Introduction

The orogenic processes govern the growth and destruction of the continental crust (Scholl and

von, Huene 2009). The modern plate tectonic theory proposes that the earth's surface is made up

of tectonic plates that drift apart to form new oceanic crust or subduct beneath each other to form

new crust before colliding to form orogenic belts (Wegener 1912; Zhao et al. 2018).

A supercontinent is thought to be formed by the assemblage of continental blocks, with the

lithospheric portion consumed in the subduction zone. The amalgamation of continental blocks

occurred several times in geological history. It is still a mystery to geoscientists that it takes

hundreds of millions of years for all continental blocks to come together and form the

supercontinent (Zhao et al. 2018).

It is hypothesised that all current continents took part in the supercontinent amalgamation

process. Columbia (Nuna) is one of the oldest supercontinents, having formed during the Palaeo-

Mesoproterozoic era and was assembled between 2.1 and 1.8 billion years ago (Condie 2015;

Rogers and Santosh 2002; Meert and Santosh 2017; Zhao et al. 2003, 2004, 2018). Following the

break-up of the Columbia supercontinent, Rodinia was assembled and broke around 1.1-0.65 Ga

ago (Torsvik 2003). The problem was further studied by Rogers and Santosh (2002), Goodge et

al. 2008; Li et al. 2008 and Zhao et al. 2018). Pangea (around 400-250 Ma ago), however is the

youngest.

During the merger of the Rodinia supercontinent, it was assumed that India was located near

Australia and Antarctica. The reconstruction of the Neoproterozoic period and evidence of the

Grenville orogeny from the eastern Ghats and northern margin of the Indian continent are

significantly underdocumented, which is critical for understanding the reconstruction of the

Rodinia supercontinent and minor collision between1100 and 800Ma. Rodinia, a

1
Neoproterozoic supercontinent, formed between 1100 and 900 Ma ago. Rodinia's extension and

final break-up occurred between 900 and 750 Ma ago, respectively (Zhao et al. 2018). However,

it has been proposed that there is a possibility of a minor collision of Rodinia with an unknown

microcontinent on its northern margin (Condie 2015; Rino et al. 2008; Zhao et al. 2018). Later,

similar types of minor collisional activities spread across other neighbouring continental blocks,

which is known as the Grenvillie orogeny (Condie 2015; Rino et al. 2008; Zhao et al. 2018). The

Grenville-age Eastern Ghats Province-Rayner complex is thought to have formed during

orogenic collisions between India and East Antarctica and can be linked to the final assemblage

of the Rodinia supercontinent (Ranjan et al. 2001).

During the Lower to Middle Eocene (Molnar and Tapponier,1975), the Indian and Eurasian

plates converge, resulting in continent-continent collision and intense Cenozoic deformation and

prograde regional metamorphism of Proterozoic Central Crystallines of the Himalayan

metamorphic belt (Le Fort, 1). The sedimentological evidence suggested that the northwestern

part of the Indian plate collided with the Asian plate around 50 Ma (Le Fort, 1996; Rowley,

1996), and that continents converged along the length of the suture around 40 Ma (Dewey, 1988)

Since then, the Indo-Australian plate has moved northward by 2600±900km relative to the

Eurasian plate, according to palaeomagnetic evidence (Dewey et.al., 1989; Le Pichon et.al.,

1992). During this time, southern Tibet moved north of Eurasia by about 2000±600 km (Besse

and Courtillot, 1988), implying that India moved beneath Asia by less than 1000 km. Prior to the

onset of Indo-Asian collision, Proterozoic clastic sediments and the Cambrian-Eocene Tethyan

shelf sequence were deposited on the northern boundary of the Indian shield (Le Fort, 1996).

2
 The collision caused crustal shortening, which was largely accommodated by southward

deformation, tectonic transport, and thrusting across the Himalayan range's 2400 km arcuate

length (Molnar and Tapponier,1975; Searleetal.,1987). The thrusts are diachronously active from

north to south and define the Himalayan tectonic assemblages (Gansser, 1991). The Higher

Himalayan crystalline thrust sheet is primarily made up of high grade metamorphic rocks thrust

along the MCT zone and lying over internally imbricated Lesser Himalayan rocks (Author ???

Le Fort???1975; Valdiya, 1980; Windley, 1983; Jain and Manickavasagam, 1993; Singh et al.,

1997). The Lesser Himalayan sequence is made up of shelf type sedimentary rocks that are

metamorphosed at very low grades and date from the late Proterozoic to the early Palaeozoic.

The Main boundary Thrust separates the Lesser Himalaya from the sub-Himalaya imbricate fan

in the south. The Main Frontal Thrust has pushed sub-Himalayan rocks over the Ganga Plains'

Quaternary alluvial sediments. The Main Frontal Thrust has pushed sub-Himalayan rocks over

the Ganga Plains' Quaternary alluvial sediments.

The Tertiary Himalayan Orogeny is a classic example of continent-continent collision, and

collisional effects are well documented in Himalayan rocks in the form of minor and major

structures. The Kumaun Himalaya is largely made up of Precambrian rocks and it is sandwiched

between the Main Boundary Thrust (MBT) in the south and the Main Central Thrust (MCT) in the

north (Gansser, 1964; Valdiya, 1980). There is growing interest in the evolution of the Himalaya as

an orogenic belt, which occurred around 45 million years ago as a result of continent-continent

collision (Sharma 1983, Add more recent references????). The geochemical signature of ~ 500 Ma

Champawat Granitoids (Singh et al. 1993) , Ranikhet Granite (Rashid, et al 1995) and Almora

Granite (Kumar,2017??? Check) reveal the region's tectonic setup during the early Palaeozoic

time, prior to India's collision with Asia.

(Add Ref. (1) BN Singh, OP Goel, M Joshi, JW Sheraton, 1993 Geological Society of India 42 (3),
3
289-302 and (2) Ashutosh Kumar Ph.D. Thesis)

The Ranikhet granite body, in a lensoid form with a discordant relationship with the enclosing

metasediments, is located in a tectonically active region between the South and North Almora

thrust zones. Coarse to fine-grained garnetiferous tourmaline schist interbanded with

metapsammites characterize the country rocks. The rocks in the area have been subjected to both

progressive and retrogressive regional metamorphisms (Merh and Vashi 1965).

The Himalayan mountain system provides a once-in-a-lifetime opportunity to investigate the

response of continental lithosphere to collision (e.g. Dewey and Burke,1973; LeForte,1975). The

majority of what we know about this spectacular mountain range comes from studies of the high

grade Higher Himalayan Crystallines (HHC) in the orogen's core.

The Higher Himalayan Crystallines preserve a wealth of information on pressure, temperature,

and exhumation path conditions under which the mountain range evolved (Yin and

Harrison,2000). The Main Central Thrust, as defined by (Heim and Gansser 1939) in Kumaun,

has been correlated across the orogen (Yin 2006) and is widely recognized as the most important

structure responsible for Himalayan development, but its precise location has been debated (e.g.

Kohn et al,2002; Searleet al.,2002).

MCT I and MCT II are the lower and upper bounding faults of the Main Central Thrust zone in

Nepal (Hashimoto et al, 1973), and Munsiari and Vaikrita thrusts in Kumaun Himalaya that also

includes Garhwal (Valdiya,1980a). Upper thrusts in many parts of the Himalaya moved in the

Late Miocene and Pliocene periods (Harrison et al.,1997; Catlos et al. 2004).

Himalaya is one of the world's most complex orogenic belts, forming part of the Eurasian Island

Arc System. It has a strike length of over 2400 km, a width of 230 to 320 km, and occupies the

4
Indian subcontinent's extra peninsular region.

The Himalayan arcuate mountain chain runs from Kashmir to Assam, forming the country's

northern borders. The Kumaun Himalaya stretches from the Kali River, which marks the India-

Nepal border in the east, to the Tons-Pabar valleys, which mark Himachal Pradesh's eastern

border.

The Kumaun Himalaya has been divided into five zones based on physiography, which run

roughly parallel to the Himalayan trend, i.e. in the WNE-ESE direction. The Kumaun Himalaya

is distinguished by distinct climatic, geographic, and geologic features, which are listed below.

(i) The Tarai and Bhabar zone (well- irrigated and recharge zone).

(ii) The foot hills of Siwaliks (a region usually described as the Sub-Himalaya). The Siwaliks are

hills consisting of Tertiary sediments with elevation up to 1200 meter.

(iii) The Lesser Himalayan zone (or outer Himalayan zone). It’s height ranges from 2000 to 6000

meter.

(iv) The great Himalayan region (or the Inner Himalayan zone) includes snow clad peaks for the

most part; lacks vegetation and many of the loftiest peaks are situated in this region.

