GAS FLOW NETWORK ANALYSIS IN PUTRAJAYA RESIDENTIAL AREA USING

COX METHOD

SHARIFAH RAHIMAH BT WAN MAHDI

Report submitted in fulfillment of the requirements

for the award of the degree of
Bachelor of Chemical Engineering (Gas Technology)

Faculty of Chemical and Natural Resources Engineering

Universiti Malaysia Pahang

JANUARY 2012
 iv

ABSTRACT

This paper presents a gas flow network analysis in Putrajaya residential area
which focusing on natural gas pipeline due to its economical advantages. Increasing
demand of natural gas makes the distribution pipeline network becomes more and more
complex. Pressure drop occurs in pipeline during the transportation especially for the
existing pipeline when the capacity of pipeline increases. Various formula of gas flow
equation is used for sizing and designing a proper distribution system to avoid the
reduced delivery pressure or pressure drop that may not acceptable to the customer
receiving the gas. The objectives of this research are to validate Cox Equation as well as
to compare the actual pressure drop with the current pressure drop which is calculated
using Cox method. The actual pressure drop data from GMSB which based on Pole
Equation is compared and results show less pressure drop for Cox Equation. This Cox
method can be applied for supply pressure above 29.4kPa was implemented using a
loop method as a gas network analysis in designing a natural gas distribution system.
Loop method is applied to determine the gas flow rate for the interconnected gas
pipeline network. Hardy Cross method was used for solving looped network. Final gas
flow rate was determined after the convergence of absolute value of looped correction is
decreased and gets stable value. Finally, Cox method is used for sizing the gas pipeline
by referring the API 5L Scheduled 40 Table. In conclusion, Cox Method is applied for
the existing natural gas pipeline in Putrajaya residential area and shows the reduction of
pressure drop as well as looped gas distribution network is able to ensure the security,
continuity and reliability of supply pressure to the various customers.
 v

ABSTRAK

Kertas kerja ini membentangkan analisis rangkaian aliran gas di kawasan

Putrajaya kediaman yang memberi tumpuan pada paip gas asli yang disebabkan oleh
kelebihan menjimatkan. Peningkatan permintaan gas asli yang menjadikan rangkaian
pengagihan talian paip menjadi lebih dan lebih kompleks. Kejatuhan tekanan telah
berlaku dalam perancangan semasa pengangkutan terutama bagi saluran paip yang sedia
ada apabila meningkatkan keupayaan saluran paip. Pelbagai formula aliran gas
digunakan untuk menyesuaikan saiz dan bentuk satu sistem pengagihan yang teratur
untuk mengelakkan pengurangan tekanan atau kejatuhan tekanan yang tidak boleh
diterima oleh pelanggan menerima gas. Objektif penyelidikan ini adalah untuk
mengesahkan dan menggalakkan Kaedah Cox serta membandingkan susutan tekanan
sebenar dengan kejatuhan tekanan semasa yang dikira menggunakan Persamaan Cox.
Penurunan tekanan data sebenar telah diambil dari GMSB berdasarkan Persamaan Paul
dibandingkan dan keputusan menunjukkan kejatuhan tekanan yang kurang untuk
Persamaan Cox. Persamaan Cox ini boleh digunakan untuk tekanan bekalan di atas
29.4kPa telah dilaksanakan dengan menggunakan kaedah gelung sebagai analisis
rangkaian gas dalam mereka bentuk sistem pengagihan gas asli. Kaedah gelung
digunakan untuk menentukan kadar aliran gas untuk rangkaian saluran paip gas yang
saling berkaitan. Kaedah Hardy Cross telah digunakan untuk menyelesaikan rangkaian
bergelung. Kadar aliran gas akhir adalah ditentukan selepas penumpuan nilai mutlak
pembetulan bergelung menurun dan nilai yang stabil. Akhirnya, Persamaan Cox
digunakan untuk menetukan saiz saluran paip gas dengan merujuk API 5L Berjadual 40
Jadual. Kesimpulannya, kaedah Cox digunakan untuk saluran paip gas asli yang sedia
ada di kawasan kediaman Putrajaya dan menunjukkan pengurangan kejatuhan tekanan
serta rangkaian pengedaran gas bergelung mampu untuk memastikan keselamatan,
kesinambungan dan kebolehpercayaan tekanan bekalan kepada pelbagai pelanggan.
 vi

