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A derivation of the Kerr metric by ellipsoid coordinate transformation

Article · June 2017

DOI: 10.5897/IJPS2017.4605

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 A Derivation of the Kerr Metric by Ellipsoid Coordinate
Transformation

Yu-Ching Chou, M.D.∗

Health 101 clinic, 1F., No.97, Guling St.,
Zhongzheng Dist., Taipei City 100, Taiwan
(Dated: December 19, 2020)

Abstract
Einstein’s general relativistic field equation is a nonlinear partial differential equation that lacks
an easy way to obtain exact solutions. The most famous examples are Schwarzschild and Kerr’s
black hole solutions. The Kerr metric has astrophysical meaning because most of cosmic celestial
bodies are rotating. The Kerr metric is even more difficult to derive than the Schwarzschild metric
specifically due to off-diagonal term of metric tensor. In this paper, a derivation of Kerr metric
was obtained by ellipsoid coordinate transformation, which causes elimination a large amount of
tedious derivation. This derivation is not only physics enlightening, but also further deducing
some characteristics of the rotating black hole.

Published: International Journal of Physical Science. Vol. 12(11), pp. 130-136, 22 June,
2017. DOI: 10.5897/IJPS2017.4605
(This manuscript is a revised edition)

PACS numbers: 04.20.Jb

Keywords: General relativity, Schwarzschild metric, Kerr metric, ellipsoid coordinate transformation, exact

solutions.

1
I. INTRODUCTION

The theory of general relativity proposed by Albert Einstein in 1915 was one of the
greatest advances in modern physics. It describes the distribution of matter to determine
the space-time curvature, and the curvature determines how the matter moves. Einstein’s
field equation is very simple and elegant, but because Einstein’s field equation is a set of
nonlinear differential equations, it has proven difficult to find the exact analytic solution. The
exact solution has physical meanings, only in some simplified assumptions, the most famous
of which include Schwarzschild and Kerr’s black hole solution, and Friedman’s solution
to cosmology. One year after Einstein published his equation, Schwarzschild discovered
the spherical symmetry, static vacuum solution with center singularity.1 Nearly 50 years
later, Kerr solved the fixed axis symmetric rotating black hole in 1963.2 Some of these
exact solutions have been used to explain topics related to the gravity in cosmology, such
as Mercury’s precession of the perihelion, gravitational lens, black hole, expansion of the
universe, and gravitational waves.
Today, many solving methods of Einstein field equations have been proposed. For exam-
ple: Pensose-Newman’s method,3 or Bäcklund transformations.4 Despite their great success
in dealing with the Einstein equation, these methods are technically complex and expert-
oriented.
The Kerr solution is important in astrophysics because most cosmic celestial bodies are
rotating and rarely completely at rest. Traditionally, the general method of the Kerr so-
lution can be found in The Mathematical Theory of Black Holes by the classical works of
S.Chandrasekhar.5 However, the calculation is so lengthy and complicated that college or
institute students find it difficult to understand. Recent literature review showed that it is
possible to obtain Kerr metric through the oblate spheroidal coordinates transformation.6
This encourage me to look for a more concise way to solve the vacuum solution of Einstein’s
field equation through coordinate transformation.
The motivation of this derivation simply came from my desire to use a relatively simple
way of Schwarzschild method to derive the Kerr metric, which can enable more students
interested in the general relativity to self-deduce the exact solution. In this paper, I will
introduce a more enlighted way to find this solution. It is not only a new try, but also the
derivation is further linked to some important features of the rotating black hole.

2
II. SCHWARZSCHILD AND KERR SOLUTIONS

The exact solution of the Einstein field equation is usually expressed in metric. For
example, Minkowski space-time is four-dimension coordinates combining three-dimensional
Euclidean space and one-dimension time can be expressed in Cartesian form in Eq. (1):

ds2 = dt2 − dx2 − dy 2 − dz 2 (1)

and in polar coordinate form in Eq. (2):

ds2 = dt2 − dr2 − r2 dθ2 − r2 sin2 θdφ2 (2)

Schwarzschild employed a non-rotational sphere-symmetric object with polar coordinate in

Eq. (2) with two variables from functions ν(r), λ(r), which was shown in Eq. (3):

ds2 = e2ν(r) dt2 − e2λ(r) dr2 − r2 dθ2 − r2 sin2 θdφ2 (3)

