A TECHNICAL SEMINAR REPORT ON

Title of the Technical Seminar

Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the award of degree of

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY

IN

ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

Submitted By

Name

Roll Number

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION

ENGINEERING

CMR ENGINEERING COLLEGE

UGC AUTONOMOUS
(Approved by AICTE, Affiliated to JNTU Hyderabad, Accredited by NBA)

Kandlakoya(V), Medchal(M), Telangana – 501401

(2022-2023)
 CMR ENGINEERING COLLEGE
UGC AUTONOMOUS

(Approved by AICTE, Affiliated to JNTU Hyderabad, Accredited by NBA)

Kandlakoya (V), Medchal Road, Hyderabad - 501 401

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the technical seminar work entitled “TITLE OF THE
TECHNICAL SEMINAR TOPIC” is being submitted by NAME bearing Roll No:
ROLL NUMBER, in B. Tech IV-I semester, Electronics and Communication
Engineering is a record bonafide work carried out by then during the academic year
2020-2021.The results embodied in this report have not been submitted to any other
University for the award of any degree.

CO-ORDINATOR HEAD OF THE DEPARTMENT

 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I sincerely thank the management of our college CMR ENGINEERING
COLLEGE for providing required facilities during the report work.

I derive great pleasure in expressing our sincere gratitude to our principal

A.S.REDDY for his timely suggestions, which helped us to complete the report work
successfully.

It is the very auspicious moment I would like to express my gratitude to

Dr.SUMAN MISHRA, Head of the Department, ECE for his consistent encouragement
during the technical seminar report.

I take it as a privilege to thank Technical seminar coordinator NAME O THE

COORDINATOR, Assistant professor, Department of ECE for his ideas that led to
complete the report work and I also thank him for his continuous guidance, support and
unfailing patience, throughout the course of this work.
 DECLARATION

I hereby declare that the project entitled “TITLE OF THE TECHNICAL SEMINAR
TOPIC” is the work done by us in campus at CMR ENGINEERING COLLEGE,
Kandlakoya during the academic year 2020-2021 and is submitted as Technical Seminar
in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of degree of BACHELOR OF
TECHNOLOGY in ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING
FROM JAWAHARLAL NEHRU TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY,
HYDERABAD.

NAME (ROLL NUMBER)

 CONTENTS
CHAPTERS PAGE NO.
LIST OF FIGURES i
ABSTRACT ii
1 TERAHERTZ INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.2 A BRIEF HISTORY 4
1.3 BACKGROUND 6
2 TERAHERTZ ELECTRONICS 8
2.1 BACKGROUND AND DESCRIPTION 8
2.2 PROGRAM OBJECTIVE 10
2.3 TECHNICAL AREAS OF INTEREST 11
2.3.1 THZ TRANSISTORS 11
2.3.2 THZ MONOLITHIC INTEGRATED CIRCUITS 12
2.3.3 THZ INTER-ELEMENT INTERCONNECTS 13
2.3.4 THZ CIRCUIT INTEGRATION 14
2.3.5 THZ TEST CIRCUIT 16
2.3.6 THZ METROLOGY 17
3 TERAHERTZ RADIATION 19
3.1 INTODUCTION 19
3.2 SOURCES 22
3.2.1 NATURAL 22
3.2.1 ARTIFICIAL 22
3.3 METHODS 24
3.3.1 DIRECT LASER METHODS 24
3.3.2 LASER-ENABLED METHODS 25
 4 APPLICATIONS 27
SECURITY 27
PHARMA 28
FOOD AND AGRICULTURE 29
CERAMICS 29
AUTOMOTIVE 30
MEDICAL 31
SCIENCE 32
5 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES 33
6 CONCLUSION 34
7 BIBILOGRAPHY 35
 LIST OF FIGURES

S.NO NAME OF THE FIGURE PAGE NO.