TABLE PF CONTENTS

Page
SUPERVISOR’S DECLARATION i
STUDENT’S DECLARATION ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT iii
ABSTRACT iv
ABSTRAK v
TABLE OF CONTENTS vi
LIST OF FIGURES ix
LIST OF TABLES x
LIST OF ABBBREVIATIONS xi

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of Research 1

1.2 Problem Statement 2
1.3 Research Objectives 3
1.4 Scope of Research 3
1.5 Significance of Research 4

CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction 5
2.2 Gas Flow Network 6
2.3 Selection of Flow Equation 10
2.4 Fundamental of Gas Flow Equation 13
2.5 Unsteady State Flow Network Analysis 17
2.6 Network Analysis Consultants 20

CHAPTER 3 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.1 Introduction 23
3.2 Cox Equation 23
3.3 Network Analysis 25
3.3.1 Network Analysis 25
3.3.2 Hardy Cross Method 25
3.3.3 Procedure in Solving Network Using Hardy Cross Method 27

CHAPTER 4 RESULTS & DISCUSSION

4.1 Introduction 29
4.2 Comparison of pressure drop based on different flow equation 29
4.3 Solution to flow determination using loop analysis 33
 vii

4.4 Pipeline sizing using Cox method 41

CHAPTER 5 CONCLUSION & RECOMMENDATION

5.1 Introduction 43
5.2 Conclusion 44
5.3 Recommendation and limitation of research 44

REFERENCES 45

APPENDICES

A Cox Table 48
B List of Figures and Tables of Chapter 4 49
 xi

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

AGA American Gas Association

API American Petroleum Institute

GMSB Gas Malaysia Sdn Bhd.

IGT Institute Gas Technology

LNG Liquefied natural gas

NG Natural gas

OGJ Oil and Gas Journal

 ix

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure No. Title Page

2.1 Energy of Flow of Fluid (Menon, E.S..(2005). 14

3.1 Cox Method 28

4.1 Existing gas distribution network of Precint 15 30

4.2 Comparison of actual and current pressure drop 33

4.3 Gas distributions network without loops 34

4.4 Initial pipe flow rate of gas distribution network 37

4.5 Convergence of the absolute value of looped correction 39

4.6 Final flow rate of looped distribution network 40

 x

LIST OF TABLES

Table No. Title Page

2.1 Guidelines to Selection of a flow equation for Distribution

System Calculation (Poh, 2007) 11

2.2 Flow Equations (Poh, 2007) 12

2.3 Limitation of Equation (Poh, 2007) 12

3.1 Tabulated value of K 26

4.1 Actual data for gas network of Precint 15 31.

4.2 Current data for gas network of Precint 15. 32

4.3 Actual pipe data of gas distribution network 35

4.4 Constant node consumption (load) 36

4.5 Initial guess of gas flow rate 38

4.6 Pipe size of gas distribution network 42

 CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of Research

Natural gas is one of the major fossil fuel besides oil that widely used in
residential, commercial and industrial. Now, it becomes a great attention which our
worldwide is focusing on due to its economical and environmental friendly advantages.
Therefore natural gas demand is increasing year by year not only for the world market
which lead to LNG trade but also local market demand where domestic natural gas
consumption has been increasing steadily by 0.1Tcf from 2010 (OGJ 2012). For
Malaysia country, domestic natural gas is subsidized by Malaysia Government and they
will have to ensure the adequate supplies to meet the current demand. This growth of
demand has been seen in our development of Malaysia new federal administrative
capital which is Putrajaya. Therefore, Putrajaya is being focused to study for the gas
network analysis which according to City Planning Department Putrajaya Corporation,
natural gas has been used as a utility to generate chilled water (Siong, H.C., 2006) for
air-conditioning for buildings as well for residential gas appliances due to the reason of
elimination excessive energy use.

In order to supply the natural gas to customer, pipeline is one of the main
transportation in gas distribution system which has to be designed properly which to
optimize the expenditure. By considering the existing pipeline, this increasing of
pipeline capacity will create greater changes of delivery pressure without changing the
originating pressure of compressor station. But the reduced delivery pressure or
pressure drop may or may not be acceptable to the customer receiving the gas. As we
know, compressor station shall be installed to maintain the delivery pressure and this
 2

delivery pressure always operate at high turbulence flow region. Even though the
compressor is installed to maintain the delivery pressure, but installing the intermediate
compressors along the pipeline will reduce the operating pressure.

