Foreword from

THE ELEMENTS OF There are many books about typography,

and some of them are models of the art
they teach. But when I set myself to com-

TYPOGRAPHIC STYLE
pile a simple list of working principles,
one of the benchmarks I first thought of
was William Strunk and E.B. White’s
small masterpiece, The Elements of Style.
Brevity, however, is the essence of Strunk

Robert Bringhurst and White’s manual of literary technique.

This book is longer than theirs, and for
that there is a cause.

Typography makes at least two kinds

of sense, if it makes any sense at all. It
makes visual sense and historical sense.
The visual side of typography is always
on display, and materials for the study of
its visual form are many and widespread.
The history of letterforms and their us-
age is visible too, to those with access to
manuscripts, inscriptions and old books,
but from others it is largely hidden. This

ONE
 book has therefore grown into something more than a short manual of Typogr
typographic etiquette. It is the fruit of a lot of long walks in the wilderness where
of letters: in part a pocket field guide to the living wonders that are found mined
there, and in part a meditation on the ecological principles, survival tech- uninha
niques, and ethics that apply. The principles of typography as I understand thorou
them are not a set of dead conventions but the tribal customs of the magic typogr
forest, where ancient voices speak from all directions and new ones move to dition:
unremembered forms. when w
where
“By all means break the rules, and break them One question, never- left for
theless, has been often the way
beautifully, deliberately, and well. That is one of in my mind. When all
the ends for which they exist.” right-thinking human If you u
beings are struggling to That is
remember that other men and women are free to be different, and free to departu
become more different still, how can one honestly write a rulebook? What ately, an
reason and authority exist for these commandments, suggestions, and in-
structions? Surely typographers, like others, ought to be at liberty to follow Letterf
or to blaze the trails they choose. The pr
ond ha
man ty

TWO
 of Typography thrives as a shared concern - and there are no paths at all
erness where there are no shared desires and directions. A typographer deter-
ound mined to forge new routes must move, like other solitary travellers, through
ech- uninhabited country and against the grain of the land, crossing common
rstand thoroughfares in the silence before dawn. The subject of this book is not
magic typographic solitude, but the old, well-travelled roads at the core of the tra-
move to dition: paths that each of us is free to follow or not, and to enter and leave
when we choose - if only we know the paths are there and have a sense of
where they lead. That freedom is denied us if the tradition is concealed or
ever- left for dead. Originality is everywhere, but much originality is blocked if
often the way back to earlier discoveries is cut or overgrown.
en all
uman If you use this book as a guide, by all means leave the road when you wish.
ling to That is precisely the use of a road: to reach individually chosen points of
e to departure. By all means break the rules, and break them beautifully, deliber-
What ately, and well. That is one of the ends for which they exist.
d in-
follow Letterforms change constantly, yet differ very little, because they are alive.
The principles of typographic clarity have also scarcely altered since the sec-
ond half of the fifteenth century, when the first books were printed in ro-
man type. Indeed, most of the principles of legibility and design explored in

THREE
 this book were known and used by Egyptian scribes writing hieratic script proprie
with reed pens on papyrus in 1000 B.C. Samples of their work sit now in use. Th
museums in Cairo, London and New York, still lively, subtle, and perfectly of style
legible thirty centuries after they were made. the goa
for the
Writing systems vary, but a good page is not hard to learn to recognize, mutabl
whether it comes from Tang Dynasty China, The Egyptian New Kingdom more d
or Renaissance Italy. The principles that unite these distant schools of de- used to
sign are based on the structure and scale of the human body - the eye, the typogr
hand, and the forearm in particular - and on the invisible but no less real, useful
no less demanding, no less sensuous anatomy of the human mind. I don’t ing pro
like to call these principles universals, because they are largely unique to or laser
our species. Dogs and ants, for example, read and write by more chemical optical
means. But the underlying principles of typography are, at any rate, stable
enough to weather any number of human fashions and fads. Typogr
form, a
It is true that typographer’s tools are presently changing with considerable phy - th
force and speed, but this is not a manual in the use of any particular type- reach in
setting system or medium. I suppose that most readers of this book will set machin
most of their type in digital form, using computers, but I have no precon- delight
ceptions about which brands of computers, or which versions of which