1 1.1: Electromagnetic spectrum showing the THz band gap 2

2 1.2 Chart 5
3 1.3 Frequencies 6
4 2.3.1 THz Transistors 12
5 2.3.2 THz Monolithic Integrated Circuits 13
6 2.3.3 THz Inter-Element Interconnects 14
7 2.3.4 THz Circuit Integration 15
8 2.3.5 THz Test Circuit 17
9 2.3.6 THz Metrology 18
10 3.1 TDS System 19
11 3.3.1 Direct laser method 24
12 3.3.2 Laser-enabled Method 26
13 4.1.1 Security screening of letters, envelopes and small packages 27

14 4.1.2 Security screening of people (body scanner) 28

15 4.2 Pharma 29
16 4.3 Food and agriculture 29
17 4.4 Ceramics 30
18 4.5 Automotive 31
19 4.6 Dental 32
20 4.7 THz Imaging 32

i
 ABSTRACT

New advances in different technologies have made the previously unused

terahertz frequency band accessible for imaging systems. The ‘terahertz gap’ has a
frequency range from ∼ 0.3 THz to ∼ 10 THz in the electromagnetic spectrum which is
between microwave and infrared. The terahertz radiations are invisible to naked eye & in
comparison with X-ray they are intrinsically safe, non-destructive and non-invasive. This
is such a new field that researchers around the world race to build the first practical
system.

It resolves many of the questions left unanswered by complementary techniques,

such as optical imaging, Raman and infrared. Terahertz spectroscopy has a number of
applications run from detecting defects in tablet coating, product inspection (industry),
spectroscopy (chemistry, astronomy), material characterization (physics), weapons
concealed under clothing (airports), detection of cancer and caries.

In the pharmaceutical industries it enables nondestructive, internal, chemical

analysis of tablets, capsules and other dosage forms. This paper tries therefore not only to
provide a brief overview over the imaging technology, but also over the whole range of
current systems and research in terahertz technology. Terahertz radiation occupies a
middle ground between microwaves and infrared light waves, and technology for
generating and manipulating it is in its infancy and is a subject of active research.

Today, Terahertz is broadly applied to sub millimeter-wave energy that fills the
wavelength range between 1000- 100µm (300GHz-3THz). Beyond 3THz and out to
30µm (10THz) is more or less unclaimed territory, as few i f any components exist. The
border between far-IR and sub millimeter is still rather blurry and designation is likely to
follow the methodology (bulk or modal-photon or wave), which is dominant in the
particular instrument.

ii
 1. TERAHERTZ INTRODUCTION

INTRODUCTION
Today, Terahertz is broadly applied to sub millimeter-wave energy that fills the
wavelength range between 1000- 100µm (300GHz-3THz). Beyond 3THz and out to
30µm (10THz) is more or less unclaimed territory, as few i f any components exist. The
border between far-IR and sub millimeter i s still rather blurry and designation is likely to
follow the methodology (bulk or modal-photon or wave), which is dominant in the
particular instrument.

Despite great scientific interest at least in the 1920s , the terahertz frequency range
remains one of the least tapped regions of the electromagnetic spectrum. Sandwiched
between traditional microwave and optical technologies where there is limited
atmospheric propagation path , little commercial emphasis has been placed on terahertz
systems. This has perhaps fortunately, preserved some unique science and applications
for tomorrow’s technology.

These days, it is not possible to do justice to an entire field or give sufficient credit
to all its deserving technical innovators in one short paper, even in a relatively narrow
area of development like terahertz technology. If this were the case, we would not have
such a plethora of journals to submit to, nor conferences to attend. One thing is certain,
the IEEE Microwave Theory and Techniques Society (IEEE MTT), through its journals
and sponsored conferences, has played a major role in defining, distributing information
on, and advancing the field of terahertz technology since the society’s inception a half-
century ago.

During The course of this paper, we look back to the infancy of modern terahertz
technology, beginning where Wiltse so ably left off in1984, pass through early childhood,
and end up at adolescence. The field is perched on adulthood and perhaps, in another
quarter-century, a more complete history can be written, hopefully by someone reading
this paper today.

1
 Figure 1.1: Electromagnetic spectrum showing the THz band gap.

Mass production of devices in this range and operation at room temperature (at
which energy kT is equal to the energy of a photon with a frequency of 6.2 THz) are
mostly impractical. This leaves a gap between mature microwave technologies in the
highest frequencies of the radio spectrum and the well-developed optical engineering of
infrared detectors in their lowest frequencies. This radiation is mostly used in small-scale,
specialized applications such as submillimetre astronomy. Research that attempts to
resolve this issue has been conducted since the late 20th century.

