AircraftDesign 13
AircraftDesign 13
AircraftDesign 13
Fig. 13.1 The polar for uncambered and cambered airfoils. The angel of attack α for
C D =f ( C L ) is also indicated on the polar
If the polar is stated as an equation, the drag coefficient is written as a function of the lift
coefficient. A polar for an uncambered airfoil as in Fig. 13.1 can be written in the
following form:
2
C D =C D 0 + k ⋅ C L .
wherein
1
k=
π ⋅ A ⋅e
with the Oswald factor e and the aspect ratio A . Here the effective aspect ratio Aeff
according to Section 7 should be used for the aspect ratio A , in order to take account of
the influence of endplates or winglets, which increase the effective aspect ratio Aeff
compared to the aspect ratio calculated with A=b2 /S . Irrespective of which aspect ratio
is included in the calculation, the symbol A is simply retained in the equations in this
case. The final result is
C2L
C D =C D 0 + .
π ⋅ A ⋅e
A polar for an uncambered airfoil as in Fig. 13.1 can be written in the following form:
2
C D =C D , min +k ( C L −C L, min ) .
In the case of an uncambered airfoil the drag is minimal if the lift is zero. This is
the case with an angle of attack of α =0 .
In the case of a cambered airfoil the drag is minimal for a specific positive lift.
This shifts the polar upward. For airfoils with a small camber this shift is
minimal. For this reason, a polar according to equation (13.3) can be used for
simplification.
In the case of high angles of attack close to the maximum angle of attack α C L , max
,
the drag increases more sharply than in the parabolic form according to
4
equations (13.3) and (13.4). A formulation with a term ( C L − C L, min ) is able to
represent the correct drag coefficients for both low and high lift coefficients:
0.2. Drag
The drag can be classified according to physical causes or according to the drag-inducing
elements.
In addition wave drag comes into play, caused by a Mach number M that is greater than
the critical Mach number M crit . By definition, M crit is the flight Mach number where a
flow Mach number M =1 arises locally on the aircraft for the first time with increasing
airspeed. This can, for example, occur on top of the wing. Chapter 7 gives more
information on this phenomenon.
Very varied suggestions are made in the literature to further classify drag. One version
(see Fig. 13.2) subdivides the zero-lift drag into profile drag, interference drag, and
miscellaneous drag (trim drag and additional or parasite drag). The profile drag can in
turn be subdivided into skin-friction drag and pressure drag.
Wave drag is caused by shock waves on the airfoil. At high Mach numbers, both
the zerolift drag and the induced drag are increased by wave drag. The wave drag
is only shown if it is calculated separately (and not as part of zero-lift drag and
induced drag).
Skin-friction drag is caused by the shear flow in the thin boundary layer close to
the airfoil surface. - Form drag is dependent upon the boundary layer, which can
assume a large thickness especially in areas of separated flow and therefore
prevents pressure being regained in the area of the trailing edge.
landing gear;
cockpit windows;
wing;
fuselage;
empennage;
landing gear;
cockpit windows;
Despite this statement, DATCOM 1978 contains one of the most detailed publicly
available handbook methods for calculating drag. The DATCOM version therefore also
forms the basis for aircraft design in textbooks such as Roskam VI and Raymer 1992.
Hoerner 1965 is still a central source for answering further detailed questions on the
subject of "drag".
C D ,0 is the zero-lift drag of the aircraft when the slats, landing flaps and landing gear are
retracted (clean configuration). Their additional drag is taken into account separately by
Δ C D ,wave is the drag rise due to wave drag. A typical increase in drag with the Mach
number is shown by Fig. 13.6 for four different types of aircraft. An estimation method is
derived from Fig. 13.6 with equation (13.25).
e=0.85 can be used for retracted flaps, slats and landing gear for simplicity's sake. If one
wishes to go further, a calculation of the Oswald factor e according to equation (13.26) is
also possible.