FOUR
script proprietary software, they may “The essential elements of style have more to do with the
w in use. The essential elements
fectly of style have more to do with goals typographers set for themselves than with the
the goals typographers set mutable eccentricities of their tools.”
for themselves than with the
ze, mutable eccentricities of their tools. Typography itself, in other words, is far
ngdom more device-independent than PostScript, which is the computer language
f de- used to render these particular letters, and the design of these pages, into
e, the typographic code. If I have succeeded in my task, this book should be as
real, useful to artists and antiquarians setting foundry metal by hand and pull-
don’t ing proofs on a flat-bed press, as to those who check their work on a screen
to or laser printer, then ship it to high-resolution digital output devices by
mical optical disk or long-distance telephone line.
table
Typography is the craft of endowing human language with a durable visual
form, and thus with an independent existence. Its heartwood is calligra-
erable phy - the dance, on a tiny stage, of the living, speaking hand - and its roots
type- reach into living soil, though its branches may be hung each year with new
will set machines. So long as the root lives, typography remains a source of true
con- delight, true knowledge, true surprise.
ch

FIVE
 As a craft, typography shares a long common boundary and many common
concerns with writing and editing on the one side and with graphic design
on the other; yet typography itself belongs to neither. This book in its turn
is neither a manual of editorial style nor a textbook on design, though it
overlaps with both of these concerns. The perspective throughout is first
and foremost typographic - and I hope the book will be useful for that very
reason to those whose work or interests may be centered in adjacent fields.

SIX
 mmon
esign
s turn
h it
first
at very
fields.

SEVEN
EIGHT
 Period Styles

A PUNCTUATED
Greek and Latin manuscripts were
usually written with no space between
words until around the ninth century

HISTORY
AD, although Roman inscriptions like
the famous Trajan column sometimes
separated words with a centered dot.
Even after spacing became common it re-
mained haphazard. For example, often a
preposition was linked to another word.
Early Greek writing ran in lines alternat-
ing from left to right and right to left.
This convention was called boustrephe-
Ellen Lupton don, meaning “as the ox plows”. It was
convenient for large carved monuments,
but boustrephedon hindered the reading
and writing of smaller texts and so the
left to right direction became dominant.
A centered dot divided words which
split at the end of a line in early Greek
and Latin manuscripts. In the eleventh
century a mark similar to the modern

NINE
“The correctness of a paragraph is a matter of hyphen was introduced. Medieval By the
scribes often filled shorts lines Wester
style, having no strict rules.” with marks and ornaments. The texts. A
perfectly justified line became the standard after the invention of printing. script b
The earliest Greek literary texts were divided into units with a horizontal
line called a paragraphos. Paragraphing remains our central method of Even a
organizing prose and yet although paragraphs are ancient, they are not identify
grammatically essential. The correctness of a paragraph is a matter of style, the dag
having no strict rules. orname
sages a
Later Greek documents sometimes marked paragraphs by placing the first elabora
letter of the new line in the margin. This letter could be enlarged, colored, consist
or ornate. Today the outdent is often used for lists whose items are iden-
tified alphabetically as in dictionaries or bibliographies. A mark called All pun
capitulum was introduced in early Latin manuscripts. It functioned vari- printin
ously as a pointer or separator. It usually occurred inside a running block of typogr
text which did not break onto a new line. This technique saved space. It also region
preserved the visual density of the page which emulated the continuous named
unbroken flow of speech. His sys
called a
a colon

TEN
edieval By the seventeenth century, the indent was the standard paragraph break in
nes Western prose. The rise of printing encouraged the use of space to organize
The texts. A gap in the printed page feels more deliberate than a gap in a manu-
nting. script because it is made by a slug of lead rather than a flux in handwriting.
ontal
of Even after the ascendence of the indent, the capitulum remained in use for
ot identifying sections and chapters along with other marks like the section,
style, the dagger, the double dagger, the asterisk, and numerous less conventional
ornaments. Such marks have been used since the middle ages for citing pas-
sages and keying marginal references. The invention of printing made more
e first elaborate and precise referencing possible because the pages of a text were
ored, consistent from one copy to the next.
den-
d All punctuation was used idiosynchratically until after the invention of
ari- printing, which revolutionized writing by disseminating grammatical and
lock of typographical standards. Before printing, punctuation varied wildly from
It also region to region and scribe to scribe. The Librarian at Alexandria who was
ous named Aristophanes designed a Greek punctuation system circa 260 BC.
His system marked the shortest segments of discourse with a centered dot,
called a comma, and marked the the longer sections with a low dot, called
a colon. A high dot set off the longest unit. He called it periodos. The three