Most vacuum electronic devices that are used for microwave generation can be
modified to operate at terahertz frequencies, including the magnetron, gyrotron,
synchrotron, and free electron laser. Similarly, microwave detectors such as the tunnel
diode have been re-engineered to detect at terahertz and infrared frequencies as well.
However, many of these devices are in prototype form, are not compact, or exist at
university or government research labs, without the benefit of cost savings due to mass
production.

These days, it is not possible to do justice to an entire field or give sufficient

credit to all its deserving technical innovators in one short paper, even in a relatively
narrow area of development like terahertz technology. If this were the case, we would not
have such apleth or a of journals to submitto, nor conferences to attend. One thing is
certain, the IEEE Microwave Theory and Techniques Society , through its journals and
sponsored conferences, has played a major role in defining, distributing information on,
and advancing the field of terahertz technology since the society’s inception a half-
century ago.

During the course of this paper, we look back to the infancy of modern terahertz
technology, beginning where Wiltse so ably left off in 1984 , pass through early
childhood, and end up at adolescence. The field is perched on adulthood and perhaps, in

2
another quarter-century, a more complete history can be written, hopefully by someone
reading this paper today.

The range of potential applications associated with the sub - MMW band is
nonetheless extensive, including imaging, radar, spectroscopy, and communications.
Common to these and other applications is the critical need for greatly improved THz
transmitter and receiver technologies. For transmitters, the primary need is the
development of higher power sources and amplifiers with acceptable wall-plug efficiency,
instantaneous bandwidth, and gain in order to enable practical military systems.

For receivers, which have attracted markedly less attention (apart from cryogenic
detectors), a tremendous opportunity exists to enable dramatic improvements in system
performance including improved noise figure and phase noise characteristics. Relative to
bolometers, Schottky diodes, and other conventional “direct” (rectifying) detector
approaches, enormous signal-to-noise ratio improvements (70dB or more) could be
realized through spectral filtering and phase coherent processing techniques such as those
commonly used at RF and microwave frequencies.

An excellent overview of lower frequency millimeter and sub-millimeter-wave

technology can still be found in the review papers of Coleman and Wiltse. Commercial
uses for terahertz sensors and sources are just beginning to emerge as the technology
enables new instrumentation and measurement systems. So-called T-ray imaging is
tantalizing the interests of the medical community and promises to open the field up to
the general public for the first time.

3
A BRIEF HISTORY

The First image generated using THz radiation in 1960.In 1995, THz image was
generated using Terahertz time-domain spectroscopy generated a great deal of interest,
and sparked a rapid growth in the field of terahertz technology .In 2002, the European
Space Agency (ESA) star Tiger Team at Rutherford Appleton laboratory produced the
first passive THz image of a hand.By 2004, ThruVision Ltd, demonstrated the world’s
first compact THz camera for security screening application.

This system successfully imaged guns and explosives under clothing.In mid-2007,
scientists at the U.S. The Department of Energy 's Argonne National Laboratory , along
with collaborators in Turkey and Japan, announced the creation of a compact device that
can lead to portable, battery-operated sources of T-ray s, or terahertz radiation. The group
was led by Ulrich Welp of Argonne's Materials Science Division.This new T-ray source
uses high-temperature superconducting crystals grown at the University of Tsukuba,
Japan.

These crystals comprise stacks of Josephson junctions that exhibit a unique

electrical property : When an external voltage is applied, an alternating current will flow
back and forth across the junctions at a frequency proportional to the strength of the
voltage; this phenomenon is known as the Josephs on effect. These alternating currents
then produce electromagnetic fields whose frequency is tuned by the applied voltage.
Even a small voltage –around two millivolts per junction can induce frequencies in the
terahertz range, according to Welp .In 2008, engineers at Harvard University
demonstrated that room temperature emission of several hundred nanowatts of coherent
terahertz radiation could be achieved with a semiconductor source.