(v) Trans-Himalayan zone includes the Tethys or the Tibetan Himalaya.

The Kumaun Lesser Himalaya's litho units have been classified as allochthonous and

autochthonous sheets, klippes, and nappes. The 'inner belt' and 'outer belt' sedimentaries are

exposed to the north and south of the Almora Nappe, respectively. The Almora Nappe is made

up of hard rocks such as granites and gneisses from the Ramgarh Group (equivalent to Bhatwari

Unit of Higher Himalaya and Chail Formation of Himachal Himalaya) by Valdiya (1980) and

5
dated at1875±90Ma (Rb-Sr,Trivedietal.1984) and metasedimentaries from the Almora Group

(equivalent to Munsiari Formation of Higher Himalaya and Jutogh Group of Himachal

Himalaya, Valdiya, 1980) dated at 1865±50 Ma (Rb-Sr, Trivedi et al.1984)

Location and approach to the area

Around Ranikhet, the Almora Crystalline of the Lesser Kumaun Himalaya has been studied. In

the SOI Toposheet No. 53O/6, an area covering approximately 400 square kilometers between

longitude 79°25' to 79°28' and latitude 29°35' to 29°39' has been mapped at a scale of 1:50,000.

The foundation of this study is a combination of traverses across the area, random sampling,

systematic rock type study along the traverses, and analysis of mesoscopic structural data. The

metalled road connects the area to the Railheads of Kathgodam ( ??km) and Ramnagar ( ??km)

and the district town of Almora and Kausani.

The study area extends from Ranikhet to Khairna and includes a section of the Kathgodam-

Kausani highway. The metalled road also connects Almora to the nearest railway station,

Kathgodam (98 kilometers), which serves as a terminus for the northeastern railways. Ranikhet

is 50 kilometers from Almora and 60 kilometers from Nainital and has an elevation of 1,869

meters (6,132 feet). Administratively, the town is part of the Almora district and is located west

of the district headquarters. Ranikhet is a tehsil. The western narrow strips and eastern part of

Ranikhet are relatively higher in altitude.

The Ranikhet area is densely forested, with pine (Pinus roxburghii), oak (Quercus), buransh

(Rhododendron arboreum), and deodar (Cedrus Deodara) that house a wide variety of fauna,

including leopards, rhesus monkeys, pine martens, Himalayan langur, dhole, rabbits, barking

deer, sambar, and more. Ranikhet's exotic plants include Ginkgo biloba and saffron. Ranikhet is

cold in the winter and mild in the summer,and it is best to visit between March and
6
October. Ranikhet experiences snowfall during the winter months, particularly in December,

January and February. However, the weather in Ranikhet remains pleasant throughout the rest of

the year.

Physiographic and Drainage Pattern

The Kumaun Himalaya is home to five distinct physiographic belts: the Bhabar, the Siwalik, the

Lesser Himalaya, the Great Himalaya, and the Tethys or Tibetan Himalaya. The elevation of the

Lesser Himalaya ranges from 1500 to 3000 meters. The topography is remarkably uniform,

giving the impression of a rejuvenated Kumaun Himalaya plateau. The current study investigates

the evolution of the Ranikhet area in particular and the Almora Nappe in the Lesser Himalaya in

general.

The river Kosi, as well as small streams and ravines such as Nirai gadhera and Ram gad, drain

the studied area. The drainage network is structurally controlled and follows a trellis pattern. The

landscape is distinguished by gentle slopes and deeply cut valleys. Sharp slope breaks near rivers

indicate neotectonic rejuvenation; valleys have steep slopes in the lower sections and gentle

slopes in the upper sections. Entrenched meanders, abrupt changes in gradients, and slope breaks

are typical geomorphic features that suggest that, while rivers and streams are currently down

cutting the rocks quickly, this activity was preceded by a period of relative tectonic quiescence

that gave rise to gentle mature landforms.

Structural Set Up

Pre shear zone structures:

IMPORTANT: Very carefully again look at this section . It looks plagiarized from
Joshi (1999) or some thesis of my student. Look at my 1999 paper and compare and
remove plagiarism and send back to me.
These structures have been preserved in the unmylonitized Saryu Formation in the central
7
Almora Nappe, which has largely escaped the effects of mylonitization in contrast to its base in

the south and north (Joshi,1999). Bedding planes (So) generally strike E-W to WNW-ESE, with

southerly dips in the north and northerly dips on the Almora Nappe's southern flank that vary

greatly in amount. The Almora Nappe is distinguished by three distinct types of pre-shear zone

folds. Tight to isoclinals F1 folds are especially well developed in Saryu Formation

metapsammites with NNE and rare SSW plunges varying from subhorizontal to about 25-35° in

the N25°E to N35°E direction. Their axial surfaces have moderate NNE dips (25-35°). As a

result, F1 folds are gently plunging reclined to recumbent type folds with the oldest recognisable

axial plane foliation (S1). The F2 folds are coaxial with the F1 folds, but their limbs are

generally tight rather than isoclinal. Isoclinal F2 folds, on the other hand, are seen. The bedding

(S0) is folded by F1 folds, but the limbs are generally tight rather than isoclinal. Isoclinal F2

folds, on the other hand, are seen.

Almora Nappe in Uttarakhand, India, is a Lesser Himalayan Metamorphic Belt that was

tectonically transported from the Higher Himalaya via the Main Central Thrust (MCT). The

Almora Nappe's Basal Shear Zone exhibits a complex structural pattern of polyphase

deformation and metamorphism. The rocks exposed along the nappe's northern and southern

margins are highly mylonitized, whereas the degree of mylonitization decreases towards the

centre, where the rocks eventually grade into unmylonitized metamorphics.

Mylonitized rocks near the Basal Shear zone's roof exhibit dynamic metamorphism (M2)

reaching up to green schist facies (450°C/4kbar). Regional metamorphism (M1) affects

unmylonitisedschistsandgneissesinthenappe'scentralpart, reachingupperamphibolitesfacies (4.0-

7.9 kbar and 500-709°c). Four zones of regional metamorphism have been identified, ranging

from chlorite-biotite to sillimanite-K-feldspar and delineated by specific reaction isograds.These

8
metamorphic zones repeat, indicating that they are involved in tight F2 folding, which has

affected the metamorphic (Joshi and Tiwari, 2009). The regionally metamorphosed rocks south

of Almora have been intruded by Almora Granite (560±20), resulting in contact metamorphism.

The Main Central Thrust zone divides the central Nepal Himalaya' southern slope geologically

into the underlying Midland metasediment zone (Lower Himalaya) in the south and the

overlying Himalayan gneiss zone (Higher Himalaya) in the north. The former zone is a thick pile

of varioustypesofmetasedimentsfoldedintoananticlinorium,whilethelatterzoneiscomposedof high-

grade crystalline rocks with a north-dipping homoclinal structure and is overlain by the Tethys

Himalayan sediments, which are composed of non- or slightly metamorphosed Tethyan

sediments. The Main Central Thrust zone has distinctive lithology, including calcareous schist,

quartzite, Phyllite schist, and augen gneiss, and is highly mylonitised(Ref.??.

The mineral composition and paragenesis of the rocks in this area indicate an inverted

metamorphism from the Midland metasediment to the Main Central Thrust zones, i.e., the

metamorphic grade of the Midland metasediment zone increases upward toward the thrust zone

from the chlorite to the biotite zones of the green schist facies, and the greenschist-amphibolite

transitional zone is reached in the thrust zone. The Himalayan gneiss zone has a much higher

grade of metamorphism than the thrust zone. Based on the compositional zoning of garnets,

muscovite, and biotite, it is concluded that the Himalayan gneisses underwent

polymetamorphism(Ref.??..

The younger metamorphism resulted in retrograde metamorphism of the Himalayan gneisses, as

well as the previously mentioned inverted metamorphism and anatectic melting in depth. During

the Alpine-Himalayan tectonism, shear heating caused by thrust movement along the Main

CentralThrustzonecausedthis.Theoldermetamorphism,whichappearstobePrecambrianin

9
 age, had a much higher metamorphic grade than the younger one and was responsible for the

pyrope-rich cores of garnets in Himalayan gneisses. (Ref.??.

Almora Group:

North Almora Thrust in the northern flank and south Almora thrust in the southern flank define

the lower limit of the Almora group, which is the base of the Saryu Formation.(This is my

language be very careful and change it) The North Almora Thrust is one of the sharpest and most

dramatic tectonic lines, separating autochthonous sedimentaries from metamorphic and granitic

rocks above. The plane of separation is marked by mylonitization of granitic rocks and augen

gneisses, as well as the development of a persistent band of chlorite-sericite-phyllonite along the

thrust plane. The Almora Thrust's extension naturally defines the base of the crystalline

formation of the various Klippes.

