46 Chapter 2 Basic Science Concepts

Biological Characteristics of Water

Microorganisms and Disease
Today we know that disease-causing microorganisms can be carried in water and that
their presence in drinking water is a serious hazard to human health. But that knowl-
edge is relatively new. In 1676 a Dutch scientist was able to see bacteria using a very
primitive microscope, but it wasn’t until the mid and late 1800s that we began to
understand that bacteria caused disease and that they can be carried in water. Micro-
organisms that cause disease by transmission through contaminated water are called
23
Waterborne Pathogens – Bacteria, waterborne pathogens23.
virus, and protozoa that cause disease
and are carried by water.
One of the main jobs of water system operators is to control potentially pathogenic
microorganisms. So it is important that they are familiar with the different types of
microorganisms and their characteristics.

Microbiology
Definition
Microbiology is the study of microorganisms, of small living things. Although some
forms of organisms studied by microbiologists can be seen with the naked eye, most
of the things that microbiologists are interested in require the use of a microscope to
see clearly. Microorganisms of interest to the water industry include the following:
• Bacteria
• Protozoa
24
Virus – A submicroscopic organism • Viruses24
that passes through filters capable of
removing bacteria.
• Algae
25
Fungi – Non-chlorophyll-bearing • Fungi25
plants that lack roots, stem, or leaves,
that occur in water, sewage or sewage What to Study
effluents, and that grow best in the
absence of light. To understand how to minimize growth and control pathogens, you must study the
structure and characteristics of the microorganisms. In the sections to follow, we will
look at size, shape, types, nutritional needs, and control of each of the major groups
of microorganisms. We will also discuss some of the specific waterborne pathogens.

Bacteria
Most Common Microorganism
Bacteria are among the most common microorganisms in water. Bacteria are primi-
tive, single-celled organisms with a variety of shapes and nutritional needs.

Size Range
Bacteria range in size from 0.5 to 2 microns in diameter and about 1 to 10 microns in
length. A micron is a metric unit of measurement equal to one-millionth of a meter
or one-thousandth of a millimeter. Another way to visualize the size of bacteria is to
consider that it would take about 1000 bacteria, lying side-by-side, to reach across the
head of a straight pin.

Three Shapes
There are three general groups of bacteria based on their physical shape:
• Rod-shaped bacteria are called bacilli.
• Spherical-shaped bacteria are called cocci.
• Spiral-shaped bacteria make up the third group.
 Chapter 2 Basic Science Concepts 47

Cocci
Bacilli

Spiral-shaped bacteria

Within these three groups, there are many different arrangements. Some exist as
single cells, others as pairs, as packets of four or eight, as chains, and as clumps.

Food Requirements
Most bacteria require organic food to survive and multiply. This food comes from
plant and animal material that gets into the water where the bacteria exist. The bac-
teria convert the food to energy and use the energy to make new cells. Some bacteria
can use inorganics (such as iron) as an energy source. These bacteria can exist and
multiply even where organic pollution is not present.

Temperature Requirements
Temperature affects the rate at which bacteria grow. The warmer the environment,
the faster the rate of growth. Typically, for each increase of 10° C, the growth rate
doubles. This means that bacteria will multiply more quickly when it is warm, and
more chlorine may be required to obtain proper disinfection.

pH Requirements
pH affects bacteria growth. Most bacteria grow best at a neutral pH. Extreme acidic
or basic conditions will inhibit growth. Other materials, such as metal ions (cop-
per, lead, silver), and some organics, such as pesticides and herbicides, are toxic and
inhibit bacterial growth.