Moreover, by installing additional compressor station also will increase the

capital and operating cost. Therefore, capital cost for pipeline distribution system is
considerable important to optimize its expenditure. Thus, this point needs gas
distribution network analysis which to determine need for system reinforcement and
supply requirement for interconnected network.

Generally, the development of gas network is the purpose of the natural gas
transportation and distribution in high capacity, which usually local storage tanks
unable to supply the consumer needed flow rate. Gas network analysis is used to
determine the amount of gas, flow rate of the gas and the pressure used in a pipeline
system. Besides that, it also can used to determine the usage of gas by consumers
especially during the peak times. By making the network analysis, time of maintenance
and failure of pipeline can be measured. The effect of new load on the pipeline also can
be predicted, (Puah, 2002).

1.2 Problem Statement

According to Oil and Gas Journal early in 2011, in Malaysia, natural gas
consumption is increasing steadily by reaching 1.1 Tcf in 2010 for domestic users
which counted 42% of gas production. It shows that natural gas, as one of the most
important sources of energy for many commercial and residential users throughout the
world. However, increasing demands of natural gas throughout the domestic users
makes the gas distribution pipeline system becomes more complex (Chapman,
et.al.,2005 and Hamedi, et.al., 2008).This growth of demand has been seen in
development of Malaysia new federal administrative capital, Putrajaya. In order to
supply the natural gas to customer, pipeline is one of the main transportation in gas
distribution system which has to be designed properly which to optimize the
expenditure. But during transportation the impact of pressure drop due to friction occurs
especially in existing pipeline system while increasing the loads demands of customer.
 3

Therefore, proper sizing of supply pipelines is important so that each gas appliance
receives enough gas to perform properly. Inadequate sizing of supply pipelines not only
will cause inefficient appliance operation but also supply interruptions which can
adversely affect the safety of the system. Even though the compressors station is
installed to maintain the delivery pressure, but there is a limit number of compressors
station that can be installed in existing pipeline system since high pressure required
continues to increase with flow rate. An additional factor must be taken into
consideration as the flow rate is increased, is the resulting higher velocity in pipeline
system. The gas velocity must be well below the erosional velocity for the pipe which is
does not exceed 20 meter over second as stated in gas domestic pipeline by Energy
Commission. By adding compressor stations will also increase the capital and operating
cost. Therefore, in order to distribute the natural gas to the customer chain, a proper
distribution planning in the natural gas network is discussed in this research.

1.3 Research Objective

The objective of this research is to validate the Cox Equation and to compare the
actual pressure drop with the current pressure drop. The actual data using Pole Equation
from GMSB is compared using Cox Equation. Lastly, to suggest the new gas
distribution network using loop analysis that ensures the reliability, security and
continuity of supply to the customer.

1.4 Scope of Research

This research of gas flow network analysis is carried out by studying a

distribution gas pipeline of Putrajaya residential area. This research is focusing on
natural gas pipeline which increasing of natural gas demand for residential area where it
dominates as 23.8 % of city area according to Putrajaya Master Plan, Putajaya
Corporation. Besides that, natural gas is chosen as a reason for economical advantages
and environmental friendly which in line with a vision of planning and development of
Putrajaya based on concept ‘city in a garden’. Lastly, Cox equation is employed in this
research for designing a natural gas network system which more focuses on sizing gas
distribution pipeline as well as for calculating pressure drop.
 4

1.5 Significance of Research

This research is done to promote the Cox equation which is one of the gas flow
equation for gas pipeline sizing distribution. Pressure drop is one of the important things
that have to be focused when designing a gas distribution network which will affect the
supply distribution to customer. Therefore, Cox equation helps to reduce a pressure
drop which ensuring the safety delivery of gas supply and cost effective as well as to
fulfill the customer requirements. Cox Equation is much simpler than the other gas flow
equation that be used in gas pipeline sizing for distribution system. Lastly, this research
performs a loop analysis using Hardy Cross method which gives advantage of
reliability, continuity and security supply to the various customers.
 CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction

Transmission and distribution companies around the world are looking to

maximize their network operating capabilities and system developments in a cost
effective manner while continuing to operate in a safe and efficient manner. The
business of delivering gas to the consumer is a complex process that can involve
different departments, companies or organizations. From exploration and production,
through processing, transmission and storage to distribution, management of
transportation capability is vital to maximizing profitability.