In order to solve the Einstein field equation, Schwarzschild used a vacuum condition, let
Rµν = 0, calculating Ricci tensor from Eq. (3), and get the first exact solution of the
Einstein field equation, Schwarzschild metric, which was shown in Eq. (4).1
   −1
2 2M 2 2M
ds = 1 − dt − 1 − dr2 − r2 dθ2 − r2 sin2 θdφ2 (4)
r r
However, Schwarzschild metric cannot be used to describe rotation, axial- symmetry, and
charged heavenly bodies. From the examination of the metric tensor gµν in the Schwarzschild
metric, one can obtain the components:
2M 2M −1
g00 = 1 − , g11 = −(1 − ) ,
r r
g22 = −r2 , g33 = −r2 sin2 θ

Which can also be presented as:

2M 2M −1
gtt = 1 − , grr = −(1 − ) ,
r r (5)
2 2 2
gθθ = −r , gφφ = −r sin θ

Differences of metric tensor gµν between the Schwarzschild metric (4) and Minkowski space-
time (2) are only in (gtt ) and (grr ) terms.
Kerr metric is the second exact solution of the Einstein field equation, which can be
used to describe space-time geometry in the vacuum area near a rotational, axial-symmetric

3
heavenly body.2 It is a generalized form of Schwarzschild metric. Kerr metric in Boyer-
Lindquist coordinate system can be expressed in Eq. (6):
4M ra sin2 θ ρ2 2
 
2 2M r
ds = 1 − 2 dt2 + dtdφ − dr
ρ ρ2 ∆
(6)
2M ra2 sin2 θ
 
2 2 2 2
−ρ dθ − r + a + sin2 θdφ2
ρ2
Where define ρ2 ≡ r2 + a2 cos2 θ and ∆ ≡ r2 − 2M r + a2 , M is the mass of the rotational
material, a is the spin parameter or specific angular momentum and is related to the angular
momentum J by a = J/M . In all physical quality, we adopt c = G = 1.
By examining the components of metric tensor gµν in Eq. (6), one can obtain:
2M r ρ2
g00 = 1 − , g 11 = − , g22 = −ρ2 ,
ρ2 ∆
2M ra sin2 θ
g03 = g30 = (7)
ρ2
2M ra2 sin2 θ
 
2 2
g33 =− r +a + sin2 θ
ρ2
Comparison the components of the Schwarzschild metric (4) with the Kerr metric (6):
1. Both g03 (gtφ ) and g30 (gφt ) off-diagonal terms in Kerr metric are not present in
Schwarzschild metric, apparently due to rotation. If the rotation parameter a = 0, these
two terms vanish.
2. g00 g11 = gtt grr = −1 in Schwarzschild metric, but not in Kerr metric.
3. When spin parameter a = 0, Kerr metric turns into Schwarzschild metric and therefore
is a generalized form of Schwarzschild metric.

III. TRANSFORMATION OF ELLIPSOID SYMMETRIC ORTHOGONAL CO-

ORDINATE

To derive Kerr metric, if we start from the initial assumptions, we must introduce
g00 , g11 , g22 , g03 , g33 five variables, all are a function of (r, θ), and finally we will get monster-
like complex equations. Apparently, due to the off-diagonal term, Kerr metric cannot be
solved by the spherical symmetry method used in Schwarzschild metric. Besides, Previous
study showed that the space-time of Kerr metric is ellipsoidal.7 .
Different from the derivation methods used in classical works of Chandrasekhar (1983),
the author used the changes in coordinate of Kerr metric into ellipsoid symmetry firstly to

4
get a simplified form, and then used Schwarzschild’s method to solve Kerr metric. First of
all, the following ellipsoid coordinate changes were apply to Eq. (1)8 :

x → (r2 + a2 )1/2 sinθcosφ

y → (r2 + a2 )1/2 sinθsinφ
(8)
z → rcosθ
t→t

Where a is the coordinate transformation parameter. The metric under the new coordinate
system becomes

2 ρ22 2 2 2 2 2
sin2 θdφ2


ds = dt − 2 2
dr − ρ dθ − r + a (9)
r +a

Which represents the coordinate with ellipsoid symmetry in vacuum; it can also be obtained
by assigning mass M = 0 to the Kerr metric (6). Due to the fact that most of the celestial
bodies, stars and galaxy for instance, are ellipsoid symmetric, Bijan started from this vacuum
ellipsoid coordinate and derived a Schwarzschild-like solution for ellipsoidal celestial objects
as following9 :
−1
ρ2
  