The horizon, as the uppermost thrust sheet, marks the upper limit of the Almora Group and its

extensions in the various klippes. The situation is quite different in the root zone, where the

Munsiari rocks are abruptly succeeded by a new suite of higher-grade metamorphics, despite the

absence of any tectonic break. The Vaikrita thrust has been named after this plane.

(1) Originally known as the "Almora Crystalline" by Heim and Gansser (1939), this vast

overthrust succession of schists, micaceous quartzites, and gneisses belonging to the lower amphibolites

facies of regional metamorphism and with concordantly emplaced plutonic bodies of granodiorites and

granites has been renamed the Almora Group after the township of Almora (29°37':79°38' This name is

also preferred by Ghose et al.1974). (This again is not your language, modify it and give the reference).

The Almora group comprises the upper part of the massive large Dudhatoli-Ranikhet-Almora-

Champawat Range. It is divided into three units because it is essentially a structural unit rather than a

true stratigraphic unit. (Ref.??)

10
(2) The lower part is composed of garnetiferous mica schists, micaceous quartzites, and augen

gneisses with felspathic schists (paragneisses). (Ref.??)

(3) thebatholithicandsill-likebodiesofSynkinematicgranodioritessuiteintrudedbylater leucocratic

granite. (Ref.??)

(4) the upper part is composed of schistose Phyllite, carbonaceous or graphitic schist.

Middlemiss(1887)referredtothegroupastheInnerSchistoseSeriesintheDudhatoliMountain in the

northwest, and in the Champawat region in the southeast, the author while Valdiya (1963)

describeditastheLohaghatGroup,builtupoftheSaryuFormationformingthelowerpartinthe northern

flank, the batholithic sill of Champawat Granodiorites emplaced in the southern flank, and its

extension as a Sill. The part of the Almora group closest to the root is thought to be the base of

the Great Himalaya's so-called "Central Crystalline Zone" (Heim and Gansser,

1939:Valdiya1962b).

Saryu Formation:

This lithological unit, named after the river along which its most revealing sections are exposed

for tens of kilometers from Pachcheswar to Bhainsiachhana, is composed of chlorite-sericite

schist, often phyllonitic at the base, followed higher up by garnetiferous muscovite-schists

alternating with micaceous quartzites. (This is Prof. Valdiya’s language perhaps form 1980

monograph, As many people know it modify it)

A chain of lenticular bodies or sills of porphyritic granite grading marginally into augen gneiss

can be found near the top of the Saryu formation. The emplacement of the huge batholiths

sizesillofChampawatGranodioritesonthesouthernflankhasoverwhelmedtheSaryuFormation,so

11
 that it is represented by augen gneisses interbedded with biotite rich mica schists and micaceous

flaggy quartzites between the rivers Kali and Ladhiya by Mornaula. (This again is Prof. Valdiya’s

language perhaps form 1980 monograph, As many people know it modify it)

Lithotectonic subdivision of Himalaya (This has to go to the beginning section of the

Introduction)

LithotectonicallytheHimalayacanbesubdividedintofourmajorzoneseachwithdistinct

lithostratigraphy and evolutionary history. These are discussed below.

1 Outer or Sub Himalaya

2 Inner or Lesser Himalaya

3 Greater, Higher or Central Himalaya

4 Tethys Himalaya

5 Trans or Tibetan Himalaya

Outer Himalaya

The southern ranges of the Tertiary and Early Pleistocene Outer Himalayan Siwalik belt are

distinguished by their irregular topography and predominance of sedimentary rocks. The

Main Boundary Thrust (MBT) separates the Siwaliks from the Lesser Himalaya to the north

of the Outer Himalaya. The northward movement of the Indian Plate's leading edge created a

trough in the Himalaya's southern frontal parts, in addition to the breathtaking Himalaya.

(This again is Prof. Valdiya’s language, As many people know it modify it). Later, sediments

deposited by rivers draining the Himalaya, as well as rivers flowing from the southern

plateau, filled this basin, giving rise to the massive Indo-Gangetic plains. Because of tectonic

activity and convergence, the resulting depression moved southward and was filled with 5 to

12
8 km thick continental and terrigenous sediments. The intensity of bulk folding decreased

southward (Nakata, 1972, 1989).

13
Inner or Lesser Himalaya

The elevations range from 600 to 3000 meters. The topography is remarkably uniform,giving

the impression of a rejuvenated Kumaun Himalaya plateau. The sedimentary,volcanic, and

granitoid rocks of Kumaun's Lesser Himalaya are terminated in the north bythe Main Central

Thrust (hereafter MCT), while the Main Boundary Thrust (hereafter MBT) marks their

southern boundary.

The Ramgarh Group's highly mylonitized gneisses are widely exposed in the Garhwal-

Kumaun region and are widely thought to be the basement for the Lesser Himalayan

Sequences (Valdiya, 1980; 2010). The Th-Pb dates for metamorphic monazites from the

Lesser Himalayan Crystallines indicate a large-scale Late Miocene-Pliocene reactivation of

the Main Central Thrust (Harrison et al., 1997a; 1998). The Lesser Himalayan Sequence

(hereafter LHS) duplex has a hinterland-dipping and antiformal geometry in the Garhwal and

Kumaun regions of the northwestern Himalaya (Celerier et al., 2009a; Srivastava and Mitra,

1994; Webb et al., 2011). The floor thrust, also known as the Main Himalayan Thrust,

influenced the growth of imbricate structures in the outer LHS as well as the reactivation of

the inner LHS duplex.

Central, Great or Higher Himalaya

TheTransHimadriFault(THF)separatesthehanging-wallsouthernTethyansedimentsfrom the

footwall of metamorphosed Higher Himalaya schists (Valdiya, 1980; 2010). The U-Pb zircon

whole rock analysis and Sm-Nd isotopic studies show that the Greater Himalayan medium-

to high-grade meta-sedimentary rocks are younger than the Indian cratonic

basement(Decelleset.al.2002).Multipledeformationandrecrystallizationarevisibleinthe

14
gneisses and migmatites. Along the Main Central Thrust, the amphibolite facies Higher

Himalayan gneisses have been thrust over a series of lower grade sedimentary, volcanic, and

granitoid rocks. This crustal thrust zone was active between 22 and 5 Ma, accumulating a

minimum of 100 km and possibly as much as 300-400 km of displacement (Gansser, 1966).

Tethys Himalaya

The intensity of fabric and intermediate-pressure metamorphism in Tethyan sediments has

increased dramatically (Burg et al. 1987; Lee et al. 2004). The South Tibetan Detachment

System (STDS) between the northern and southern Tethyan sediments is associated with the

deformation and metamorphic gradient. Domes of gneisses and two-mica granites were

formed by upright folding in the north Tethyan sediments (Lee et.al. 2004). The south

Tethyan sediments are a thick platform series that ranges in age from the Precambrian to the

Eocene (Myrow et. al. 2006a). Tethys sediments have been deformed in multiple phases and

have common north-verging back folds (Godin et. al, 2011).

Trans or Tibetan Himalaya

These are also referred to as the Tethys Himalaya. The Trans-Himadri Fault (THF) by

Valdiya separates the Precambrian basement complex of high grade metamorphics of the

Great Himalaya from the Tethyan or Tibetan Himalaya (1988). The sedimentary rocks

deposited in an ancient ocean that existed between India and Tibet until about 55 million

years ago were uplifted during the Himalayan orogeny. These Tethyan sedimentary rocks are

intruded by Tertiary (21±2 Ma) granites (Valdiya, 2016).