Oxygen Requirements
Many bacteria are aerobic26. They require free or dissolved oxygen in their aquatic 26
Aerobic – A condition in which
“free” or dissolved oxygen is present
environment. A few bacteria are anaerobic27. They can exist and multiply in an in the aquatic environment.
environment that lacks dissolved oxygen. Some bacteria that are normally aerobic 27
Anaerobic – A condition in which
can switch to anaerobic. These adaptable bacteria are said to be facultative28. One of “free” or dissolved oxygen is not pres-
the most troublesome bacteria in the water business is the iron bacteria, which is a ent in the environment.
28
Facultative – Microorganisms that
facultative organism. The bacteria responsible for most of the biological treatment of can switch from aerobic to anaerobic
wastewater are aerobic. growth or can grow in an anaerobic or
aerobic environment.
 48 Chapter 2 Basic Science Concepts

How They Multiply

Under optimum conditions, bacteria grow very rapidly. They multiply by a simple
dividing process referred to as binary fission. Each cell splits into two identical new
cells. Bacteria growing under optimal conditions can double their number about ev-
ery 20 to 30 minutes. This means that as long as nutrients hold out, even the smallest
contamination can result in a sizable growth in a very short time.

Disinfection Process
The destruction of pathogenic microorganisms is called disinfection. Disinfection
29
Sterilization – The process of de- does not mean that all microbial forms are killed. Rather, that is sterilization29.
stroying all living organisms.
However, disinfection does destroy most disease-causing organisms and reduces the
total number to an acceptable level. Growing bacteria are fairly easy to control by
disinfection. Some bacteria, however, form spores, which are much more difficult
30
Spores – A resistant, viable structure to destroy. Spores30 are survival structures formed by some bacteria to resist harsh,
regarded as the resting stage of an
organism. threatening environments.

Pathogenic Bacteria
Bacteria are responsible for a number of the most infamous epidemic diseases. The
bacterial pathogens responsible for these diseases enter potential drinking water
supplies through fecal contamination and are ingested by humans if the water is not
properly treated and disinfected.

The table below lists a number of bacterial waterborne diseases.

Bacteria Disease

Salmonella typhi Typhoid Fever

Shigella spp. Gastroenteritis
Vibrio cholerae Cholera
Campylobacter spp. Gastroenteritis
Enteropathogenic E. coli Gastroenteritis
Leptospira spp. Leptospirosis

Review

1. Microorganisms that cause disease by transmission through contaminated water are

called:

2. Microbiology is the study of:

3. The five groups of microorganisms of interest to the water industry:

4. _________________ range in size from 0.5 to 2 microns in diameter and about 1 to 10

microns long.

5. List the three common bacterial shapes:

 Chapter 2 Basic Science Concepts 49

Review Continued

6. Although some bacteria can use inorganic chemicals as an energy source, most bacteria
require _________________ chemicals as a food source.

7. Bacteria that require an environment with free or dissolved oxygen are said to be:

8. Bacteria that require an environment without free or dissolved oxygen are said to be:

9. Bacteria that can exist in an environment with or without free or dissolved oxygen are
said to be:

10. Some bacteria produce _________________, which are strong, resistant resting stages
that make them more resistant to disinfection.

11. Three waterborne diseases caused by bacteria:

Protozoa
Definition and Size
Protozoa are one-celled animal-like organisms with a fairly complex cellular struc-
ture. The protozoa are the giants of the microbial world. They are many times larger
than bacteria and range in size from 4 to 500 microns. The larger ones can almost be
seen with the naked eye.

Groups of Protozoa
The major groups of protozoa are based on their method of locomotion or movement:
• Amoebas move about by a streaming or gliding action. The shape of an
amoeba changes as they sort of ooze from place to place.
• Ciliates are covered with short hair-like projections, called cilia, which beat
rapidly and propel the ciliate through the water. Most ciliates are free-swim-
ming, although some are attached to floating material or basin walls.
• Flagellates have one or more long whip-like projections, called flagella,
which propel the free-swimming organisms.
• Suctoria are attached organisms, similar to attached ciliates, but have ten-
tacles rather than cilia.
• Sporozoa are non-mobile and are simply swept along with the current of the
water.
50 Chapter 2 Basic Science Concepts

Giardia lamblia Giardia lamblia

Amoeba
Cyst, form Trophozoite, form

Suctoria Stalked Ciliate Free-swimming Ciliate

Food Requirements
Protozoa use organics for food. In fact, bacteria are among their favorite prey. Proto-
zoa are mostly aerobic or facultative in regards to oxygen requirements. In the same
manner as bacteria, pH, toxic materials, and temperature affect their rate of growth.