The multifaceted networks of pipes that consist of gas distribution system

present redoubtable flow analysis problem. Initially the flowing gas in feed into a
system from several transmissions pipeline city-gate stations, from one or more peak-
load gas production plants or from storage facilities scattered through the system. In
addition, many distribution systems consist of several superimposed networks of piping
operated at different pressure levels. Networks of 200-300 loops and 500- 600 pipe
section are very common. Many networks contain over 1000 pipe sections and some
larger cities have interconnected piping networks containing tens of thousands of pipe
section. At one time the only method of solving network flow problem was a manual
trial-and-error procedure. The most common software used locally is GDNAP
developed by CONGAS (Canada Oil and Gas Company) and NASS developed by
Tokyo Gas. Both of the software uses the Hardy Cross technique in solving network
analysis problem, however not all station are practically used those methods, and now
we revile the networking method using COX method. In local residential area, will
 6

caused lot of problems encourage by public people, building and construction,

geological factor and etc.

2.2 Gas Flow Network

Generally, the development of gas network is the purpose of the natural gas
transportation and distribution in high capacity, which usually local storage tanks
unable to supply the consumer needed flow rate. Natural gas network analysis is used to
determine the amount of gas, flow rate of the gas and the pressure used in a pipeline
system. Besides that, it also can used to determine the usage of gas by consumers
especially during the peak times. By making the network analysis, time of maintenance
and failure of pipeline can be measured. The effect of new load on the pipeline also can
be predicted. Generally, network analysis can be divided into three type, that are
Network tracing, Network routing and Network Allocation (Puah, 2002). Network
tracing is done in order to trace the location of the particular pipeline in the system.
Network routing is done in order to find out the optimum path or the shortest path,
which costs less for the system. Network allocation is done in order to relocate all the
pipelines into the main support.

The optimization of the piping network has been increased time to time to
ensure the safety and cost effective for distribution piping system especially growing
demands for natural gas. It also even becomes more complex as the use of this energy
source increases which is according to Chapman,. et .al., (2005). According to Arai.N
and Ando.H, (2010) better understanding of available capacity of network as well as
actual demand growth in a questioned area will enable us to spare unnecessary network
capacity increase investment.

Operational optimization using rigorous mathematical techniques is a viable tool

for enhancing the efficiency of pipeline operations. Currently available commercial
packages do not provide the capability for fully automated optimization of operational
parameters; but rather provide computational support for human decision making. Thus,
the solutions are generally not truly optimal, and require considerable user involvement.
This work advances the current state of pipeline simulations by using detailed
 7

equipment modeling and rigorous mathematical optimization that will automatically

generate truly optimal solutions with practically no user involvement (Chapman, et. al.,
2005).

Natural gas systems are becoming more and more complex as the use of this
energy source increases. The behavior of the gases is affected by three factors: the
temperature of the gas, the pressure of the gas, and the volume of the gas. Temperature
significantly affects the pressure and volume of a gas; it is therefore essential to have a
method of including this effect in calculations of pressure and volume. To a diver,
knowing the effect of temperature is essential, because the temperature of the water
deep in the oceans or in lakes is often significantly different from the temperature of the
air at the surface.

Osiadacz and Chaczykowski (1998, 2009) compared isothermal and non-

isothermal transient models for gas pipelines which adiabatic flow is associated with
fast dynamic changes in the gas. In this case, heat conduction effects cannot be
neglected. Isothermal flow is associated with slow dynamic changes. Changes of
temperature within the gas due to heat conduction between the pipe and the soil are
sufficiently slow to be neglected.

A typical gas network consists of one or more gas sources (gas producers or
storages), one or more gas loads (electrical generators, other networks, or storages),
pipelines, compressors, and other devices, such as valves and regulators. The
compressors are installed in the network in order to increase the gas pressure so that the
gas can flow through the pipeline to the locations where it is consumed. Valves and
regulators are devices that allow selected sections of the gas networks to be cut off (at
break-down, for overhaul etc.), and they also provide control of the gas flow rate,
prevent excessive growth of pressure in the network, and prevent the flow of gas in an
undesirable direction.

Three basic types of components of a gas network are considered for network
modeling purposes:
(i) pipelines,
 8

(ii) compressors, valves, regulators and other devices, and

(iii) Interconnection points (nodes or busses).