Regional Geology of the Area

15
The entire geology of Himalaya can be divided into two sequences based on geology andtectonic

evolution, namely the Tibetan sequences and the Himalayan sequences. The Tibetan sequence is

divided into two zones: the upper Proterozoic to Eocene Tibetan zone and the flysch zone, which

formed during the early stages of orogenesis. The Himalayan sequence is further

subdividedintosixtectonicunits:thebasementunitsofautochthonouscrystallinezone,theinner units of

crystalline nappes, the upper Proterozoic and Caledonian orogenic units consisting of Simla and

Jaunsar, the Hercynian orogenic and Mesozoic epeirogenic units consisting of several formations

such as the Blainis, Krols, infra-Krols, Shalis (Bhargava, 1976). The major Himalayan tectonic

cycles include the Proterozoic and Caledonian orogeny, Hercynian orogeny, and Mesozoic

epeirogeny before the Upper-Cretaceous - Tertiary Himalayan orogeny (Dewey, 1969). The

Kumaun Himalaya is located in the Himalayan sequence between the Nepal and

Garhwalregions.ItisdominatedbyPrecambriantoPalaeozoicsedimentaryrocksandcrystalline

nappes. Auden (1935), Heim and Gansser (1939), and others were among the first to investigate

the stratigraphy and structure of this region of the Himalaya. The Kumaun Lesser Himalaya's

stratigraphic units are broadly defined as the Berinag Formation, the Damtha Formation

(Chakrata and Rautgara Formations), the Tejam Group (Deoban and Mandhali Formations), and

the Krol belt Supergroup (Chandpur, Nagthat, Blaini, infra-Krol, Krol and Tal Formations). The

Berinag Formation consists of a broad succession of massive coarse-grained to pebbly and

sericitic quartz-arenite of white, green, and pale purple colour with metamorphosedamygdaloidal

and vesicular basalts and tuffites, which is overlain by crystalline thrust sheets equivalent to the

Central Crystallines known as Chails and Jutoghs, which are thrust over the Deoban Formation

in the inner Lesser Himalaya belt (Valdiya, 1962; Valdiya, 1965). Valdiya

(1980)validatedtheDamthaGroupof(Auden,1939;Rupke,1974)stratigraphicnomenclature

16
by extending it to the Lower Chakrata and Upper Rautgara Formations. The Lower Chakrata

Formation is composed of purple, greenish, greyish greywackes and siltstones that alternate with

slates that look similar. Valdiya (1980) named the Rautgara Formation the rock sequence in

southeastern Kumaun that consists of muddy quartzite, olive green and purple slates with

rounded conglomerates and extensive occurrence of basic sills, dykes, and lava flows. The Inner

LesserHimalayaTejamGroupismadeupofthelowermostDeobanFormationandtheoverlying

MandhaliFormation.TheDeobanFormationismadeupofamassivesuccessionofstromatolite- bearing

cherty dolomite, dolomitic limestones with bands, and blue limestones and grey slates

intercalated. It also contains lentiform deposits of richly crystalline magnesite. The Rautgara and

Deoban Formations are separated by a conformable contact with a sharp transition from the

Rautgara's flyschoid facies to the Deoban's shallow marine carbonates. The Mandhali Formation

is a thick succession of carbonaceous slates, phyllites, marbles, and quartzites that make up the

lower part of the Krol Nappe's Jaunsar series in the southern Chakrata. The Mandhali rocks are

gradually absorbed by the Chandpur phyllites, which are then covered by the Nagthat quartzites.

Olive green and grey phyllites are interbedded with finely interbanded metasiltstones, very fine

grained greywackes, and local metavolcanics in the Chandpur. The Nagthat Formation was

named by Auden (1934). The presence of purple, white, and green quartz arenites with

subordinate interbedded purple and green tuffaceous slates dominates the Nagthat Formation.

Conglomerate, siltstone, carbonaceous shales, and dolomitic limestones dominate the Blaini

Formation. It sits on top of the Simla Group, Mandhali Formation, and Nagthat Formation,

indicating a major unconformity in the Lesser Himalayan Formations. The Blaini Formation's

gradational extension is the infra-Krol Formation. It is made up of two conformable units: lower

greysiltstone,shale,andgreywackesanduppershaleandslatewiththinquartziteinterbeds.The

17
infra-Krol Formation lies beneath the Blaini Formation (Auden, 1934; Valdiya, 1980). The Krol

Formation was identified by Medlicott (1864) as a sequence of limestone, slate, siltstone, and

massive dolomite. The presence of shale, greywacke, siltstone, limestone, quartzite, and slate

dominates the Tal Formation (Medlicott, 1864). A number of nappes and klippes are detached

outliers of the metamorphics that overlie the sedimentaries of the Lesser Himalaya. Valdiya

(1980) distinguished four major litho-tectonic units; viz. the autochthonous unit of the Damtha

and Tejam, the Krol Nappe, the Ramgarh Nappe, and the Almora Nappe.

The generalized Tectonostratigraphic sequence for the Lesser Himalaya of Kumaun

follows:

Vaikrita Group (metamorphics)

------Vaikrita Thrust------

MunsiariFormation (metamorphics)

------Main Central Thrust------

Almora- Dudhatoli Nappe (metamorphics)

(Askot, Baijnath, Chhiplakot & Satpuli Klippes) (metamorphics)

------------Almora Thrust-------------

OuterSedimentaryBelt(Sedimentary) Inner

Sedimentary Belt (Sedimentary)

---------------Main Boundary Fault---------------

Siwalik Group (Sedimentary)

(AfterValdiya,1980,2010;Joshi,1999)

Inner Sedimentary Belt

18
The Inner Sedimentary Belt occupies the Kumaun Himalaya, extending eastward across the Kali

River into western Nepal and westward into Himachal. Misra and Bhattacharya (1972, 1973)

believe that the Hatsila Formation is the oldest rock unit in the Inner Sedimentary Belt. Valdiya

(1964) associated the rocks of this formation with the Rautgara Quartzites, whereas Ahmad

(1975) associated them with the Rameshwar Formation. Slates, siltstones, greywackes,

protoquartzites,phyllites,andlimestonesareamongtherocksthatmakeupthisformation.There are

some sedimentary structures in the psammites beds. The Hatsila Formation is covered by the

Kapkot Formation, which consists of stromatolite-bearing dolomitic limestones, magnesite, talc,

cherts, pebble beds, and some slate/calcareous slates. Valdiya (1980) proposed that the age ofthis

formation is Precambrian based on the stromatolites preserved in these rocks. The Saling

Formation sits on top of the Kapkot Formation, which has been linked to the Kanalichhina

Formation (District Pithoragarh) and the Betalghat Formation in the Bhimtal and Bhowali areas

(District Nainital). This formation is distinguished by grey, green, and black slates, as well as

phyllite. These rocks also have subordinate calcareous interbanding. The Berinag Formation is

the uppermost unit of the Inner Sedimentary Belt and consists of fine to coarse grained massive

quartzite that is frequently sericitic and schistose, with pebble beds, chlorite beds, and

interbedded metabasites. The crystalline nappes and klippes of Almora, Askot, and Baijnath rest

over this Inner Sedimentary Belt, their bases invariably marked by a thrust contact. Valdiya

(1962, 1973, 1980), Misra and Kumar (1968), Misra and Banerjee (1968), Misra and

Bhattacharya (1972), Saklani (1972), Jain (1971), and Bhattacharya (1976b) all believe that the

Berinag Formation rocks are thrust over the underlying units. Heim and Gansser (1939), Gansser

(1964), Mehdi et al. (1972), Banerjee and Bisaria (1975), Ramji (1976), Kumar and Tiwari

(1977),Kumar(1978),andBhattacharya(1980)allbelievethatthissuccessionisnormal.The

19
rocks of this Belt have been affected by E-W to ESE-WNW trending folds, some of which are

regional in nature. The former group of workers observed strong evidence of thrusting and

dislocation caused by a number of faults in numerous locations. Dolomitic limestone (Kapkot /

Badolisera/Jhirauli/Deoban)istheoldestrockexposedintheinnerlesserHimalaya.Theslates (Saling /

Someshwar / Chandpur Formation) cover them.

Outer Sedimentary Belt

The Outer Sedimentary Belt occupies the southern reaches of the Kumaun Lesser Himalaya and

is defined in the south by the MBF (= Krol Thrust) and in the north by the Ramgarh Thrust. The

Nagthat Formation rocks, which consist of conglomeratic and pebbly protoquartzites, shales,

slates, and basic rocks, form the Belt's lowermost unit and have frequently been correlated with

the Berinag Formation (Valdiya, 1978). The Blaini Formation sits on top of the Nagthat

Formation and is made up of two distinct rock units: lower boulder beds and upper limestones.

TheKrolFormationliesbeneaththeBlainis.Thelatterismadeupofblackslatesandshaleswith siltstone

and interbanded quartzite. There are also a few bluish-colored limestone beds. The Krol

Formationiswidelyacceptedtobedividedintothreeunits:Lower,Middle,andUpperKrol.The Lower

Krol is made up of shale and slate with dolomite, grey shales with limestone, dolomites, and

minor red shales. The Middle Krols are distinguished by green to red-colored, medium to fine-

grained sandstone containing shales and silt. The Upper Krols are distinguished by massive and

thickly bedded dolomites, cherty and oolitic dolomite, and shale and quartzites. The Outer

Sedimentary Belt has been folded by a major east-west trending syncline, with the northern limb

open compared to the southern limb. Nainital Township is roughly located on the northern limb's

exposure. The Outer Sedimentary Belt has been dissected by numerous tear faults and normal

faults of varying sizes.