Life Cycle
Most protozoa have a complex life cycle in which they alternate between an active
growth phase, when they are called trophozoites, and a resting stage, called cysts.
Cysts are extremely resistant structures that protect the organism from destruction
when it encounters harsh environmental conditions.

Resistance to Chlorine
Because of their relative complexity and ability to form the extremely resistant cysts,
protozoa require higher disinfectant concentrations and longer contact time to control
them. In fact, some types of protozoa may be almost completely resistant to disinfec-
tion by chlorination.
 Chapter 2 Basic Science Concepts 51

Waterborne Disease
Three protozoan waterborne diseases are listed in the table below.

Protozoa Disease

Entamoeba histolytica Amoebic dysentery

Giardia lamblia (5 to 21 μ in size) Giardiasis
Cryptosporidia (4 to 6 μ in size) Cryptosporidosis

Review

1. ________________ are single-celled, animal-like microorganisms, many times larger

that bacteria.

2. Protozoa that move using short, hair-like projections are called:

3. Protozoa that move using long, whip-like projections are called:

4. Protozoa that move using a flowing or gliding action are called:

5. Most protozoa have an active, growing life stage called a trophozoit and a resistant,
resting stage called a:

6. Three waterborne diseases caused by protozoa:

Viruses
Description and Size
Viruses are the midgets of the microbial world. They are many times smaller than
bacteria. They range in size from 0.02 to 0.25 microns in diameter. Viruses are intra-
cellular parasites that must have a host cell in which to multiply. They are extremely
simple life forms. A central molecule of genetic material is surrounded by a protein
shell, called a capsid, and sometimes by a second layer, called an envelope. They
contain no mechanisms by which to obtain energy or reproduce on their own.

Shapes
Viruses occur in many shapes:

Geometric
polyhedrals Long slender rods
52 Chapter 2 Basic Science Concepts

Elaborate irregular shapes

Need for a Host

There are almost as many kinds of viruses as there are types of other living organ-
isms. Viruses exist that can invade virtually every kind of living cell: animals, plants,
insects, fish, and even bacteria. After they invade their specific host, they take over
the machinery of the host and force it to make more viruses. The host cell is then
destroyed, and hundreds of new viruses are released into the environment.

Disinfection
Because they lack sensitive cellular machinery and because they have relatively
tough capsids and envelopes, viruses are hard to destroy by normal disinfection
practices. Increased disinfectant concentration and contact time must be used to ef-
fectively destroy viruses by chlorine disinfection.

Waterborne Diseases
Waterborne viruses can cause three diseases:
• Hepatitis
• Viral gastroenteritis
• Poliomyelitis

Review

1. ________________ are many times smaller than bacteria and are considered to be
intracellular parasites.

2. Viruses lack internal cell mechanisms, so they must have a(n) ________________ cell
in which to multiply.

3. Three waterborne diseases caused by viruses:

Algae
Description
Algae are a form of aquatic plants. Although in mass they are easily seen by the
naked eye, many are microscopic as single cells. They exist as microscopic, single-
celled forms and also as huge, multicellular forms, such as marine kelp. They oc-
 Chapter 2 Basic Science Concepts 53

cur in fresh and polluted water, as well as in salt water. Since they are plants, they
are capable of using energy from the sun in the process called photosynthesis. They
grow only where there is light, and they grow better where there is bright sunlight, as
opposed to cloudy weather. They usually grow near the surface of the water because
light cannot penetrate very far through the water.