This method uses the aircraft geometry which is now known according to the preceding
design steps to estimate the zero-lift drag D0 with the aid of an equivalent skin-friction
coefficient C f e . The skin-friction coefficient multiplied by the dynamic pressure and the
wetted area gives the zero-lift drag: D 0=q C f e S wet =q C D , 0 SW . In contrast to the
skinfriction drag coefficient C f , the equivalent skin-friction coefficient C f e also takes into
account the other forms of drag contributing to the zero-lift drag; these are form drag,
interference drag, trim drag and additional drag. The equivalent skin-friction coefficient
C f e is derived from measured values of the zero-lift drag. For this reason C f e includes all
drag contributions as mentioned.
S wet
C D ,0=C f e ⋅
.
SW
Empirical values for C f e are contained in Table 13.1 and Table 13.2.
S wet is the wetted area of the whole aircraft. In the case of conventional configurations
the following parts must be taken into account, as a rule:
fuselage;
wings;
In the case of unconventional configurations the wetted area of the aircraft has to be
determined with the other corresponding components of the aircraft.
Table 13.1 The equivalent skin-friction drag coefficient C f e on the basis of general
experience (Roskam I)
sailplane 0.003
The drag calculation with the equivalent skin-friction coefficient C f e is thus reduced to
the determination of the wetted areas.
Table 13.2and
Bomber Thecivil
equivalent coefficient C f e on the basis of general
skin-friction drag0.0030
transport
experience (Raymer 1992)
Military cargo (high upsweep fuselage) 0.0035
Air Force fighter 0.0035S wet
aircraft type C D =C fe C -subsonic
Navy fighter 0.0040
0
Sr e f f e
Clean supersonic cruise aircraft 0.0025
Light aircraft - single engine 0.0055
The wetted area of fuselages
Light aircraft - twin engine with a cylindrical
0.0045middle section is as follows for λ F ≥ 4.5
according to Torenbeek 1988:
Prop seaplane 0.0065 2 /3
Jet seaplane S wet , F=π ⋅d F ⋅ l F0.0040
⋅ 1− (
2
λF
1
1+ 2
λF)( )
d F Fuselage diameter. For non-circular fuselages D F is calculated from the fuselage
circumference P with d F=P /π
( )(
2/ 3
)
ln 0.3
S wet , F=π ⋅ d F ⋅l F ⋅ 0.5+0.135 ⋅ 1.015+
lF λF
1.5
l n The distance from the aircraft nose in x direction to the start of the cylindrical part of
the fuselage.
λ Taper, λ=c t / cr .
Equation (13.8) can also be applied to the horizontal and vertical tailplane or the canard.
Fig. 13.3 Geometry of a nacelle as used for the calculation of its wetted area. The distance
l 1 is measured from the leading edge to the position of maximum thickness of the fan
cowling
The wetted area of a nacelle is as follows according to Torenbeek 1988 with the
geometrical parameters from
S Fig. =S13.3: +S +S
wet , N wet, fan cowl. wet, gas gen. wet, p l u g
[ [ ( ) ( ( ( )) )] ]
l
l1
l ⋅D
lD⋅egD
S wet, gas gen. =π ⋅l g ⋅ Dg ⋅ 1 − n ⋅ 1− n n⋅ 1− 0.18 ⋅ n
3 Dg
l D
S wet, fan cowl. =l n ⋅ D n ⋅ 2+0.35 1 +0.8 ⋅ 1 h l +1.15 ⋅ 1− 1 ⋅5 e f
Dl g 3 Dn
lg
S wet, plug =0.7 ⋅ π ⋅l p ⋅ D p
A simple approximation formula should be found for the wetted area of the pylon
S wet, pylons according to the geometry.
of components
When calculating the polar from the individual drag of components (component build-
up method), the zero-lift drag is calculated separately for each component. For
simplification, the induced drag can be determined as in Section 5 with the aid of an
assumed Oswald factor e .
2 a form factor F F , which takes into account the pressure drag of the component;
4 the factor S wet / S ref , which serves to relate the drag coefficient of the component
to the reference wing area.
Re 1.) The skin-friction coefficient C f describes the drag of a longitudinal flow along a
flat plate. In the case of laminar flow the following applies:
C f , laminar =1.328 / √ R e .