20
Crystalline Units

The northern and southern limits of the Almora Nappe are defined by two thrusts, the SAT and
the NAT. The Almora Nappe and its equivalent klippes, namely the Baijnath, Askot, Chhiplakot,
and Satpuli units, have caught the attention of a large number of researchers, who have accepted
them as tectonic outliers with their root zone in the Higher Himalaya.

A group of researchers, including Saxena (1974), Saxena and Rao (1975), Misra and Sharma
(1972), and Misra et al. (1973), contend that the Almora Crystallines are not thrust nappes but
rather have an autochthonous nature and have moved up along the North Almora Thrust as a
result of vertical uplift. As the Lansdowne Klippe is exposed in close proximity to the MBT, the
previously larger crystalline sheet may have extended very close to it. The South Almora Thrust
is a gentle, low-dip thrust to the north. The South Almora Thrust joins the North Almora Thrust
around the Dudhatoli area, according to detailed structural studies. According to Pande (1950),
the metamorphic sequences that comprise the Almora synform in its southern parts actually
consist of two thrust sheets, namely the lower Ramgarh Nappe and the upper Almora Nappe.
Both thrust sheets are supported by a thrust, the Ramgarh Thrust in the former and the SAT inthe
latter. The lower unit of the Ramgarh Nappe is made up of highly sheared granite gneisses, while
the upper unit is made up of highly sheared low grade metamorphics. Some Geological Survey
of India employees, such as Raina and Dungrakoti (1975), are doubtful of the Ramgarh Thrust
and refuse to accept it.

Autochthonous Unit

The autochthonous zone of sedimentary origin in the inner Lesser Himalaya is located between
the North Almora and Berinag thrusts. The Damtha and Tejam groups make up the
autochthonous unit. The upper part of the Damtha Group is distinguished by nearly unaltered
dolerite dykes and sills, as well as basalt lavas (Valdiya, 1980). The Damtha Group rocks are
complexly folded and severely deformed, with a series of tight asymmetrical to overturned and
locally isoclinal folds, many of which are divided by faults or thrusts, resulting in repetition
(Valdiya, 1980). In the outer Lesser Himalaya, the Damtha, Tejam, Jaunsar, Mussoorie, and
Sirmur rock groups are visible.

Main Boundary Thrust

21
The Main Boundary Thrust (MBT) runs the length of the Himalaya as a major structural plane.
The Main Boundary Thrust pushed the Precambrian Lesser Himalayan sedimentaries over the
Tertiary Siwaliks. The MBT, as originally defined, is only visible in the Kumaun Himalaya's
western sector, roughly between the Yamuna and Tons valleys. The Krol Thrust has overlapping
the Eocene Subathu Formation east of the Yamuna River. The SubathuFormation is exposed
between the Siwalik and Krol rocks (Srikantia and Sharma, 1976). The Lesser Himalaya's older
Precambrian rocks are thrust over the Siwaliks along a series of more or less parallel thrust
planes.Thelarge-scalemovementsareneotectonicandstillveryactivealongtheMainBoundary Thrust
(Wesnousky et.al. 1999).

Main Central Thrust

The Main Central Thrust (MCT) was identified by Auden (1935, 1937) as the major tectonic
feature that separates the high grade metamorphics of the Higher Himalaya from the underlying
sedimentaries in the Joshimath area of Kumaun Himalaya. The Main Central Thrust is a zone of
parallel thrust planes along which the Higher Himalayan Metamorphics have moved south over
the Lesser Himalayan rocks and marks the boundary between the Lesser and the Higher
Himalaya. Because of the lack of metamorphic or tectonic distinction, the thrust is not clearly
visible in some places, and it appears that rocks of similar lithology are present on either side of
the thrust (Valdiya, 1980).

Almora Nappe

The Almora Nappe (Heim and Gansser, 1939; Gansser, 1964; Valdiya, 1980; Gairola and Joshi,
1980; Joshi, 1999) was moved tectonically 100 kilometers from the Higher Himalaya to its
current position via the Main Central Thrust. The term "Almora Nappe" refers to the composite
Nappe formed by the overlying Almora Nappe and the tectonically beneath Ramgarh Nappe.
Previously, it was thought that the Almora Nappe occurs as a synformally folded thrust with
inverted metamorphism.Valdiya (1980) described the Almora Nappe's root zone as being in the
Munsiari Formation, which forms the base of the Higher Himalaya. According to Saxena and
Rao (1975), the Almora Nappe does not overlie the Nagthat Formation and is instead a pop-up
along the North Almora Thrust and the Ramgarh Thrust. Joshi (1999) went into great
detailaboutthestructureandgeologyoftheAlmoraGroup.TheAlmoraGroupisdividedintotwo

22
regional shear zones, the North Almora Shear Zone and the South Almora Shear Zone (Joshi,
1999). The North Almora Shear Zone has undergone at least three major shear deformations,
according to structural observations in the field and in the laboratory: (1) ductile top to south
movements, (2) brittle ductile top to north movements, and (3) brittle top to north movements.
FoldsandcrenulationsinthemylonitesoftheAlmoraNappe'sBasalShearZoneindicatefolding due to
package blocking, and highly fractured lithounits of the hanging wall and foot wall indicate
strong brittle deformation at a later stage in the North Almora Shear Zone. The various phases of
deformation under ductile conditions were completed by superimposed folding within the North
Almora Shear Zone (Joshi, 1999). Mylonitized Almora Group rocks are exposed onthe southern
side of the NAT in a 2-6 km wide shear zone. The NASZ mylonites have very steep dips with
tight to close folding, south dipping axial planes, and E-W fold axes. In the NASZ, structures
formed under the brittle or brittle - ductile regime in response to later tectonic adjustments
indicate top to north shear sense. The post shear zone structures are represented by a few small
scale wedge shaped shear zones with top to north shearing in the NASZ. Three major planar
fabric elements, namely mylonitic foliation, shear band cleavage, and shear plane foliation, were
formed in ductile conditions within the Ductile Brittle Transition Zone from the microstructure
of Almora Shear Zone (Joshi, 1999). According to the shear sense markers, the Almora Shear
Zone has primarily experienced top-to-bottom movement. The shear sensemarkers provide a top
to south directed sense of movement, indicating that the crystalline thrust sheet is moving south.
The rocks exposed to the north of the Almora Nappe are Palaeoproterozoic siliciclastic shallow
to deep marine sediments of the Rautgara Formation. Almora Nappe. The Almora Group is
located in the upper part of the Dudhatoli, Ranikhet, Almora, and Champawat ranges and
consists of low grade schists to high grade gneisses with
quartziteinterbandinginbetweentheschists,displayingtheupperAmphibolitefaciesofregional
metamorphism (Joshi and Tiwari, 2009). Champawat Granites, Granodiorites, and Dolerites, all
ofpost-orogenicorigin,haveintrudedtheAlmoraGrouprocks.AccordingtoValdiya(1980),the
Almora Crystallines are divided into three lithostratigraphic units: the Saryu Formation, which
includes mylonites, mica schists, and micaceous quartzites, and the appearance of garnetiferous
mica schists and gneisses higher up. Bands of mylonitized quartz porphyry and ultramylonites
can be found in the basal part of the northern flank. Porphyritic granite is seen to grade into
AlmoraGroupaugengneissesinplaces,bothofwhicharetheresultofanatexisduring

23
metamorphism (Joshi et al. 1994). There is a massive emplacement of a batholithic size
Champawat Granodiorite sill on the southern flank of the Saryu Formation. The Champawat
Group sits on top of the Saryu Formation. It is a batholithic body emplaced in the upper part of
the Saryu Formation. It is mostly granodiorite, which grades into tonalite (quartz-diorite) and
adamellite (quartz-monzonite) (Valdiya, 1962a). The upper part of the Almora Group is formed
by the Gumalikhet Formation. Its constituents include graphite schists, biotite-rich
metagreywackes, and carbonaceous phyllites. Carbonaceous phyllite is converted into graphitic
schist in the northwest, and greywacke is converted into biotite schists.