4
 Figure: 1.2 Chart

THz radiation was generated by nonlinear mixing of two modes in a mid-infrared

quantum cascade laser. Until then, sources had required cryogenic cooling, greatly
limiting their use in everyday applications.In 2009, it was shown that T-waves are
produced when unpeeling adhesive tape. The observed spectrum of this terahertz
radiation exhibits a peak at 2 THz and a broader peak at 18 THz. The radiation is not
polarized. The mechanism of terahertz radiation is tribo charging of the adhesive tape and
subsequent discharge.

In 2011, Japanese electronic parts maker Rohm and a research team at Osaka
University produced a chip capable of transmitting 1.5 G bits using terahertz radiation.In
2013, researchers at Georgia Institute of Technology's Broadband Wireless Networking
Laboratory and the Poly Polytechnic University of Catalonia Developed a method to
create a graphene antenna: an antenna that would be shaped into graphene strip s from 10
to 100 nanometers wide and one micrometer long. Such an antenna would broadcast in
the terahertz frequency range.

5
BACKGROUND

The first occurrence of the term terahertz this transaction is attributed to

Fleming in 1974, where the term was used to describe the spectral line frequency
coverage of a Michelson interferometer. A year earlier, Kerecman applied terahertz to
the frequency coverage of point contact diode detectors in an IEEE MTT-S conference
digest paper. Ashleyand Palka used the designation to refer to the resonant frequency of
a water laser in the same digest. Spectroscopist shad much earlier coined the term for
emission frequencies that fell below the far infrared (IR).

Today,terahertz is broadly applied to sub millimeter wave energy that fills the
wavelength range between 1000–100m (300 GHz–3 THz).Below 300 GHz, we cross
into the millimeter-wave bands(best delimited in the author’s opinion by the upper
operating frequency of WR-3 waveguide—330 GHz). Beyond 3 THz,and out to 30m (10
THz) is more or less unclaimed territory,as few if any components exist.

The border between far-IR and sub-millimeter is still rather blurry and the
designation is likely to follow the methodology (bulk or modal—photon or wave),which
is dominant in the particular instrument.Despite great scientific interest since at least the
1920s ,the terahertz frequency range remains one of the least tapped regions of the
electromagnetic spectrum. Sandwiched between traditional microwave and optical
technologies where there is limited atmospheric propagation path , little commercial
emphasis has been placed on terahertz systems.

Figure: 1.3 Frequencies

6
 This has, perhaps fortunately, preserved some unique science and applications for
tomorrow’s technologists. For over 25 years, thesole niche for terahertz technology has
been in the high-resolution spectroscopy and remote sensing areas where heterodyne and
Fourier transform techniques have allowed astronomers,chemists, Earth, planetary, and
space scientists to measure, catalog, and map thermal emission lines for a wide variety of
light-weight molecules.

As it turns out, nowhere else in the electromagnetic spectrum do we receive so

much information about these chemical species. In fact, the universe is bathed in
terahertz energy; most of it going unnoticed and undetected.This review will examine
terahertz technology today with emphasis on frequencies above 500 GHz and on
applications that may not be familiar to every reader. We will also try to do justice to
molecular spectroscopy for Earth, planetary, and space science, the chief drivers of
terahertz technology to-date.

An excellent overview of lower frequency millimeter and sub-millimeter-wave

technology can still be found in the review papers of Coleman and Wiltse. Commercial
uses for terahertz sensors and sources are just beginning to emerge as the technology
enables new instrumentation and measurement systems. So-called T-ray imaging is
tantalizing the interests of the medical community and promises to open the field up to
the general public for the first time. Other less pervasive applications have been
proposed, all of which would benefit from broader-based interest in the field.

7
 2.TERAHERTZ ELECTRONICS

Background and Description:

The sub-millimeter wave (sub - MMW) frequency band between 0.3 to 3 THz has
historically been extremely difficult to access due to a lack of effective means to generate,
detect, process, and radiate radio-frequency (RF) signals. The range of potential
applications associated with the sub - MMW band is nonetheless extensive, including
imaging, radar, spectroscopy, and communications. Common to these and other
applications is the critical need for greatly improved THz transmitter and receiver
technologies. For transmitters, the primary need is the development of higher power
sources and amplifiers with acceptable wall-plug efficiency, instantaneous bandwidth,
and gain in order to enable practical military systems.