2 2M 2 2M 2 2 2 2 2
sin2 θdφ2


ds = 1− dt − 1 − 2 2
dr − ρ dθ − r + a (10)
r r r +a

Eq. (10) morphs into the Schwarzschild’s solution (4) when the coordinate transformation
parameter a = 0 and therefore Eq. (10) is also a generalization of Schwarzschild’s solution.
In order to eliminate the difference between Kerr metric and Schwarzschild metric that
is described earlier, we can assume to rewrite the Kerr metric in the following coordinates:

ds2 = G000 dT 2 + G011 dr2 + G022 dθ2 + G033 dΦ2 (11)

To eliminate the off-diagonal term:

dT ≡ dt − pdφ, dΦ ≡ dφ − qdt (12)

to obtain

G000 G011 = −1 (13)

5
By comparing the coefficient, Equations (14) to (18) were obtained.

−2M rasin2 θ
G000 p + G033 q = (14)
ρ2
2M r
G000 + G033 q 2 = 1 − 2 (15)
ρ
2M ra2 sin2 θ
 
0 2 0 2 2
G00 p + G33 = − r + a + sin2 θ (16)
ρ2
G022 = −ρ2 (17)
−ρ2
G011 = (18)
∆

By solving six variables G000 , G011 , G022 , G033 , p, q in the six dependent Eqs (13) to (18), then
we obtain
p = ±asin2 θ, take positive result
a
q=± 2 , take positive result
r + a2
∆
G000 = 2
ρ
ρ2 (19)
G011 = −
∆
G022 = −ρ2
2
(r2 + a2 ) sin2 θ
G033 =−
ρ2
Substitute into Eq. (8) and we get
2 2

2 ρ2 (r2 + a2 ) sin2 θ

∆ a
ds = 2 dt − asin2 θdφ − dr2 − ρ2 dθ2 −
2
dφ − dt (20)
ρ ∆ ρ2 r 2 + a2

The result can be found in the literature and also textbook by O’Neil. It is also called the
Kerr metric with Boyer-Lindquist in orthonormal frame.10 There is no off-diagonal terms,
and g00 g11 = −1 after the coordinate transformation.

IV. CALCULATING THE RICCI TENSOR

From previous discussion, Eq. (9) can be recognized as the coordinate under the ellipsoid
symmetry in vacuum. Therefore, when the mass M approached 0, Kerr metric (20) will
also be transformed into Eq. (21), which equals Eq. (9). The differences of metric tensor
components are in time-time and radial-radial terms, just the same as between Schwarzschild

6
metric (4) and Minkowski space-time (2). dT and dΦ defined in Eq. (22) are ellipsoid
coordinate transformation functions.

2
r 2 + a2 2 ρ2 (r2 + a2 ) sin2 θ 2
ds2 = dT − dr 2
− ρ2
dθ 2
− dΦ (21)
ρ2 r2 + a2 ρ2

dT ≡ dt − asin2 θdφ,
a (22)
dΦ ≡ dφ − 2 dt
r + a2

In this paper, Schwarzschild method was used to solve Kerr metric starting from Eqs.(21)-
(22) by introducing two new functions e2ν(r,T ) , e2λ(r,T ) :

2
(r2 + a2 ) sin2 θ 2
ds2 = e2ν(r,T ) dT 2 − e2λ(r,T ) dr2 − ρ2 dθ2 − dΦ (23)
ρ2

Define the parameters ρ2 and h as follows

ρ2 ≡ r2 + a2 cos2 θ
(24)
2 2
h≡r +a

Metric tensor has the matrix form

 
e2ν(r,T ) 0 0 0
 
2λ(r,T )
 0 −e 0 0 
gµν = (25)
 

2
 0
 0 −ρ 0 

h2 sin2 θ
0 0 0 − ρ2

Chrostoffel Symbols and Ricci tensors can be obtained by the following steps in Eqs.(26)-
(27):

1
Γαµν = g αβ ∂µ gνβ + ∂ν gβµ − ∂β gµν


(26)
2

ρ
Rαβ = Rαρβ = ∂ρ Γρβα − ∂β Γρρα + Γρρλ Γλβα − Γρβλ Γλρα (27)

7
Non-zero Chrostoffel symbols are listed in Eqs (28) to (40):

Γ000 = ∂0 ν, (28)
Γ010 = Γ001 = ∂1 ν (29)

Γ011 = e2(λ−ν) ∂1 λ (30)

Γ100 = e2(ν−λ) ∂1 ν (31)
Γ110 = Γ101 = ∂0 λ (32)

