anonymously with a program such as Freedom Web Secure or through
an anonymous Web site such as Anonymizer.com
• Install a cookie manager to filter cookies
• Clear your history file when you are finished browsing.

Unethical computer codes of conduct

• Modifying certain information on the internet

• Selling information to others without the owner’s permission
• Using information without authorization
• Invasion of privacy
• Involving in the stealing of software.

Computer ethics to be put in place

• Respect the privacy of others.

• Always identify the user accurately
• Respect copyrights and licenses
• Respect the intellectual property.
• Respect the integrity of the computer system.
• Exhibit responsible and sensible use of hardware and software

Emerging Technologies

This involves innovations and advancements in the use of new technological tools that make
technology more amazing.

Concepts of emerging technologies covers the rapid evolution of computers and

information technology with the future trends in computer and information and
communication technology which is characterized by artificial intelligence and digital
forensics.

Application areas of specific emerging technologies

Affective computing - Is the study and development of systems and devices that can
recognize, interpret, process, and simulate human affects. It is an interdisciplinary field
spanning computer science, psychology, and cognitive science.

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Affect is the experience of feeling or emotion. Affect is a key part of the process of an
organism's interaction with stimuli. The word also refers sometimes to affect display, which
is "a facial, vocal, or gestural behavior that serves as an indicator of affect"

Ambient Intelligence (AmI)

In computing, ambient intelligence refers to electronic environments that are sensitive and
responsive to the presence of people. - Ambient intelligence is a vision on the future of
consumer electronics, telecommunications and computing that was originally developed in
the late 1990s for the time frame 2010–2020.

Artificial Intelligence (AI)

Artificial intelligence refers to a branch of computer science that is concerned with the
development of machines that emulate human-like qualities such as learning, reasoning,
communication seeing and hearing. Also artificial intelligence refers to the ability of a
machine to perform tasks that normally require human intelligence.

Computer scientist and engineers are still working hard to come up with computer reality in
near future which can think and learn instead of relying on static programmed instructions

This is the intelligence exhibited by machines or software. It is an academic field of study

which studies the goal of creating intelligence.

Major AI researchers and textbooks define this field as "the study and design of intelligent
agents", where an intelligent agent is a system that perceives its environment and takes
actions that maximize its chances of success.

There are four main application areas of artificial intelligence namely:

• Expert systems. Software that operate at the level of human expert in specific
application.
• Natural language processing.
• Artificial neural networks.
• Robotics/perception systems.

Bioelectronics

This is a recently coined term for a field of research that works to establish a synergy
between electronics and biology. The emerging field of Bioelectronics seeks to exploit
biology in conjunction with electronics in a wider context encompassing, for example,
biological fuel cells, bionics and biomaterials for information processing, information
storage, electronic components and actuators.

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A key aspect is the interface between biological materials and micro- and nano-electronics.

Digital forensics

Digital forensic refers to the science encompassing the recovery and investigation of
material found in digital devices often in relation to computer crime.

Main application areas of digital forensic namely

• Legal consideration-use of digital evidence in court

• Branches-perception of the computer forensic, mobile device forensic, network
forensic
• Application of digital forensic such as electronic discovery, intrusion etc
• Forensic process-analysis and reporting

Cloud computing

Cloud computing involves deploying groups of remote servers and software networks that
allow centralized data storage and online access to computer services or resources. Clouds
can be classified as public, private or hybrid. – This is a recently evolved computing
terminology or metaphor based on utility and consumption of computing resources.

Future Internet

As wireless and mobile technology advance, users can not only surf the online world - but
can also do it on the move, through a plethora of portable devices, including laptops, smart
phones and tablets; with an increasing need for high-bandwidth, high-speed broadband that
can cope with rich multimedia content.

Other Emerging technologies

Virtual reality/artificial reality-Simulates physical presence in places of a real world as well

as an imaginary world

Computer vision-Includes methods of acquiring, processing, analyzing, understanding

images so as to produce symbolic information.

Implications of emerging technologies

• Technophobia/techno stress
• Loss of jobs say for massagers in case of networking
• Health issues for eye defects, back pain.
• Fear of cost of retaining or learning new skills

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 • Fear of increased electricity and subscriptions costs
• Fear of computer related crimes like forging of documents
• Fear of loss of man-hours through computer games and video during working hours
• Data loss by virus and system crashing
• Computer related errors and accident
• Unemployment//redundancy//financial/family problems.
• Local businesses/economy affected
• Possible increase in crime (Idle youth)
• People leaving community (to find other work)
• Opportunities for high skilled/programming jobs

Computer Professionals

A computer professional might be: - A person working in the field of information

technology. A person who has undergone training in a computer-related field colleges,
universities and computer institutes. A person who has an extensive knowledge in the area
of computing.

Careers in ICT field

a) Computer operator
• Some of the responsibilities of a computer operator include;
• Entering data into the computer for processing.
• Keeping up-to-date records (log files) of all information processing activities.
b) Computer technician
• Troubleshooting computer hardware and software related problems.
• Assembling and upgrading computers and their components.
• Ensuring that all computer related accessories such as printers modems, storage
media devices are in good working condition.
c) Computer engineer
• Computer and electronic engineers are coming up with new and more efficient
technologies in information and communication technology almost daily. Since
computers are electronic devices, hardware designers must be good in electronic
engineering in order to be able to:
• Design and develop computer components such as storage devices,
motherboards and other electronic components.
• Determine the electrical power requirement of each component.
• Re-engineer computer components to enhance its functionality and efficiency.
• Design and develop engineering and manufacturing computer controlled devices
such as robots.

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 d) Computer programmer
• Large organizations such as insurance companies, banks, manufacturing firms
and government agents hire programmers to work together with system analysts
in order to:
• Develop in house application programs or system programs.
• Customize commercial application packages to suite the organization needs.
• Install, test, debug, and maintain programs developed or customized for the
organization.

e) Web administrator/webmaster
• Developing and testing websites.
• Maintaining, updating and modifying information on the website to meet new
demands by the users.

f) Software engineers

Most Software engineers analyse user needs and create application software. Software
engineers usually have experience in programming, but focus on the design and
development of programs using the principles of mathematics and engineering.

g) Computer Trainers

Computer trainers typically teach new users how to use the computer software and
hardware.

h) Network administrator
• A network administrator is a specialist whose responsibilities are to:
• Set-up a computer network.
• Maintain and enforce security measures on the network.
• Monitor the use of network resources.
• Maintain and troubleshoot network related problems.

i) Database Administrator (DBA)

Database Administrator (DBA) is an IT professional responsible for installation, configuration,

upgrade, administration, monitoring, maintenance, and securing of databases in an
organization.

j)Graphic designer

A graphic designer is a professional within the graphic design and graphic arts industry who
assembles together images, typography, or motion graphics to create a piece of design.

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k) System Administrators

A system administrator, or system admin, is a person who is responsible for the upkeep,
configuration, and reliable operation of computer systems; especially multi-user computers,
such as servers

A system administrator may acquire, install, or upgrade computer components and software;
provide routine automation; maintain security policies; troubleshoot; train or supervise staff;
or offer technical support for projects.

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