For receivers, which have attracted markedly less attention (apart from cryogenic
detectors), a tremendous opportunity exists to enable dramatic improvements in system
performance including improved noise figure and phase noise characteristics. Relative to
bolometers, Schottky diodes, and other conventional “direct” (rectifying) detector
approaches, enormous signal-to-noise ratio improvements (70dB or more) could be
realized through spectral filtering and phase coherent processing techniques such as those
commonly used at RF and microwave frequencies.

These include, but are not necessarily limited to, the use of coherent heterodyne
processing in which the relative phases of transmit and receive signals are exploited.
Coherent heterodyne processing is facilitated at lower RF frequencies by the development
of microwave monolithic integrated circuits (MMICs), in which all requisite circuit
elements are integrated into a compact circuit. Such circuits are also amenable to
integration into arrays including, for example, RF active electronic scanning arrays.

While MMICs may contain a variety of active (and on-chip passive) components,
they generally use transistors as their active devices. Historically, the unity-current-gain
frequency (ft) and maximum oscillation frequency (f max) of transistor devices have been
well below this sub-MMW band, precluding the use of transistor electronics for
5applications in this frequency range. Electronic approaches in this band have, therefore,
been dominated by two-terminal devices, such as Schottky diodes, and by vacuum
electronic approaches, such as backward wave oscillators, klystrons, and gyrotrons.

8
 Neither of these approaches is attractive for the realization of compact integrated
circuits. Significant progress has recently been made in increasing the maximum
frequency of operation of transistor electronics. Several DARPA programs, including
TFAST, SWIFT, and TEAM, have been instrumental in this development. For example,
In P hetero junction bipolar transistors (HBT) have recently achieved room-temperature ft
values approaching 0.8THz. Progress has also been made with high-speed field effect
transistors, such as In P High Electron Mobility Transistors (HEMTs), including a
reported value for f max that exceeds 1.0THz.

While these results are impressive, the theoretical limit of the speed of transistors,
though incompletely understood, appears to be well beyond 1THz for the highest
performance materials and device structures. As an example, the limit of the speed of a
HBT device is known to depend on the time required for a carrier to transit the base and
collector regions as well as on the RC charging time. Aggressive scaling of device
dimensions to reduce transit and charging times clearly offers a way to achieve higher
cutoff frequencies and THz operation.

Because increasing the HBT frequency necessitates correspondingly increasing the

current densities, such scaling is extremely challenging as each reduction of device
dimensions demands commensurate reduction of parasitic impedances, particularly
emitter resistivity. Additionally, since current densities of HBT devices scale inversely
with device dimensions, thermal management and other design issues assume enormous
importance.

As suggested above, a significant shortcoming of THz electronics has been the

lack of high density integrated circuit technology. For instance, state-of-the-art cascaded
frequency multiplier chains typically use single devices that are packaged into large,
hand-machined blocks interconnected by waveguides using custom-fabricated transitions.
The size, weight, and cost of such structures prohibit their use in many applications.
Achieving the far higher level of integration needed to enable practical THz systems, such
as arrays, will require innovative methods for integrating devices into compact circuits.
Low-loss interconnects between circuit elements are essential for achieving acceptable
performance from these systems. Sub - MMW integrated circuits have recently been
demonstrated, but these circuits operate at frequencies well below 1.0THz.

9
 Recently, compact, micro machined vacuum electronic devices have made it
possible to produce compact and relatively high power sub-MMW sources. This
technology offers one possible path to achieving efficient THz transmitters, but
significant hurdles remain. The most obvious such hurdle is the complex and difficult
frequency scaling required for this technology to achieve 1.0THz operation. Moreover,
phase-sensitive transmit / receive (TR) systems typically require high power amplifiers
(HPAs), not free-running sources. At THz frequencies, integration of an HPA with a first-
stage exciter in a relatively compact assembly represents a formidable challenge, but has
enormous payoff.