Ramgarh Nappe

The Ramgarh Group's mylonitized granite or granite gneiss forms the base of the Almora Nappe,
which is exposed all along the North Almora Shear Zone. The Ramgarh Nappe is made up of
rocks from the Ramgarh Group and is tectonically and lithostratigraphically related to the Chail
Group of Himachal Pradesh (Valdiya, 1978). It is the Chail Group's southern extension. The
Ramgarh Group is made up of the lowermost Debguru Porphyroids, the Betalghat member, and
the Nathuakhan Formation in the uppermost part. Green phyllites and schists are intercalatedwith
flaggy quartzites and metasiltstones in the Ramgarh Group. The presence of mylonitized granites
and granitoids dominates the lowermost Debguru Porphyroids. They are widely
mylonitizedorotherwiseshearedandfoliated,withretrogradetransformationoftheirconstituent
ferromagnesian minerals producing a greenish appearance due to chlorite formation. The
Debguru Porphyritic suite is found in two tectonically distinct belts: the northern Ramgarh-
Debguru-Garaphor belt and the southern Amritpur-Durgapipal belt. The presence of mylonitized
phyllite and marble lenses dominates the Betalghat member. At the top of the Nathuakhan
Formation, mylonites, phyllites, quartzites, schists, and meta-siltstones predominate. The
Debguru Porphyroids overlie the Ramgarh Thrust, which in turn overlies the Bhimtal Volcanics
and the Krol Group's Nagthat quartzites. Debguru Porphyroids are also known as Ramgarh
Porphyry (Pande, 1950), and they are made up of quartz porphyry, porphyritic gneissose granite,
and deformed augen gneisses. They coexist with schists and sericitic quartzites. The porphyroids
exhibit strong mylonitization near the Ramgarh Thrust contact and have been dubbed "sheared
granite" (Merh et al., 1971). Trivedi et al. (1984) dated the porphyritic and mylonitized granite
gneissoftheRamgarhNappe,whichcorrespondstotheDebguruPorphyroids,as1765±60Ma

24
 using the Rb/Sr method with an initial Sr ratio of 0.7235± 0.0046. This initial ratio suggests an
upper crustal origin due to sedimentary fusion or regional metamorphism of acidic volcanic
rocks. The granitic gneisses of the Ramgarh-Padampuri area were dated (Rb/Sr) at 1215± 100Ma
by Bhanot et al. (1980). The K-Ar ages of the Amritpur granite's muscovite and biotite are 1880±
40 Ma and 1330± 40 Ma, respectively (Vardarajan, 1978).
Regional Setting:

Almora Nappe is one of the largest nappe of Kumaon Lesser Himalaya which is transported
tectonically from higher Himalayan to Main Central Thrust(MCT).The Basal Shear Zone of
Almora Nappe has undergone multiple phases of Deformation and Metamorphism. The rocks of
the northern and southern flanks of the nappe are highly mylonitized while the degree of
mylonitization is reduced as moved towards the central part of the Nappe and finally grade into
unmylonitized metamorphics.
The distinct Lithostratigraphy and evolutionary history of Himalaya, Lithotectonically is
subdivided in to following four divisions-
a. Trans or Tibetan Himalaya
b. Central, Higher or Great Himalaya

c. Inner or Lesser Himalaya

d. Outer or Sub-Himalaya

a. Outer or Sub Himalaya-

The abunadance of molassic sediments and immature topography characterizes the

southern belt of outer Siwalik Himalaya. Siwalik from the lesser Himalayais separated
fromnorth of outer Himalaya through Main Boundary Thrust(MBT).The Siwalik is
separated from tarai bhabar zone through Himalayan frontal fault(HFF).

b. Inner or Lesser Himalaya-

The topography of Kumaon Himalaya is remarkably uniformand giving the impression
ofrejuvinated plateau. The elevation ranges from 1500- 3000 meters. The lesser
Himalaya about 80 kilometers wide where Main Boundary Thrust separates theupper
tertiary Siwalik rocksfrom the late Himalayan Precambrian Lesser Himalayan rocks.
Main central thrust separates the metamorphic of great Himalaya from the sedimentaries
25
 of lesser Himalaya.

c. Central, Great or Higher Himalaya-

These are the snowclad peaks of higher Himalayawith highest altitude ofabout 6000
meters. These Poly deformedPrecambrian metamorphic have width of about 25
kilometers. These are intruded by Cambro-ordovician and tertiary granites.

d.Trans or Tibetan Himalaya-

The great Himalayan Precambrian complex are separated from the late Proterozoic to upper
cretaceous sediments of tethyan or Tibetan Himalayaby tectonic discontinuity known as by Trans
Himadri Fault proposed by Valdiya. The structural elements present in the Almora group of rocks
can be divided into three structural regimes,Viz:

1. Pre Shear Zone structures

2. Syn Shear zone structures

3. Post Shear zone structures, with respect to the basal shear zone structure

The Pre shearzone structuresthat are associated with the Himalayan metamorphic
and escape the tertiary shearing preserves the pre Himalayan metamorphic
signatures(M1). TheSyn shear zone structures are preserved in the mylonitized rocks
documenting dynamic metamorphism that are associated with the Himalayan
orogeny(M2).

Pre-Himalayan Metamorphism (M₁)

TheDuality in the generation of garneti.e. garnet within garnet(Tiwari and Joshi 2004), signifies
that there is hiatus is in the crystallization and associated metamorphism is pre Himalayan nature.
The development of two generation of garnetwith variation in their internal schistosity(S1) and
designated them as Tectno metamorphic angular unconformity.

26
In Almora Nappe poly-deformational events are quite common except the central part of the nappe
that has escaped shearing. The rocks of Saryu formationthat contains regional metamorphosed
Schists and gneisses which shows the occurrence of two phases of deformation D1 and D2. The S1
Schistocity planes developed during the D1 deformation. Contains the muscovite and biotite flakes
associated with the enequant quartz grains, which have been affected by tight to isoclinal F2 fold.
The D2 deformation develops the S2 schistocity planes develop parallel to the crenulation cleavage
defined by Mica flakes.

The pre shear deformation structures that are present in thecentral part of the fold are unaffected by
mylonitization. The almora group of rocks that are present in the central part of the nappe shows
the triclinic symmetry and these are evident in the LPO pattern of Quartz C-axis of Schists and
Gneisses of Saryu formation of Almora group of rocks.

These rocks have escaped the intense shear deformation and stores the evidences of pre shear
deformation. The pre Himalayan metamorphic evidences Unmylonitized Almora group of
rocks(Joshi and Tiwari,2004). These rocks have undergone green schist facies to upper amphibolite
facies metamorphism(2005).

The Pre-Himalayan regional metamorphism in the four metamorphic mineral zones have been
recorded from chlorite biotite to sillimanite K-feldspar zone. These are Precambrian unmylonitized
sillimanite bearing gneisses(1865±60 Ma Trivedi et al). Present in the central part of the nappe
represents the peak of regional metamorphism in Almora Nappe(Tiwari 2000), it is concluded that
regional metamorphism in Almora nappe is Precambrian in age. The Hornfelsic texture and well
preserved contact metamorphic mineral assemblages overprints the regional Schistosity(Joshi 1994
et al) that are found around the intrusion of early Palaeozoicin granitoides(560±20 Ma Trivedi et al
1994). Also it is concluded that dominant regional metamorphism is Precambrian in age which has
escaped shearing during Nappe movement.

Himalayan Metamorphism (M₂)

During the Himalayan orogeny the Ramgarh group of rocks andbasal part of almora group of
rocksexposed around the thrust margin are highly myloniotized and have been dynamically
metamorphosed(M2).The majority of Mylonite zone indicate lower green schist metamorphism of
chlorite biotite grade responsible forrecrystalisation of minerals in the pressure shadows of the

27
asymmetric porphyroclast systems. The phase relations of this Himalayan metamorphism (M₂) are

virtually similar to those of the lower grade zones of regional pre-Himalayan metamorphism(M₁)
because the bulk composition of the rocks is likely to be identical during the metamorphism.

The Himalayan dynamic metamorphism (M₂) is characterized by the mineral constituents within
the pressure shadow zones do not always show fibrous/fine growth of minerals parallel to c-
foliation.
The characteristic fibrous /fine growth of mineral assemblages also occur and recrystallised
mineral assemblages within the pressure shadows are quite frequent.

Structural Setting-

The Almora Nappe lying in the Kumaon Lesser Himalaya is divided in two Major Thrust
plane.The Main Boundary Thrust separates the the south the young sedimentary Siwalik group of
rocks from Lesser Himalaya.The Lesser Himalaya is separated from the Precambrian High grade
metamorphicsof Great Himalaya by Main Central Thrust(MCT).Thelithology, structural pattern
and magmatic history defines the each tectonic unit.The Outer Lesser Himalaya comprises a
succession of three nappes overlying up one over the other.The tectonic sheet that is overlying is
consists of slightly metamorphosed early Precambrian flysch is penetrated which is divided in to
voluminous granitic porphyroides of the Ramgarh group.The tectonic sheet overlying is primarily
composed of late Precambrian moderately metamorphosed sedimentsand augen gneisses and
granite-granodiorites of trondhjemitic suite (Almora group).