Algae are classified by their color:

• Green algae contain green chlorophyll and are found mostly in fresh water.
This form is the green roadside ditch algae, and the type that grows on clari-
fier and basin walls.
• Euglenoids are single-celled, green-pigmented algae that resemble protozoa.
They have flagella, but are considered algae because they carry out photosyn-
thesis.
• Diatoms are golden-brown, single-celled forms that have a hard silica shell.
The shells of millions of dead diatoms are mined commercially and known as
diatomaceous earth.
• Cyanobacterium is bluish-green in color and undergoes photosynthesis. It
was formerly called blue-green algae, but is now classified as a type of bacte-
ria.

Euglenoids Blue-green Diatoms

Euglenoids Blue-grean Diatoms

Problems Caused by Algae

Although algae are not considered to be waterborne pathogens, they do cause some
problems with water operations. They grow easily on the walls of basins and troughs,
and heavy growth can cause plugging of screens and intakes. Algae release chemicals
that can cause taste and odor problems in drinking water.

Control of Algae
Algae in raw water supplies can be controlled with chlorine and potassium permanga-
nate. In raw water reservoirs, algae blooms are often controlled with copper sulfate.

Fungi
Description
Fungi are of relatively minor importance to the water business. Fungi are non-
photosynthetic organisms that grow as multicellular, filamentous, mold-like forms
or as single-celled, yeast-like organisms. Fungi must have organic material as a food
source.
54 Chapter 2 Basic Science Concepts

Growth Environment
Fungi like to grow in damp organic material such as drying or composting sludge. As
part of their reproductive cycle, they produce spores that are so small, they can easily
be carried by dust and wind. When inhaled, some of these spores can cause respira-
tory infections. Fungi are not considered to be waterborne pathogens.

Review

1. _____________ are a form of aquatic plants that can be either tiny, single-celled or
large, multi-celled organisms.

2. Chemicals released by algae can cause _____________ and _____________ problems.

3. Algae blooms in raw water reservoirs can be controlled with:

4. _____________ are non-photosynthetic, multicellular or single-celled filamentous or

yeast-like organisms that require organic material for food.

Disease and Disease Transmission

The term “disease” refers in general to an abnormal condition that impairs the
victim’s function. Many different environmental factors can cause disease, such as
chemical, biological, psychological, and even social factors. Waterborne pathogenic
microorganisms are a major source of human disease.

Waterborne diseases are transmissible diseases because they can be passed from an
infected individual to another person. The majority of the waterborne pathogens that
transmit disease do so via the “feces – water – mouth” route. The pathogens ex-
ist in the intestines of an infected individual and are excreted into the environment
with feces. From there they find their way into surface and groundwater supplies
and to another individual through contact with or by ingesting contaminated water.
Some waterborne pathogen can be acquired by breathing mist or sprays (such as in
a shower). Waterborne disease can also be transmitted via a “feces – hand – mouth”
route if good personal hygiene practices are not followed.

Drinking water treatment is designed to interrupt the “feces – water – mouth” cycle
of transmission by removing and destroying the pathogenic microorganisms. If the
treatment processes are carried out as intended, consumers should expect to have wa-
ter available to them that is free of pathogens. But communities and individuals must
also understand that the water can be contaminated after it is delivered to the home.
Personal hygiene and sanitation practices are critical to avoiding potential waterborne
disease.

Control of Microorganisms
Two terms are used in reference to the control of microorganisms:
• Sterilization means the complete destruction of all living forms, including
single- and multi-celled microorganisms, bacterial spores, and protozoa cysts.
 Chapter 2 Basic Science Concepts 55

• Disinfection means the destruction of pathogenic microorganisms, but does

not necessarily mean complete destruction of all life forms. Operators may
sterilize glassware in the laboratory, but the addition of chlorine to treated
water is a disinfection process, not sterilization.
Microorganisms can be controlled by manipulating their environment (such as ap-
plying heat or changing the pH), by limiting or removing their food supply, or by
subjecting them to damaging chemical or physical processes.