For an example it is anticipated that an average household has the following gas-
consuming devices (J. Krope et. al., 2000):

(i) gas cooker with consumption of 1.25 m3/h;

(ii) gas kettle for preparing hot water with consumption of 1.25 m3/h;
(iii) gas boiler for the production of consumable hot water and for floor
heating with the consumption of 3 m3/h;

Since consumers of gas are usually remote, gas has to be supplied to consumers
by pipelines. The most important quantities to be considered when sizing the pipeline
are its:

(i) Maximum operating pressure; and

(ii) Flow volume.

With respect to their operating pressure gas networks can be divided into:

(i) high-pressure gas networks (working pressure is higher than 1 bar);

(ii) medium-pressure gas networks (working pressure from 0.1 to 1 bar);
(iii) Low-pressure gas networks (working pressure up to 0.1 bar).

When planning a gas network, the following must be carried out and observed:

(i) priority pipe network analysis;

(ii) Planning of optimal construction rules based on envisaged gas demand.

To determine the most important physical quantities and flow-pressure

characteristics of the gas used in the network we use computer software. For the
purposes of flow-pressure analysis, we specify (J. Krope et. al., 2000):
 9

(i) types of gas consumers;

(ii) pressure load;
(iii) the capacity of the network;
(iv) friction coefficient;
(v) nominal pipe diameters;
(vi) pipe connections;
(vii) Allowed speed, etc.

Gas network analysis is done in order to enhance the performance of gas flow in
pipeline and need to optimize the problems regarding natural gas distribution system.
Basically, there are two types of optimization problems are of interest in pipeline
networks: design optimization and operation optimization. According to Firooz Tabkhi
(2007), in design optimization, the goal is to optimize the pipeline design by selecting
appropriate layouts, equipment, etc. while in operation optimization, the network and
station configuration is given and the goal is to operate the pipeline network in an
optimal manner.

By considering the existing pipeline system, to meet increased demand will

requires adequate gas pressure to customers at all the time. Gas pressure need to be
maintained because pressure drop of delivery pressure may not be acceptable to the
customers. While increase the capacity of pipeline, capital cost for distribution system
need to be considered as well as the gas velocity in which increasing too when gas flow
rate or loads demands increases. Therefore network analysis is needed in order to design
a network system. Analysis of gas network is to determine the need for system
reinforcement. Gas network also used to determine the supply requirement for
interconnected network and economic of fringe areas as well as to determine the effect
of new loads whether the existing pipeline system is capable of taking the new loads. In
terms of maintenance, gas network is done to determine the effects of equipment or line
failure of the pipeline system.

There are several techniques to solve a gas network problem which are nodal
method, loop method, loop-node method and Hardy Cross method. Hardy cross method
is widely used in practical gas practical industry. This method was developed by
 10

Professor Hardy Cross in 1936. This method supposes to be used to solve non linear
equations. This method has been improved in solving non linear equation on loop
spatial natural gas network in Serbia. This is done by Dejan Brkic, (2008) by
introduction of influence of adjacent contours Yacobian matrix which is used in
calculation and also in this way it necessary to reduce the number of iteration in
calculations. But in this paper will be using loop method as a gas network analysis
which is also involves iteration in calculation. This loop method will be discussed detail
in Chapter 3 which is also using Hardy Cross method.

2.3 Selection of Flow Equation

Flow equations are required to calculate the pressure drop in the gas network
system. There are many flow equations that can be used in gas industry. Majority of
them are developed based on the results of gas flow experiments. Thus, they are only
capable to a limited range of flow and pipe surface conditions Table 2.1 shows the
guidelines to the selection of a flow equation for the distribution system calculation. Six
flow equations are mainly used in this research and applied into the computer simulator.
They are Lacey’s equation, Pole’s equation, Cox’s equation, Polyflo equation,
Panhandle ‘A’ equation and Weymouth equation (Abdel-Alim Hashem. et. al., 2000).