The Himalaya comprises of the geological formations that take up sharp turns forming hairpin
bendsthe eastern end and western extremities of the arc and continue southwards into the Burmese
and Baluchistan arcs respectively. The Himalaya can be divided into five geographic regions
starting from West to east(Gansser,1964). The Himalaya in the longitudinal section is divided into
series of parallel tectonic sections starting from north to South. The outer or sub Himalaya
comprising the Foothill zone are extended in the South by large alluvial planes of Ganga. The
northern edge comprises the tectonic feature Main boundary fault in the South and Main central
thrust in the north which lies along the length of lesser Himalaya. Some workers on the other hand
consider the northern extent of lesser Himalaya to somewhere other place. They consider that real
boundary in their opinion is that the plane that separates the Precambrian granites injected
28
metamorphic of medium grade Munsiyari formation from the katzonal and a very high grade
metamorphic that makes the bulk of Himalaya(Vaikrita group).

The lesser Himalaya comprises of tectonically compressed blocks ofPalaeozoicand Mesozoic

crystalline, metamorphic and sedimentary rocks. The Himalaya comprises the Main Central
Thrustis a major tectonic feature and has brought the crystalline rocks of higher Himalaya over the
younger sedimentaries. The actual amplitude of these movements cannot be determined.

The higher Himalaya comprises of single range with height of about 6000 meters.The granite and
gneisses composed in this zone is about 24 kilometers in width. The core or axis of this zone
consists of central crystalline and were considered to be tertiary intrusive followed by
compressional movements which is responsible for the uplift of Himalaya. It is considered that
these sequences are mostly Precambrian or Palaeozoicin age and represents geanticline sequences
between the Unfossiliferous sediments in the South of lesser Himalayaand a highly fossiliferous
sequence of the Tethys zone in the north.The Tethys zone preserved stratigraphic sequencesfossils
e.g. productus, ophiceras, etc. whereas in the Lesser Himalaya it is primarily based on structural-
setting and lithological control.
The Mountaineers terrain extending for about 320 kilometerslying between the Kali River in the
east and Sutluj in the westin kumaun Himalaya. The modern investigation techniques and work has
been done between 1930 and 1940.
In the lesser Himalaya the complete absence of fossils causes many problems in correlation as it is
based on stratigraphy only. This also arises doubts on certain stratigraphic interpretations.The Main
boundary fault to the south and the Main Central Thrust to the north are the twotectonic
divisionsthat divides the Kumaon lesser Himalayan sequence. Some workers also proposes the
existence of regional inversion of sedimentary piles. There are two separate tectonic beltsof
sedimentary/metasedimentary rocks divided by an ESE-WNW directed Almora-Dudhatoli
Crystalline Zone.The outer sedimentary Belt in the south of the crystalline mass is the Krol Belt
while the Inner sedimentary Belt to the north constitutes the Deoban-Tejam zone (Gannesser,
1964), or the Jaunsar –Berinag nappe (Valdiya,1978).

29
A generalized tectonic sequence for the Lesser Kumaon Himalaya is tabulated below:

Siwalik Group Vaikrita Group

Vaikrita Thrust
Munsiari Formation
Main Central Thrust
Almora Dudhatoli Nappe
(and Askote, Baijnath, Chiplakot & Satpuli Klippes)

----------- Almora Thrust ---------

Outer Sedimentary Belt

Inner Sedimentary Belt
Main Boundary Fault

GEOLOGICAL SETTING

The Kumaun Lesser Himalayahave been characterized by four major lithotectonic units of the
Kumaun Lesser Himalaya(Valdiya, 1980).These are namely: (1) The PrecambrianTejam Groups
and theDamtha Group sedimentaries present in the inner Lesser Himalaya as autochthonous units;
(2) The Krol Nappe of the outer Lesser Himalaya composed of the Mussoorie andJaunsar a groups
of sediments of Palaeozoic ages. In the Inner Lesser Himalaya the Krol Nappe is not present per se
and instead the Berinag Nappe made up of a lithostratigraphic unit of the Jaunsar group of Krol
Nappe is seen; (3) The parts ofthe Krol Nappe and Berinag Nappe are covered by the Ramgarh
Nappe that consists of intensely mylonitized granite gneisses overlain by a thin cover of
sedimentaries and (4) The Almora Nappe made up of medium grade metamorphics intruded by
syntectonic and deformed granitic suites.
The Lower Damtha Group at the base of the Lesser Himalaya is composed of Chakrata Formation
of turbidite flysch, grading upwards into the slate-quartzites assemblage of the Rautgara Formation
which is intruded by dolerites and the basalts are also present.The Damtha Group is conformably
succeeded by the Tejam Group and consists of Deoban and Mandhali formations.The Tejam Group
has been thrust over in the Inner Lesser Himalaya by a package of quartz-arenite and basic
volcanics of Berinag Formation. The Berinag Formation is similar in lithology with the Nagthat

30
Formation of the Krol Nappe to the south and with the southeastern Himachal.In the Outer Lesser
Himalaya the in-situ Damtha in the north and the Siwaliks in the south have been thrust over by a
thickness of 6000 meters succession of sedimentary rocks making up the Krol Nappe.The Nagthat
Formation is comprises of quartz-arenites along with the slates and includes syn-sedimentary basic
volcanics and it is the southern extension of the Berinag Formation.The Blaini Formation is
comprises of conglomerates with greywackes and siltstones. The Krol Formationoverlying is
comprises of dominant carbonates, viz. limestones, marls and slates in the lower part and dolomites
in the upper.
The third litho-tectonic unit lying below the Almora Nappe of the crystalline rocks constitutes the
Ramgarh Group.Ramgarh Group has been demarcated as tectonically interspersed between the
Ramgarh Thrust at its base and the overlying Almora Thrust.Ramgarh Nappe is believed to be the
the southeastern extension of the Chail Nappe of Himachal Pradesh (Valdiya, 1980).The two
lithologic units consisting of the Ramgarh Group are (1) the lower Debguru Porphyroids and (2)
the upper Nathuakhan Formation which show severe deformation,pervasive shearing and
retrograde transformation all along its extent.The upper unit, viz. the Nathuakhan Formation of the
Ramgarh Nappe is consisted of the olive green and grey phyllites interbedded with quartz wacke
which resembles the in situ Damtha Group (Valdiya, 1980).Below the Munsiari Thrust, the
Ramgarh unit is connected with the multiple tectonic slicing between the Mandakini and
Alakananda rivers. The Almora Group that represents the southwestward extension of the Jutogh
Group of Himachal Pradesh encompasses three lithologic units. These are (1) the basal Saryu
Formation consisting of phyllonites (an old term which can be closely approximated to the green
schist facies mylonites), chlorite-sericite-biotite schists, garnetiferous sericite schists and quartzites.

PREVIOUS WORK

The rocks of Almora and Ramgarh groups and there equivalents have been studied by many
workers.The main focus of their includes lithology, stratigraphy, petrology and tectonics. Their
earlier works are as follows.

The first attempt to map the geology of the Himalaya in this region was by (Captain Herbert 1842).
(Middlemiss 1890) was the first worker who studied the granites of Himalaya.

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(Auden1937) was the first to identify the Main Central Thrust(MCT) as the contact between the
high grade metamorphics and the Underlying sedimentaries in the Joshimath area of the Kumaun
Himalaya. He also identified the two nappe units, Viz. the Garhwal Nappe and the Ranikhet-
Dudhatoli nappe.

The conclusion of (Auden 1937) were partly modified by (Heim and Ganesser1939)who carried
out a detailed work on the geology of the Kumaon Himalaya.They identified Almora Nappe, and
separated it from the Garhwal Nappe by a thrust, which they designated as the South Almora
Thrust. (Auden1937) believed the central crystalline to be the root zone of Almora Nappe.

Heim and Gansser (1939) had included the Ramgarh in the Almora Nappe but (Gansser1964)
included it in the lower tectonic subdivision of the Main Almora Nappe and further recognised it as
a separate tectonic slab.

The quartz-porphyry and metasedimentaries of the Ramgarh group were suggested by (Pande
1956) to be migmatites of the Precambrian age. These are thrust over the volcano sedimentary units
along the Ramgarh Thrust. The Almora group of rocks were(Pande et al.1963).He called these
mesograde metamorphics, gneisses and granite-granodiorites as the Almora-Dwarahat series.
According to these workers the porphyroids of the Ramgarh region,the Ramgarh migmatites were
formed by alkali metasomatism.Betalghat crystalline limestone member was correlated with the
Mandhali Formation by (Tiwari and Mehdi 1964).

TheSouth Almora Thrust near Uprari and in the west of Peora in Almora districtmetamorphic and
structural studies were carried out by (Vashiand Merh 1965) who associated the metamorphism
with various phases of deformation.

The geology and structure of the Almora Crystallineshave been studied and described by (Misra
and Sharma 1966, 1967, 1972,Misra et al 1973) and suggested three phases of deformation.