ELEVEN
 dots were easily distinguished from one another because all the letters were howeve
the same height, providing a consistent frame of reference, like a musical when a
staff.
The sys
Although the terms comma, colon, and period persist, the shape of the revived
marks and their function today are different. During the seventh and eighth cording
centuries new marks appeared in some manuscripts, including the semico- need a
lon, the inverted semicolon, and a question mark that ran horizontally. A later w
thin diagonal slash, called a virgule, was sometimes used like a comma in approa
medieval manuscripts and early printed books. Such marks are thought to and em
have been cues for reading aloud. They indicated a rising, falling, or level punctu
tone of voice. The use of punctuation by scribes and their interpretation by the com
readers was by no means consistent, however, and marks might be added to parts o
a manuscript by another scribe well after it was written. rather
worked
Early punctuation was linked to oral delivery. For example the terms matica
comma, colon, and periodos, as they were used by aristophanes, come from
the theory of rhetoric, where they refer to rhythmical units of speech. As Rhetor
a source of rhetorical rather than grammatical cues, punctuation served to modern
regulate pace and give emphasis to particular phrases, rather than to mark establis
the logical structure of sentences. Many of the pauses in rhetorical delivery, stronge

TWELVE
s were however, naturally correspond with grammatical structure: for example,
ical when a pause falls between two clauses or sentences.

The system of Aristophanes was rarely used by the Greeks, but it was
he revived by the Latin grammarian Donatus in the fourth century AD. Ac-
eighth cording to Donatus, punctuation should fall wherever the speaker would
mico- need a moment’s rest; it provided breathing cues for reading aloud. Some
y. A later writers modified the theories of Donatus, returning to a rhetorical
a in approach to punctuation, in which the marks served to control rhythm
ght to and emphasis. After the invention of printing, grammarians began to base
evel punctuation on structure rather than on spoken sound: marks such as
ion by the comma, the colon, and the period signaled some of the grammatical
ded to parts of a sentence. Thus punctuation came to be defined architecturally
rather than orally. The comma became a mark of separation, the semicolon
worked as a joint between independent clauses. The colon indicated gram-
matical discontinuity. Writing was slowly distanced from speech.
e from
. As Rhetoric, structure, and pace are all at work in
ed to modern English punctuation, whose rules were
“Writing was slowly distanced from speech.”
mark established by the end of the eighteenth century. Although structure is the
elivery, strongest rationale today, punctuation remains a largely intuitive art. A

THIRTEEN
 writer can often choose among several correct ways to punctuate a passage, minisc
each with a slightly different rhythm and meaning. twelfth
densed
There was no consistent mark for quotations before the seventeenth cen- develop
tury. Direct speech was usually announced only by phrases like “he said”. manus
Sometimes a double comma was used in manuscripts to point out impor- larged
tant sentences and was later used to enclose quotations. English printers use of m
before the nineteenth century often edged one margin of a quote with Both sc
double commas. This convention presented text as a spatial plane rather
than a temporal line, framing the quoted passage like a picture. Printing, In the fi
by producing identical copies of a text, encouraged the standardization of human
quotation marks. Printed books commonly incorporated material from cal rom
other sources. establis
“upper
Both the Greek and Roman alphabets were originally majuscule: all the hold th
letters were the same height. Greek and Roman miniscule letters developed conven
out of rapidly written scripts called cursive, which were used for business any wo
correspondence. Miniscule characters have limbs extending above and be- printer
“Although structure is the strongest rationale today, low a uniform body. Alcuin,
advisor to Charlemagne,
empha

punctuation remains a largely intuitive art.” introduced the “Carolingian”