Microbial growth is slowed considerably by refrigeration, by lowering the tempera-

ture. Microbial growth can also be optimized by adjusting the temperature to one that
favors a particular microorganism. Higher temperatures may be sufficient to sterilize
an environment. Raising the pH with lime creates conditions in which most bacteria
do not grow. Limiting sunlight prevents photosynthetic algae from growing. Know-
ing the environmental factors that affect the growth of microorganisms help imple-
ment strategies for control.

Limiting the food supply can control the growth of microorganisms. Since many
bacteria and most protozoa require organic matter for food, removing organics from
the water and keeping surfaces and basins clean and free from organic matter limit
growth. The removal of minerals, such as iron, from water can also discourage the
growth of bacteria that use minerals as a food source. Keeping pipes and tanks clean
and free or organic sediment can help control growth in the distribution system.

A variety of chemicals and physical processes can be used to control microorganism

growth. Chlorine, bromine, and iodine are well-known for their use as water disinfec-
tants. Ozone is also an effective water disinfectant. Other chemicals, such as alcohol,
formaldehyde, hydrogen peroxide, hexachlorophene, and certain heavy metals (silver
and mercury) can be used to control growth. Some of these are strong and can only
be used on inanimate objects. Others can be used to control microbial growth on skin
and in eyes. Physical processes such as filtration, ultraviolet light, and gamma radia-
tion are also effective.

Practicing good personal hygiene is an easy and effective way to control microorgan-
ism growth and to prevent the transmission of waterborne pathogens. Hand-washing
is the most important practice. Washing hands after using the bathroom and before
handling food and drinking water significantly reduces waterborne disease transmis-
sion. Coughing into the crook of an elbow, instead into hands, can also help prevent
transmission. Proper handling and disposal of human waste, and carefully cleaning
up afterwards, is also important. Water system operators must practice personal hy-
giene conscientiously to avoid contaminating equipment and water supplies.

Indicator Microorganism
To be sure that the water supplied to consumers is free of pathogens, operators must
routinely sample and test the water for indications of the presence or absence of
pathogens. It is beyond the capacity of treatment plant labs to directly test for any
of the pathogenic microorganisms. But operators and technicians can test for bacte-
ria called indicators, organisms whose presence indicates the possible presence of
pathogens and whose absence means that the water is free of pathogens. The indica-
tors used are a bacterial group known as total coliforms. As a group, coliforms live in
the intestines of warm-blooded animals, as well as in the soil, in natural water, and on
vegetation.
56 Chapter 2 Basic Science Concepts

Although some total coliforms are pathogenic, most are not, and harmless coliforms
are normal inhabitants of all human intestinal systems. So if coliforms are found in
a water sample, there is a possibility that it has been contaminated by human feces.
On the other hand, since coliforms are always found in human feces, if no coliforms
are found in a water sample, it is safe to conclude that it has not been contaminated
with human feces. If total coliforms are found in a water sample, the sample is further
tested for a more restrictive group of coliforms called fecal coliforms or for E. coli,
a specific coliform bacterium. The tests for fecal coliforms and E. coli are more
sensitive, but more difficult to run, so they are used to confirm the results of the total
coliform test. Their presence is a stronger indication of fecal contamination that could
contain waterborne pathogens.

The Safe Drinking Water Act’s Total Coliform Rule specifies the frequency and
procedures for sampling and testing for coliforms. Analytical laboratories running
coliform tests on drinking water samples for compliance purposes must be certified
by the Alaska Department of Environmental Conservation (ADEC).

Review

1. A disease that can be passed from one person to another is said to be:

2. The majority of _____________ – borne diseases are transmitted through the “feces –
water – mouth” route.

3. _____________ means the complete destruction of all organisms or cells.

4. _____________ means the control of pathogenic microorganisms.

5. Manipulating a microorganism’s _____________ is one way of controlling it.

6. Limiting a microorganism’s _____________ supply is another way of controlling it.

7. Three chemicals, other than chlorine, that can be used to control microorganisms:

8. Practicing good personal _____________ is an easy and effect way to control microor-
ganism growth and to prevent the transmission of waterborne pathogens.