According to some workers the Almora Crystalline may be autochthonous. According to (Misra et
al. 1973), the constituent rocks are folded into recumbent folds occurring as two Sub Nappes called
as the Almora Nappe-I and Almora Nappe-II, which are separated by the Mukteshwar Thrust.

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The mineralogical aspects granites andaugen gneisses of the Almora-Dudhatoli region were
described by(Singh 1979) who described an anatectic origin for the granites and gneissic granites,
while albite bearing augen gneisses were formed by metamorphism.

(Valdiya 1976, 1978) suggested that the Almora Nappe is the southeastern extension of the Jutogh
Nappe of Himachal Pradesh. The rocks of Almora Nappe were thrust over the rocks of Ramgarh
Nappe. The Ramgarh nappe isassociated with the Chail Nappe of Pilgrim and (West 1928) in
Himachal Pradesh by (Valdiya 1980). A elaborate description of geology explaining the
stratigraphic,structural and petrological aspects of the rocks of Kumaun Lesser Himalaya was
provided by (Valdiya 1980). He follows the Heim and Gansser’s interpretation and coined a single
huge recumbent fold involving both the crystalline rocks of the Almora and the sedimentary
sequence of the southern basin.

The stratigraphic–tectonic setting and north-western Himalaya emplacement history of granitoids

of the Kumaun was studied by (Rabindra Kumar et al. 1983),who studied that the stratigraphic ages
of the rocks are not yet clearly defined and they have been generally assigned Precambrian ages
because of theirstratigraphic position and unfossiliferous nature.

The granitoid belts of the Himalaya have been studied by (Sharma 1983) who suggested that along
the Jutogh-Munsiari Thrust, the oldest crystalline basement in the Himalaya is uplifted and is
characterized by mylonitized and cataclastic augen gneisses.

The age of the Almora granite and gneisses were suggested by (Le Fort 1975) to be 315±5 Ma and
365±5 Ma respectively. In western Nepal the Dadeldhura granites have been dated at 265 Ma by
(Le Fort. Trivedi et al. 1984) on the basis of Rb-Sr dating have given 560±20 Ma date for the
intrusive granites of Almora and Champawat.

The study of structural setup and various shear sense indicators of in the mylonites of the Basal
Shear Zone of the Almora Nappe, (Joshi 1999) explained a complex three stage tectonic evolution
of Almora Nappe. The first southward movements studied were ductile in nature; the second
observedto be brittle-ductile while the third movements were brittle in nature. The second and third
movements were directed top to north (i.e. reversed in the NASZ). He demonstrated that the NRT
which is explained as a high angle thrust/fault in the geological literature of Kumaun Himalaya is
actually a low angle south dipping tectonic discontinuity.

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(S.A. Rashid and S.M. Zainuddin1995) studied the Lower PalaeozoicGranitic Magmatism near
Ranikhet, Kumaun Himalaya.The Major and Trace-Element Geochemistry and Tectonic Setting of
the Lower PalaeozoicRanikhet granitic rocks lie in between the tectonically active South and North
Almora thrust zones and contain two types of granites: a Gneissose granite (GG) and a younger
Porphyritic granite (PG).These Ranikhet granites shows that these are Rb rich and Sr poor, they
reveal peraluminous characteristics and correspond to the S-type granites. A syn-collisional
tectonic environment is also explained for these granites.Lower Palaeozoicgranites studied
contains the all along the Lesser Himalayan belt extending from Munsehra, NW Himalaya to
Palung, Nepal Himalaya represent the widespread magmatic activity around the end of the
Cambrian times. These granites provides the evidences for the exitence of a syn-collisional tectonic
environment in the early Palaeozoicperiod.

(Singh and Agarwal 1999) studied the various deformational patterns in the Krol belt of the Lesser
Himalaya and explained thrust sheet-induced deformation in the foot block. The Himalaya and
suggested thrust sheet-induced deformation in the foot block. They consider that the Krol belt is an
autochthonous unit and the deformation took place due to the movement of overlying,1 km thick
metamorphic thrust sheet. The regional synformal structures developed due to the later stages of
tectonic evolution.

(Harrison et al. 1999) studied the origin of Himalayan anatexis and inverted metamorphism based
on some models in which continuous convergence is manifested by episodic magmatism and out-
of-sequence thrusting.

(Celerier et.al., 2009) explained the thermal and deformational history of Kumaun and Garhwal
Himalaya in northwestern part of India to quantify the thermal evolutions of Lesser Himalaya, viz.
an early Miocene phase of over thrusting of a hot hanging wall over a down going footwall,
Himalayan Sequence and further use these results to evaluate a range of tectonic scenarios using
forward thermo-kinematic models.(Rao and Sharma 2009, 2011) explicated the arc magmatism and
petrogenesis of granitoids rocks from eastern Kumaun Himalaya.

METHODOLOGY:

FIELD WORK-

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The field work was carried out in Ranikhet area of Almora Nappe and geological mapping on 2cm
to 1km scale has been carried out in parts of the area. The collected rock samples are
phyllites,schists, Garnet mica Schist and gneisses that are intercalated with quartzite bands of
millimeter to tens of meter scale in the field. The schists were observed to grade into gneisses in the
field(Figure ). The Field observations suggest that the area comprises low to medium grade rocks
with occasional gneisses. Various types of deformational features including Intrafolial isoclinal
folds (F1), isoclinal to tight F2 folds, tight to open F3 folds and broad open F4 warps and various
asymmetric shear sense indicators were also studied and photographed. Minor shear zones and the
South Almora Thrust near Uprari area were identified.The petrographical studies for the area are
being carried out for the already prepared thin sections of rocks collected during the field workon
the basis of the studies carried out the metamorphism, granitization, and deformation appear to be
closely related as evidenced by the textures, structure and mineral paragenesis of rocks in the area.
The earliest metamorphism is evidenced by the recrystalisation of chlorite, muscovite and biotite.
These minerals are oriented parallel to the axial plane foliation(S-2) in the country rocks. The S-2
defines the dominant foliation in the area.

Laboratory Investigations:

(i) Thin sections were prepared from the rock samples for petrographic studies to
decipher the mineral assemblages and mineral reactions present in the rocks and to
select the suitable mineral pairs for thermobarometry to understand the
metamorphism during the evolution of the area.

(ii) Electron Probe Micro Analysis was carried out for the selected points based on the
suitable mineral phases. Garnet-biotite geothermometry was carried out to
determine the temperature using models (Thompson, 1976; Holdaway & Lee, 1977;
Ferry and Spear, 1978; Perchuk and Lavrent’eva, 1983; Aranovich et.al., 1988).
Garnet-cordierite-sillimanite-quartz geobarometry was carried out to determine the
pressures using the suitable models (Perchuk et.al., 1885; Lal, 1991; Nichols et.al.,
1992; Wu et.al., 2004).

(iii) X-Ray Fluorescence analysis and Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry
was carried out for the single bulk rock compositions to know the whole rock
chemistry.
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 (iv) The structural and metamorphic data generated during the study was integrated to
suggest a model for the evolution of the area.

(v) The phase diagram section, commonly known as Pseudosection was prepared based
on the single bulk rock compositions to decipher the field of stability of different
equilibrium mineral assemblages.

SCOPE OF WORK

Theconvergence of Indian and Tibetan plates the crustal shortening during the Himalayan
orogenyand are largely accommodated by thrusting all along the Himalaya.The sedimentary rocks
of the lesser Himalaya overlies the higher himalayan metamorphic rocks moved southwards
tectonically over the metamorphics now occur as large and small nappes and klippe tectonically
resting upon the lesser Himalayan sedimentaries throughout the Himalayan strike.

The Ranikhet area is the part of Almora Nappe that is tectonically moved over the Ramgarh Nappe
separated by the South Almora Thrust demarcates the plane of abrupt changes of grade of
metamorphism, the Phyllites and sericitic quartzites and marble of Ramgarh group representing
greenschist facies of metamorphism, are in strong contrast to the garnetiferous mica schist,Schist
and gneisses of almandine amphibolite facies exhibited by the Almora group.

1.Most of the work has been done with respect to the Almora Nappe.Very few work has been
carried out with respect to Ranikhet area of Almora Nappe.

2.Previously the Petrotectonic investigation has not been done to discriminate the tectonic
evolution of the area.

3.Metamorphic zones have not been delineated based on the reaction isograds to understand the
apparent disposition of the rocks.

4.The detailed petrogenesis to depict the genesis and tectonic evolution of the rocks have not been
done in Ranikhet area of Almora Nappe.

5.Thermobarometry, petrogenetic grid modeling, mineral stability and phase equilibria studies to
understand the grade and intensity of metamorphism have not been carried out for the Almora
Nappe.

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