Γ111 = ∂1 λ (33)
Γ122 = −re−2λ (34)
2
 
2h h
Γ133 = −re−2λ sin2 θ − 4 (35)
ρ2 ρ
r
Γ212 = Γ221 = (36)
ρ2
a2 sinθcosθ
Γ222 =− (37)
ρ2
 3
h
Γ233 = −sinθcosθ (38)
ρ6
2r r
Γ313 = Γ331 = − 2 (39)
h ρ
 
h
Γ332 = Γ323 = cotθ (40)
ρ2

After such calculations, the Ricci tensor of all non-zero components can be obtained as
follows:

 
2 2r
∂02 λ 2 2(ν−λ)
∂12 ν
 
R00 = + (∂0 λ) − ∂0 λ∂0 ν + e −∂1 ν∂1 λ + (∂1 ν) + + ∂1 ν (41)
h
2r
R01 = R10 = ∂0 λ (42)
h
2r 2a2 (cos4 θ + r2 )
= e2(λ−ν) ∂02 λ + (∂0 λ)2 − ∂0 λ∂0 ν + ∂1 ν∂1 λ − (∂1 ν)2 − ∂12 ν + ∂1 λ −
 
R11
h ρ4 h
(43)
4ra2 sinθcosθ
R12 = R21 = (44)
ρ4
2r2 2r2 h2 4r2 − 3ρ2
   
−2λ
R22 = e r (∂1 λ − ∂1 ν) − 1 + 2 − + 4 (45)
ρ h ρ h

8
R33 =
 2
"   2 2 2
 2
 2 2
  #
2 −1
2h h ρ − r hr h 4r − 3ρ 2h h
sin2 θ − 4 e−2λ r (∂1 λ − ∂1 ν) − + 2 2 + 4 − 4
ρ2 ρ ρ2 ρ (2ρ − h) ρ h ρ2 ρ
(46)

V. FINDING A SOLUTION OF THE VACUUM EINSTEIN FIELD EQUATIONS

To solve this equation, one has to use the limit condition when the angular momentum
approaches zero (a → 0), the higher order term may be neglected. The Kerr metric in
ellipsoid coordinate will become very close to the Schwarzschild metric. Then we obtain

lim h = r2 , lim ρ = r (47)

a→0 a→0
 
 2 2
 2(ν−λ) 2 2 2
lim R00 = ∂0 λ + (∂0 λ) − ∂0 λ∂0 ν + e −∂1 ν∂1 λ + (∂1 ν) + ∂1 ν + ∂1 ν (48)
a→0 r
2
lim R01 = R10 = ∂0 λ (49)
a→0 r
2(λ−ν)
 2 2
∂0 λ + (∂0 λ)2 − ∂0 λ∂0 ν + ∂1 ν∂1 λ − (∂1 ν)2 − ∂12 ν + ∂1 λ

lim R11 =e (50)
a→0 r
lim R12 = R21 = 0 (51)
a→0

lim R22 = e−2λ (r (∂1 λ − ∂1 ν) − 1) + 1 (52)

a→0

lim R33 = sin2 θ e−2λ (r (∂1 λ − ∂1 ν) − 1) + 1 = sin2 θR22

 
(53)
a→0

From R01 = 0, we get 2r ∂0 λ = 0 , λ = λ(r), λ is time dependent. Using the result, and
substitute them to Eq. (48) and Eq. (50), we obtain

2
e−2λ(r) R00 + e−2ν(r,T ) R11 = (∂1 ν(r, T ) + ∂1 λ(r)) = 0 (54)
r
2
(∂1 ν(r, T ) + ∂1 λ(r)) = 0 (55)
r
Solving this equation yields ν(r, T ) + λ(r) = const. Next, the time coordinate is redefined
in Eq. (21) by replacing dT → econst. dT , so that ν(r, T ) = ν(r) = −λ(r). Therefore

e2ν(r) = e−2λ(r) . (56)

Substitute into Eq.(53), we obtain

9
 lim R22 = e−2λ (r (∂1 λ − ∂1 ν) − 1) + 1 = 0 (57)
a→0
C
e2ν = 1 + , let C = −2M (58)
r
So, under the limit condition when angular momentum approaches zero (a → 0), the equa-
tions could be solved as follows
2M r2 − 2M r
lim e2ν = 1 − =
a→0 r r2
−1 (59)
r2