FOURTEEN
assage, miniscule, which spread rapidly through Europe between the eighth and
twelfth centuries. During the dissemination of Carolingian script, con-
densed, black miniscule styles of handwriting, now called “gothic”, were also
cen- developing. They eventually replaced the classic Carolingian. A Carolingian
aid”. manuscript sometimes marked the beginning of a sentence with an en-
mpor- larged letter. This character was often a majuscule, presaging the modern
ters use of miniscule and majuscule as double features of the same alphabet.
h Both scripts were still considered separate manners of writing, however.
her
ing, In the fifteenth century, the Carolingian script was revived by the Italian
on of humanists. The new script, called “lettera antica,” was paired with classi-
m cal roman capitals. It became the basis of the roman typefaces, which were
established as a European norm by the mid-sixteenth century. The terms
“uppercase” and “lowercase” refer to the drawers in a printing shop that
the hold the two fonts. Until recently, punctuation was an intuitive art, ruled by
eloped convenience and intuition. A printer could literally capitalize the initial of
ness any word she deemed worthy of disctinction, as well as proper names. The
d be- printer was free to set some words entirely in capitals and to add further
cuin, emphasis with extra spaces.
e,
ngian”

FIFTEEN
 The roman typefaces were based on a formal script used for books. The for big
cursive, rapidly written version of the Carolingian miniscule was employed tury be
for business and also for books sold in the less expensive writing shops. These a
Called “antica corsiva” or “cancellersca,” this style of handwriting was the headin
model for the italic typefaces cut for Aldus Manutius in Venice in 1500.
Aldus Manutius was a scholar, printer, and businessman. Italic script Since t
conserved space, and Aldus developed it for his internationally distributed ally ela
series of small, inexpensive books. The Aldine italic was paired with Ro- and de
man capitals. The Italian typographer Tagliente advocated Italic Capitals Carlos
in the early sixteenth century. Aldus set entire books in italic; it was an era of m
autonomous type style, unrelated to roman. In France, however, the roman signers
style was becoming the neutral, generic norm, with italic played against it portrai
for contrast. The pairs uppercase/lowercase and roman/italic each add an :-) to
inaudible, non-phonetic dimension to the alphabet. Before italic became
the official auxiliary of roman, scribes and printers had other techniques
for marking emphasis, including enlarged, heavy, colored, or gothic letters.
Underlining appeared in some medieval manuscripts, and today it is the
conventional substitute for for italics in handwritten and typewritten texts.
Space is sometimes inserted between letters to declare emphasis in German
and Eastern European book typography. Boldface fonts were not common
until the ninetheenth century, when display advertising created a demand

SIXTEEN
The for big black types. Most book faces designed since the early twentieth cen-
ployed tury belong to families of four: roman, italic, bold roman, and bold italic.
ps. These are used for systematically marking different kinds of copy, such as
he headings, captions, body text, notes, and references.
00.
Since the rise of digital production, printed texts have become more visu-
buted ally elaborate - typographic variations are now routinely available to writers
Ro- and designers. Some recent fonts contain only ornaments and symbols.
itals Carlos Segura’s typeface Dingura consists of mysterious runes the recall the
an era of manuscript production. During the email incunabala, writers and de-
oman signers have been using punctuation marks for expressive ends. Punctuated
nst it portraits found in electronic correspondence range from the simple “smiley”
dd an :-) to such subtle constructions as $-) [yuppie] or :-I [indifferent].
me
ues
tters.
“Punctuated portraits found in electronic
the correspondence range from the simple “smiley” :-)
texts.
German
to such subtle constructions as $-) [yuppie] or
mmon :-I [indifferent].”
mand

SEVENTEEN
EIGHTEEN
NINETEEN
TWENTY
 From the Form of the Book

ESSAYS ON
Perfect typography is more a science than
an art. Mastery of the trade is indispen-
sible, but it isn’t everything. Unerring

THE MORALITY OF
taste, the hallmark of perfection, rests
also upon a clear understanding of the
laws of harmonious design. As a rule, im-

GOOD DESIGN
peccable taste springs partly from inborn
sensitivity: from feeling. But feelings
remain rather unproductive unless they
can inspire a secure judgment. Feelings
have to mature into knowledge about the
consequences of formal decisions. For

Jan Tschichold this reason, there are no born masters of

typography, but self-education may lead
in time to mastery.