There are few assumptions applied to eliminate the problems in calculation

using those equations which includes; there is no fraction factor for Cox’s and
Weymouth, because the value is already inserted into the flow equations. In this
research, the specific of gas is assumed to be 0.589 and the compressibility factor, Z is
assumed 0.95. These two values are subjected to change, depend on the type of natural
gas (natural gas properties) and the type of pipe used. The temperature and pressure is
assumed as standard temperature and standard pressure, normally used by international
gas users in solving network analysis. The efficiency factor normally varies between 0.8
and 1 for most gas pipes (Aylmer, 1980). The actual flow in a pipe will be 80% of the flow
predicted (Osiadacz, 1987).
 11

Table 2.1: Guidelines to Selection of a flow equation for Distribution System

Calculation (Poh, 2007)

Type of Piping Predominant Type Equation Used Range capacity

Relatively good,
High pressure utility slightly optimistic
supply mains Partially turbulent Panhandle A approximation for
Smooth pipe Flow
Law at Reynolds
number >30000
Good approximation
High pressure utility to Fully Turbulent
supply main Fully turbulent Weymouth Flow law for clears
rough commercial
pipe of 10 to 30 inch
diameter
Relatively good,
Medium and high slightly optimistic
pressure distribution Partially turbulent Panhandle A approximation for
Smooth Flow Law at
Reynolds number >
30000
Medium and high Very conservative for
pressure distribution Partially turbulent Weymouth pipe of less than 20
inch diameter.
Medium and high Pressure range > 5psi.
pressure distribution Partially turbulent Cox’s Velocity < 20 m/s in
all pipes.
Good approximation
Low pressure Partially turbulent Pole’s to Smooth pipe Flow
distribution Law for pipe of 4 inch
diameter or smaller
 12

Table 2.2: Flow Equations (Poh, 2007)

Flow Equations Equation K value Calculation

Lacey’s / Pole’s 𝑝 1 − 𝑝2 𝐷 5 K= 11.7 × 103
𝐿
Q= 7.1 × 10−3 𝐷5
𝑆𝐿

Cox’s 𝑝1 2 − 𝑝2 2 𝐷5 K= 206.22527 × 103

𝐿
Q= 1.69 × 10−3 𝐷5
𝑆𝐿

Polyflo 𝐿
𝑇𝑛 𝑝1 2 − 𝑝2 2 𝐷5 K= 27.24
Q= 7.57 × 10−4 𝐸2 𝐷 4.848
𝑃𝑛 𝑓𝑆𝐿𝑇

Panhandle ‘A’ 𝑇 𝑝1 2 − 𝑝2 2 𝐷5 K= 18.43

𝐿
Q= 7.57 × 10−4 𝑃𝑛 𝐸2 𝐷 4.854
𝑛 𝑓𝑆𝐿𝑇𝑍

Weymouth 𝐿
𝑇𝑛 8 𝑝1 2 − 𝑝2 2 K= 2590000 16
Q= 11854124.6 𝐷 3 𝐷 3
𝑃𝑛 𝑆𝐿𝑇

Table 2.2 shows the flow equation while table 2.3 shows the limitation of the equations.

Table 2.3: Limitation of Equation (Poh, 2007)

Flow Equations Pressure Range Assumption Made

(bar gauge)
Fraction factor, f
Specific gravity of gas, S
Temperature, T and Normal
Temperature, Tn
Normal Pressure, Pn
Compressibility factor, Z
Efficiency factor, E
Lacey’s/Pole’s 0-0.075 12
𝑓 = 0.0044(1 +
0.276𝐷
S=0.589
Cox’s 0.75-7 S=0.589
Polyflo 0.75-7
1 𝑆𝑄 0.076
= 11.98 × 𝐸
𝑓 𝐷

S=0.589
 13

T=288K

Panhandle A >7
1 𝑆𝑄 0.076
= 11.98 × 𝐸
𝑓 𝐷

S=0.589
Tn=T=288K, Pn=1.01325 bar
Z=0.95, E=0.8
Weymouth >7 S=0.589
Tn=T=288K, Pn=101.32kPa

2.4 Fundamental of Gas Flow Equation

Many gas flow equations have been developed and widely used in the
practical of gas industry. Gas flow also depends on gas properties, pipe diameter,
length, initial gas pressure, temperature and pressure drop due to friction. But in this
paper will focus on calculating pressure drops due to the common problem that always
occurred during gas transportation in pipeline system. Gonzales, A.H.,et.al., (2008)
stated that the demanded gas has to be supplied to delivery points with a specified
pressure and the undesired pressure drops along the network must be periodically
restored. Therefore, pressure drops must be avoided to maintain the delivery pressure to
the customer. Formula which is derived from equation 2.1 is commonly used to
calculate the pressure drop. As a gas flow through a pipeline, the total energy of the gas
flow at various points consists of energy due to pressure, due to velocity and energy due
to the elevation or position. Bernoulli’s equation simply connects these components of
the energy of the flowing fluid to form energy conservation. This Bernoulli’s equation
is shown as below and denote as equation 2.1