2M
lim e2λ = 1 − = 2
a→0 r r − 2M r
One could also demand another limit condition of flat space-time, where the mass ap-
proaches zero (M → 0) in the Eq. (18), then we have
r 2 + a2 r 2 + a2
lim e2ν = =
M →0 ρ2 r2 + a2 cos2 θ
(60)
2λ ρ2 r2 + a2 cos2 θ
lim e = 2 =
M →0 r + a2 r 2 + a2
Deduced from the above conditions in Eqs. (59) to (60), the Ricci tensors could be solved
r2 − 2M r + a2
e2ν =
r2 + a2 cos2 θ (61)
2λ r2 + a2 cos2 θ
e = 2
r − 2M r + a2
Finally, we get the Kerr metric
r2 − 2M r + a2
2 ρ2
ds2 = dt − asin 2
θdφ − dr2 − ρ2 dθ2
ρ2 r2 − 2M r + a2
2 2 (62)
(r2 + a2 ) sin2 θ

a
− dφ − 2 dt
ρ2 r + a2

VI. DISCUSSION

It is proven that the Kerr metric can be obtained by combining the ellipsoid coordi-
nate transformation and the assumptions listed in Eqs. (21) to (23) following these steps:
transforming the Euclidian four-dimention space-time in Equation (1) to vacuum Minkowski
space-time with ellipsoid symmetry in Equation 9; transforming from (t, r, θ, φ) to (T, r, θ, Φ)
under the new coordinate system to eliminate the major difference in metric tensor com-
ponents between the Kerr metric and the Schwarzschild metric: there are no off-diagonal

10
terms and the product of g00 g11 becomes -1; solving vacuum Einstein’s equation by using
the Schwarzschild method from Eq. (23); applying limit method to calculate Ricci curvature
tensor; and finally deducting the Kerr metric.
Table I shows the list of the metric tensor components discussed in previous sec-
tions, including the Minkowski space-time, the Schwarzschild solution, empty ellipsoid,
a Schwarzschild-like ellipsoid solution, and the Kerr solution. The Minkowski space-time
and the Schwarzschild solution have spherical symmetry, and the others have ellipsoid
symmetry.
Further, some of the characteristics with deeper physics meaning of ellipsoid symmetry,
Kerr metric, and rotating black hole can be obtained from this new coordinate function
dT, dΦ. Remember, when a approaches to zero (a → 0), dT, dΦ degenerates to dt, dφ.

A. Ellipsoid symmetry and the Kerr metric

While metric with spherical symmetry in vacuum has the following expression:

− r2 dθ2 − r2 sin2 θdθ2 (63)

And metric of ellipsoid symmetric in vacuum has the following expression

− ρ2 dθ2 − r2 + a2 sin2 θdφ2

 2
r + a2
 (64)
2 2
asin2 θ dφ2


= −ρ dθ −
a
a
Where r2 +a2
and a sin2 θ term can be seen in multiply and divide combination. Terms of
dθ2 , dφ2 in the Kerr metric is showed as follows
2M ra2 sin2 θ
 
2 2 2 2
− ρ dθ − r + a + sin2 θdφ2
ρ2
 2 (65)
r + a2 2M rasin2 θ

2 2 2

2
= −ρ dθ − + asin θ dφ
a ρ2
a
Where r2 +a2
and asin2 θ term can also be seen in linear combination. The a in Eq. (64)
represents a parameter in the ellipsoid symmetric coordinate transformation, however,a in
Kerr metric (65) represents a spin parameter, which is proportional to angular momentum.
Both a ’s are equivalent in mathematical perspective and used to transform the space-time
into ellipsoid symmetry with a rotational symmetric z-axis. When a → 0, both Eq. (64)
and Eq. (65) degenerate into spherical symmetry in Eq. (63).

11
 B. Frame-dragging angular momentum

In physics, a spinning heavenly body with a non-zero mass will generate a frame-dragging
phenomenon along the equator’s direction, which has been proven by Gravity Probe B
2M ra2 sin2 θ
experiment.11 Therefore, an extra term ρ2
in the Kerr metric (65) compared to the
vacuum ellipsoid symmetry in Eq. (64). When the mass approaches zero M → 0, Eq. (65)
degenerates into Eq. (64).
To order to describe frame-dragging, Kerr metric can be re-written as follows
ds2 = gtt dt2 + 2gtφ dtdφ + grr dr2 + gθθ dθ2 + gφφ dφ2
 2 
gtφ

gtφ
2 (66)
2 2 2
= gtt − dt + grr dr + gθθ dθ + gφφ dφ +
gφφ gφφ
The definition of angular momentum (Ω) in frame-dragging:
2M rasin2 θ
gtφ ρ2
Ω=− = 
gφ φ r 2 + a2 + 2M ra2 sin2 θ
sin2 θ
ρ2
2M ra (67)
=
ρ2 (r2 + a2 )
+ 2M ra2 sin2 θ
2M r
= r2 +a2


ρ2 a
+ 2M r (asin2 θ)
a
So, we see both the asin2 θ and r2 +a2
term in Ω , which means dT, dΦ would have some
relation with frame-dragging angular momentum.