It is wrong to say that there is no arguing

about taste when it is good taste that is
in question. We are not born with good
taste, nor do we come into this world
equipped with a real understanding of

TWENTY-ONE
 art. Merely to recognize who or what is represented in a picture has little Perfect
to do with a real understanding of art. Neither has an uninformed opinion ments.
about the proportions of Roman Letters. In any case, arguing is senseless. by rela
He who wants to convince has to do a better job than others. Good taste capacio
and perfect typography are suprapersonal. Today, good taste is often er- of all fo
roneously rejected as old-fashioned because the ordinary man, seeking ap- leading
proval of his so-called personality, prefers to follow the dictates of his own of the p
peculiar style, rather than submit to any objective criterion of taste. letters
the wo
“Merely to recognize who or what is represented in a Only th
a sense
picture has little to do with a real understanding of art.” middli
In a masterpiece of typography, the artist’s signature has been eliminated. capital
What some may praise as personal styles are in reality small and empty yet for
peculiarities, frequently damaging, that masquerade as innovations. Ex-
amples are the use of a single typeface - perhaps a sanserif font or a bizarre Since t
nineteenth-century script - a fondness for mixing unrelated fonts; or the tionary
application of seemingly courageous limitations, such as using a single size out at t
of type for an entire work, no matter how complex. Personal typography is and the
defective typography. Only beginners and fools will insist on using it.

TWENTY-TWO
 ittle Perfect typography depends on perfect harmony between all of its ele-
pinion ments. We must learn, and teach, what this means. Harmony is determined
eless. by relationships or proportions. Proportions are hidden everywhere: in the
aste capaciousness of the margins, in the reciprocal relationships to each other
er- of all four margins on the page of a book, in the relationship between the
ng ap- leading of of the type area and dimensions of the margins, in the placement
s own of the page number relative to the type area, in the extent to which capital
letters are spaced differently from the text, and not least, in the spacing of
the words themselves. In short, affinities are hidden in any and all parts.
Only through constant practice and strictest self-criticism may we develop
a sense for a perfect piece of work. Unfortunately, most seem content with a
middling performance. Careful spacing of words and the correct spelling of
ated. capital letters appear to be unknown or unimportant to some typesetters,
pty yet for him who investigates, the correct rules are not difficult to discover.
Ex-
izarre Since typography appertains to each and all, it leaves no room for revolu-
the tionary changes. We cannot alter the essential shape of a single letter with-
e size out at the same time destroying the familiar printed face of our language,
phy is and thereby rendering it useless.

TWENTY-THREE
 Comfortable legibility is the absolute benchmark for all typography - yet
only an accomplished reader can properly judge legibility. To be able to read
a primer, or indeed a newspaper, does not make anyone a judge; as a rule,
both are readable, though barely. They are decipherable. Decipherability
and ideal legibility are opposites. Good legibility is a matter of combining
suitable script and an appropriate typesetting method. For perfect typog-
raphy, an exhaustive knowledge of the historical development of the letters
used in printing books is absolutely necessary. More valuable yet is a work-
ing knowledge of calligraphy.

Immaculate typography is certainly the most brittle of all the arts. To create
a whole from many petrified, disconnected and given parts, to make this
whole appear alive and of a piece - only sculpture in stone approaches the
unyielding stiffness of perfect typography. For most people, even impec-
cable typography does not hold any particular aesthetic appeal. In its inac-
cessibility, it resembles great music. Under the best of circumstances, it is
gratefully accepted. To remain nameless and without specific appreciation,
yet to have been of service to a valuable work and to the small number of
visually sensitive readers - this, as a rule, is the only compensation for the
long, and indeed never-ending, indenture of the typographer.

TWENTY-FOUR
 yet
to read
rule,
lity
ning
pog-
etters
work-

o create
this
s the
ec-
inac-
it is
ation,
er of
the

TWENTY-FIVE