𝑃𝐴 𝑉𝐴 2 𝑃𝐵 𝑉𝐵 2
𝑍𝐴 + + + 𝐻𝑝 = 𝑍𝐵 + + + 𝑕𝑓 (2.1)
𝛾 2𝑔 𝛾 2𝑔

Where Hp is the equivalent head added to the fluid by compressor at A and hf

represents the total frictional pressure loss between points A and B which is shown in
 14

Figure 2.1. Starting this basic energy equation, applying gas laws and after some
simplification, various formulas were developed over years to predict the performance
of a pipeline transporting gas. These formulas intended to show the relationship
between the gas properties, compressibility factor with the gas flow rates, pipe diameter,
length and the pressure along the pipeline.

Figure 2.1 Energy of Flow of Fluid (Menon, E.S..(2005).

Thus with the certain assumptions, the basic energy equation is simplified and
came out with various formula such as General Flow equation. Then through derivation
and simplification of General Flow equation came out with Weymouth equation,
Panhandle A, Panhandle B, Mueller equation, AGA equation, Spitzglass equation, IGT
equation, Colebrook-White equation, Modified Colebrook-White equation and Fritzsche
equation which has been practiced in gas industry. Most of these equations are applied
for steady state.

These analytical equations will considerably enhance gas pipeline design in

terms of both ease of usage and accuracy and this was proved by Adeosun, T.A et. al.,
(2009). In their research also proved that the compressible gas flow through pipelines in
natural gas industry has been solved by using the development of unsteady-state
 15

Weymouth equation which is applied for gas volumetric flow rate in horizontal and
inclined pipes without neglecting any of terms of fundamental differential equations.
Therefore this gas flow network analysis is considerably enhancing gas pipeline design.

The General flow equation is called fundamental flow equation for steady state
isothermal flow in gas pipeline which according to Menon, E.S. (2005) in his book
entitled, Gas Pipeline Hydraulics. Equation 2.2 shows the General Flow equation which
is also basic equation for relating pressure drop with flow rate.

𝑇𝑏 𝑃1 2 −𝑃2 2
𝑄 = 77.54 𝐷2.5 (2.2)
𝑃𝑏 𝐺𝑇𝑓 𝐿𝑍𝑓

Where;
Q = gas flow rate, SCFD
f = friction factor, dimensionless
Tb = base temperature, ºR (460 + ºF)
Pb = base pressure, psia
P1 = upstream pressure, psia
P2 = downstream pressure, psia
G = gas gravity (air = 1.0)
Tf = average gas flowing temperature, ºR (460 + ºR)
L = pipe segment length, mi
Z = gas compressibility factor at the flowing temperature, dimensionless
D = pipe inside diameter, in.
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In SI unit, the General Flow equation is stated as below and denoted as equation
(2.3)

𝑇𝑏 𝑃1 2 −𝑃2 2
𝑄 = 1.1494 × 10−3 𝐷2.5 (2.3)
𝑃𝑏 𝐺𝑇𝑓 𝐿𝑍𝑓

Where;
Q = gas flow rate, SCMD
f = friction factor, dimensionless
Tb = base temperature, K (273 + ºF)
Pb = base pressure, kPa
P1 = upstream pressure, kPa
P2 = downstream pressure, kPa
G = gas gravity (air = 1.0)
Tf = average gas flowing temperature, K (273 + ºC)
L = pipe segment length, km
Z = gas compressibility factor at the flowing temperature, dimensionless
D = pipe inside diameter, mm

The derivation of General Flow equation which involves of simplifying assumptions

which are:

(i) Steady flow

(ii) Isothermal flow due to heat transfer with the surroundings through the
pipe wall
(iii)Negligible kinetic energy change in the pipe
(iv) Constant compressibility of the gas over the length of the pipe
(v) Validity of Darcy friction loss relationship across the pipe
(vi) Constant friction coefficient along the pipe length.

Then, the simpler of this General Flow equation has been derived and modified
to introduce low, middle and high pressure distribution system which applicable in gas
industry. However the difference between them is the assumed value for friction factor f
or the transmission factor (1/√f). Further modification is made to the above general