C. Black hole angular velocity

Its close relationship to the black hole angular velocity (ΩH ) can be easily identified by
examining dΦ term as follows
a
dΦ = dφ − dt
r2 + a2
a
ΩH = 2
(68)
r+ + a2
√
f rom ∆ = 0, solve r± = M ± M 2 − a2
Based on this derivation, in the future we will further study whether the method mentioned
in this paper can be extended to other more general cases. For example, suppose we start
with three functions e2ν(r) , e2λ(r) , e2µ(r,θ) such as
e2ν(r) 2 ρ2 e2µ(r,θ) 2
ds2 = dT − dr 2
− ρ 2
dθ 2
− dΦ (69)
ρ2 e2λ(r) ρ2

12
Besides, as dT, dΦ is shown to be related with ellipsoid symmetry, frame-dragging angu-
lar momentum, and black hole angular velocity, which are all rotation parameters, it de-
serves further study to determine if this method could be extended to solve the other axial-
symmetry exact solutions of vacuum Einstein’s field equation.

VII. CONCLUSION

In this paper, we derive the Kerr metric from the coordinate transformation method.
First, we obtain the Kerr Metric with Boyer-Lindquist in orthonormal frame, and then we
prove that it is possible to derive the Kerr metric from the vacuum ellipsoid symmetry, and
this derivation allows us to better understand the physical properties of the rotating black
hole, such as the frame-dragging effect, and the angular velocity. This deduction method
is different from classical papers written by Kerr and Chandrasekhar, and is expected to
encourage future study in this subject.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I would like to especially thank Ruby Lin, Dr. Simon Lin of Academia Sinica, Prof.
Anthony Zee, and a wonderful NTU OpenCourseWare12 taught by Prof. Yeong-Chuan Kao.
I also feel indebted to my sister, Shanrong, for her advice in the refinement of my English
writing.

TABLE I. Metric Tensor Components and Symmetry

Metric Tensor dt2 (dT 2 ) dr2 dθ2 dφ2 (dΦ2 ) Symmetry and State

Minkowski 1 −1 −r2 −r2 sin2 θ Spherical, Empty

r2 −2M r r 2
Schwarzschild r2
− r2 −2M r
−r2 −r2 sin2 θ Spherical, Static, Mass
2
r2 +a2 ρ2 (r2 +a2 ) sin2 θ
Ellipsoid ρ2
− r2 +a2 −ρ2 − ρ2
Ellipsoid, Empty
r2 −2M r r2 ρ2
−ρ2 − r2 + a2 sin2 θ Ellipsoid, Static, Mass


Schwarzschild-like r2
− r2 −2M r r2 +a2
2 2 2 2
Kerr r2 −2M r+a2
− r2 −2Mρ2
−ρ2 − (r +a ) sin θ Ellipsoid,Axisymmetric, Mass
ρ2 r+a2 ρ2

13
 ∗ [email protected]; permanent address: Health 101 clinic, 1F., No.97, Guling St.,
Zhongzheng Dist., Taipei City 100, Taiwan
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Abraham Zelmanov J. 1, 10–16 (1916).
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rics,” Phys. Rev. Lett. 11, 237–238 (1963).
3 R. Penrose and W. Rindler, Spinors and Space-Time (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge,
1984).
4 D. Kramer, H. Stephani, M. MacCallum, and E. Herlt, Exact Solutions of Einstein’s Equations
(Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1981).
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(1997).
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(1978).
8 L. Landau and E. Lifshitz, The Mathematical Theory of Black Holes, Volume 2 (Pergamon
Press, 1987).
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477–492 (2011).
10 B. O’Neil, The Geometry of Kerr Black Holes (A. K. Peters, Wellesley, Massachusetts, 1995).
11 C. W. F. Everitt. et al, “Gravity Probe B: Final results of a space experiment to test general
relativity,” Phys. Rev. Lett. 106, 201101 (2011).
12 National Taiwan University OpenCourseWare: general relativity” Web Site, <http://ocw.aca.
ntu.edu.tw/ntu-ocw/index.php/ocw/cou/099S134>.

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