9. A(n) _____________ is an organism whose presence indicates the possible presence of

pathogens.

10. The Total Coliform Rule specifies how often water systems must sample and test for
_____________ bacteria.

11. The absence of total coliform in a drinking water sample means the water is
_____________ to drink.
 Chapter 2 Basic Science Concepts 57

Biological Characteristics of Water Quiz

1. Microorganisms that cause disease by transmission through contaminated water
are called waterborne:
A. Poisons
B. Toxins
C. Pathogens
D. Biogens

2. Which of the following is not a microorganism of interest to the water industry?

A. Bacteria
B. Virus
C. Insects
D. Protozoa

3. Which of these is the smallest microorganism?

A. Virus
B. Bacteria
C. Protozoa
D. Algae

4. A microorganism that requires an environment with free or dissolved oxygen

present is said to be an __________________ organism.
A. Parasitic
B. Aerobic
C. Anaerobic
D. Sensitive

5. Which of the following is a bacterial waterborne disease?

A. Polio
B. Giardiasis
C. Hepatitis
D. Typhoid fever

6. The tough, resistant resting stage formed by some bacteria is called a:

A. Capsid
B. Cyst
C. Spore
D. Seed

7. The complete killing of all living cells is called:

A. Sterilization
B. Disinfection
C. Sanitization
D. Chlorination
58 Chapter 2 Basic Science Concepts

8. The destruction of pathogenic microorganisms is called:

A. Sterilization
B. Disinfection
C. Sanitization
D. Autoclaving

9. Protozoa that move with the aid of long, whip-like tails are classified as:
A. Amoeba
B. Ciliates
C. Flagellates
D. Sporozoa

10. Protozoa that move with the aid of short, hair-like bristles are classified as:
A. Amoeba
B. Ciliates
C. Flagellates
D. Sporozoa

11. The tough, resistant resting stage of the life cycle of protozoa is called a:
A. Capsid
B. Cyst
C. Spore
D. Seed

12. Which of the following is a protozoal waterborne disease?

A. Polio
B. Giardiasis
C. Hepatitis
D. Typhoid fever

13. Which of these microorganisms are considered obligate, intracellular parasites

because they lack system to reproduce on their own?
A. Bacteria
B. Protozoa
C. Viruses
D. Fungi

14. Which of the following is a viral waterborne disease?

A. Polio
B. Giardiasis
C. Cholera
D. Typhoid fever
 Chapter 2 Basic Science Concepts 59

15. Which of the following is considered a form of aquatic plant because it is photo-
synthetic?
A. Algae
B. Protozoa
C. Viruses
D. Fungi

16. Diatoms belong to which group of microorganisms?

A. Algae
B. Protozoa
C. Viruses
D. Fungi

17. Cyanobacterium, now classified as a bacteria, used to be classified with which

group of microorganisms?
A. Algae
B. Protozoa
C. Viruses
D. Fungi

18. Algae, in raw water reservoirs, can be controlled with which chemical?
A. Sodium hypochlorite
B. Calcium oxide
C. Copper sulfate
D. Soda ash

19. Diseases that can be passed from one person to another are said to be:
A. Deadly
B. Vectors
C. Transmissible
D. Toxic

20. Which of the following activity would not be considered a means of controlling
microorganisms by manipulating their environment?
A. Adding lime to raise pH
B. Refrigeration
C. Filtration
D. Limiting exposure to sunlight

21. Which of the following is not used as a chemical means for controlling microor-
ganisms?
A. Bromine
B. Alcohol
C. Alum
D. Hydrogen peroxide
60 Chapter 2 Basic Science Concepts

22. An organism whose presence is evidence of the presence or absence of pathogens

is called a(n):
A. Pathogen
B. Substitute
C. Partner
D. Indicator

23. What group of bacteria is used as an indicator for the presence of absence of
waterborne pathogen in drinking water?
A. Total coliforms
B. Respiratory streptococcus
C. Heterotrophs
D. Human pathogens