Program Objective:
The objective of the THz Electronics program will be to develop the critical
device and integration technologies necessary to realize compact, high-performance
electronic circuits that operate at center frequencies exceeding 1.0 THz. Accomplishment
of this goal will be validated through the demonstration of specific Program Test Circuits
(see “Deliverables” below). Terahertz technology has the potential to add new
capabilities for imaging, communications, sensors and materials research. Although this
frequency range seems to be a logical step above mm-waves and below infrared,that step
is a big one. New types of electronic and photonic structures are needed to create better
sources,detectors and modulators.Despite the magnitude of the obstacles, the potential for
valuable new applications is driving current research.Imaging applications are leading the
way, but other appli-cations in sensors and wide bandwidth communications and sensors
are also being actively pursued.

Most vacuum electronic devices that are used for microwave generation can be
modified to operate at terahertz frequencies, including the magnetron, gyrotron,
synchrotron, and free electron laser. Similarly, microwave detectors such as the tunnel
diode have been re-engineered to detect at terahertz and infrared frequencies as well.
However, many of these devices are in prototype form, are not compact, or exist at
university or government research labs, without the benefit of cost savings due to mass
production.

10
Technical Areas of Interest:
DARPA seeks innovative proposals in the following two Technical Areas of
Interest. A single proposal may address only one Technical Area of Interest, but is
required to address that Area in a comprehensive manner. Proposers wishing to address
both Technical Areas of Interest should submit separate proposals for each Area.
Proposals that address more than one Technical Area of Interest will be considered not
responsive.Terahertz Transistor Electronics. This Area will develop and demonstrate
technologies for transistor devices and integrated circuits operating at THz frequencies.
These include:

THz Transistors:

The proposer will demonstrate transistors with performance sufficient to meet the
requirements of the Program’s Test Circuits, which are:

A. THz Exciter Circuit

B. THz Receiver Circuit Module

C. Dynamic THz Frequency Divider.

Proposers should identify the unity-current-gain frequency (ft) and maximum

oscillation frequency (fmax) that these Test Circuits will require and should identify a
path by which transistor performance can be scaled to achieve the required ft and fmax
goals for each Program Phase. Proposers should describe a process (or processes) for
realizing these active devices, including strategies for mitigation of parasitic impedances
and addressing thermal management requirements. Approaches may include, but are not
limited to, Heterojunction Bipolar Transistors (HBT) and High Electron Mobility
Transistors (HEMT). The specific semiconductor material(s) in which these devices will
be fabricated (e.g., InP, GaAs, GaN, Si, SiGe, or other semiconductor alloy) should be
clearly stated. Models of the transistors that provide accurate values of all relevant
performance parameters at the frequencies of interest should be developed and validated.

11
 Figure: 2.3.1 THz Transistors

THz Monolithic Integrated Circuits:

The proposer will develop a process to construct THz monolithic integrated

circuits (TMICs) that meet the performance and yield metrics of the program. This will
include a strategy for producing on-chip RF interconnects, with requisite low-loss
propagation characteristics, compatible with integration into a monolithic process. The
performance characteristics (e.g., insertion loss) of these interconnects will be measured
and modeled. A global design method for a terahertz monolithic integrated frequency
multiplier is proposed.

Compared with a traditional independent design, the method in this paper adopts
overall optimization and combines the device with the circuit design. The advantage is
that it provides a customized design for frequency multipliers according to specifications.
On the basis of the galliumarsenide process of the Institute of Microelectronics, Chinese
Academy of Sciences, two types of Schottky diodes have been developed to meet the
needs of different designs.

On the one hand, a Schottky diode with a 3μm junction’s diameter was used in
the design of the 200 GHz balanced doubler and, on the other hand, a diode with a 5μm
diameter was used in the 215 GHz unbalanced tripler. The measured results indicated that
the output power of the doubler was more than 250μWat 180~218 GHz, and the
maximum was 950μW at 198 GHz when driven with 12.3 mW, whereas that of the tripler
was above 5 mW at 210~218 GHz and the maximum exceeded 10 mW. Such frequency
multiplier sources could be widely used in terahertz imaging, radiometers, and so on.

12
 The proposer will develop a process to link THz active devices with passive
components using low loss THz interconnects to 7form high-performance monolithic sub
circuits. This approach must be appropriate for use with batch fabrication methods that
provide a reasonable manufacturing yield. The specific TMICs to be demonstrated (e.g.,
low noise amplifiers, mixers) will be specified by the proposer, but will include the sub
circuit elements required to realize the Program’s Test Circuits. Performance models of
the TMIC circuits at the frequencies of interest should be developed and validated.