In the case of turbulent flow the skin-friction drag according to DATCOM 1978 (4.1.5.1-
26) and Raymer 1992 equation (12.27) is
0.455
C f , turbulent =
¿¿
Equation (3.17) is illustrated in Fig. 13.4. The Reynold's number is known to be
V ⋅l
ℜ= .
v
In the case of a wing or empennage, the characteristic length l is the mean aerodynamic
chord (MAC). In the case of the fuselage, the characteristic length is the total length of
the fuselage. v is the kinematic viscosity, which is a function of aircraft altitude.
If the surface is relatively rough, the skin-friction drag C f , turbulent will be higher than
calculated by equation (13.16). This effect is taken account of according to DATCOM
1978 (4.1.5.1-27) and Raymer 1992 by means of a so-called cut-off Reynold's number
(Fig. 13.5):
(k)
l 1.053
für M <0.9 : ℜcut-off =38.21⋅
=44.62⋅ ( ) ⋅ M .
1.053
l 1.16
für M ≥ 0.9 : ℜ cut-off
In this l is the characteristic length and k is the surface
k roughness according to Table
13.3.
Fig. 13.4 Skin-friction coefficient for turbulent flow DATCOM 1978 (4.1.5.1-26)
Bild 13.5
In the case of most aircraft the flow over the total wetted surface of the fuselage is
turbulent. Laminar flow may exist on the front 10 % to 20 % of the wing. A carefully
designed composite aircraft, such as the Piaggio GP 180, may exhibit laminar flow over
50 % of the wing and over 20 % to 35 % of the fuselage. Raymer 1992 suggests estimating
the proportion of laminar flow k laminar for the aircraft in question, in order to thus
calculate a mean skin-friction drag
According to DATCOM 1978 (4.2.3.1) the form factor for the fuselage is calculated
according to
60 ( lF /d F )
F F F =1+ + .
( l F /d F ) 400
3
According to RAYMER 1992 the form factor for nacelles is calculated from
0.35
F F N =1+ .
( lN / d N )
l N and d N are the length and the diameter of the nacelle respectively.
No interference factor is given for the fuselage, because the interference of the
components of a conventional aircraft design exists with the fuselage. On the other hand,
the fuselage does not exhibit any interference with itself! Table 13.4 Interference factor Q
high-wing, mid-wing or
low-wing position with
aerodynamically
optimized wing-fuselage
wing
fairing low-wing position
1.0
without aerodynamically
optimized wing-fuselage
fairing
- 1.10 …
( )
b
M
Δ C D , wave =a ⋅ −1
M crit
M crit is the critical Mach number of the (project) aircraft to be examined. For a and b the
values from Table 13.5 have to be inserted. Parameters a and b have been ascertained
mathematically, with the aim of reproducing the curve from Fig. 13.6 as precisely as
possible. To do this, the critical Mach number M crit was read off directly from Fig. 13.6. It
is connected to M D D in a certain way - by definition the Mach number where the wave
drag reaches a value of 0.002 or 20 drag counts. Table 13.5 Parameters used to calculate
wave drag
Fig. 13.6 Drag rise due to wave drag for selected aircraft (Roskam II)
C-5A Lockheed C-5A Galaxy. Military transport, jet, m мто =349000 k g, V C R=232 m/s .
727 Boeing 727-200. Passenger aircraft, jet, mMTO =95000 k g , V C R=254 m/s , M =0.82
.
F-106 Convair F-106A Delta Dart, the primary all-weather interceptor aircraft for the
United States Air Force from the 1960s through the 1980s. Delta wing with NACA 0004-
65 mod airfoil at root and tip. The fuselage was designed according to area ruling. The
practical procedure for estimating Δ C D ,wave would therefore be as follows:
1 Select one of the four stated aircraft that looks as similar as possible to the project
aircraft;
2 Determine M crit of the project aircraft or estimate M crit of the project aircraft
from difference or ratio of M crit and M D D with the aid of Table 13.5. Note: M D D of
the project aircraft is known from the wing design;
4 Estimate Δ C D ,wave with the aid of equation (13.25) as a function of the Mach
number.
f ( λ)=0.005¿
In this equation λ is the wing taper. A typical value for f (λ) is 0.0062.