Figure: 2.3.2 THz Monolithic Integrated Circuits

THz Inter-Element Interconnects:

The proposer will develop an approach to achieve low-loss, high-frequency

interconnections between TMIC elements compatible with integration into
microelectronic circuit modules.“Interconnect Gap”, caused by the gap between the ever-
increasing data rate demand of inter-/ intra- chip communications and the insufficient
capabilities, has intrigued active research over a decade from both electronics and optics
domains, so called electrical interconnect (EI) and optical interconnect (OI).

However, it is challenging for both EI and OI to completely address the

interconnect issues individually due to their inherent challenges. THz Interconnect (TI),
utilizing the frequency spectrum sandwiched between microwave and optical frequencies,
holds the high potentials to complement EI and OI by leveraging the advantages of both
electronics and optics. Continuous scaling of mainstream silicon technologies enables
THz electronics in silicon. On the other hand,

13
 THz dielectric waveguides, similar to their optical counterpart fiber, have small
dimensions and present low loss at THz frequencies. This paper will present the research
activities in the high potential TI field, including high efficiency THz signal generation
and modulation circuits, low loss and wide bandwidth THz silicon waveguide channels
together with orthomode support, and system demonstration of the THz Interconnect for
chip to chip communications.

Such an approach might involve (but is not limited to) the use of micromachined
waveguides and transition elements. The performance characteristics (e.g., insertion loss)
of these interconnects will be measured and modeled.

Figure: 2.3.3 THz Inter-Element Interconnects

THz Circuit Integration:

The proposer will develop a process to combine THz active devices, passive
components, TMICs, and THz inter-element interconnects to form high-performance
microelectronic circuit modules. The approach may be monolithic, an assembly, or any
combination of these, but must be compatible with batch fabrication methods As
necessary, methods that insure precise alignment and interconnect tolerances should be
developed.

The approach developed must be capable of achieving, with reasonable

manufacturing yield, the level of complexity required to realize the Program Test
Circuits.The quantum cascade laser is a powerful solid-state source of terahertz-frequency
radiation.

14
 However, integrating multiple photonic functions into a monolithic platform in
this frequency range is non-trivial due to the scaling of photonic structures for the long
terahertz wavelengths and the low frequency tuning coefficients of the quantum cascade
lasers. Here, we have designed a simple terahertz-frequency photonic integrated circuit by
coupling a racetrack resonator with a ridge laser in the longitudinal direction to design a
notch filter.

The transmission properties of this filter structure are dependent on the phase
matching and losses in the coupled racetrack and results in a comb of stopband
frequencies. We have optimized the comb separation by carefully selecting the cavity
dimensions of the racetrack resonator to suppress longitudinal modes in the ridge laser
enabling single-mode emission. The emission frequencies and output power from laser
are controlled through appropriate control of drive currents to the ridge and the racetrack
resonator.

The emission frequency is electrically tuned over ∼ 81 GHz exploiting Stark shift
of the gain as a function of drive current at the ridge laser, coinciding with an output
power variation of ∼ 27% of the peak power (at a heat sink temperature of 50 K). The
output power from the ridge also varied by ∼ 30% and the frequency was tuned by a
further 10 GHz when the driving conditions at the ridge laser are invariant and the current
at the racetrack resonator was varied. To our best knowledge, this is the first report of a
frequency engineering, tuning and power modulation of terahertz-frequency quantum
cascade lasers using a photonic integrated circuit.

Figure: 2.3.4 THz Circuit Integration

15
THz Test Circuit:

The proposer will develop approaches for realizing the required Program Test
Circuits that have performance consistent with meeting the program’s metrics (see section
D below). For the THz Exciter, the circuit approach should provide a mechanism for low-
loss integration of the exciter with a high power amplifier. For the THz Receiver Circuit,
the module should include an antenna that enables THz signals to be efficiently coupled
from free space. Growing sophistication of electronics devices and circuits and, especially
of VLSI and ULSIC, presents increasing demands on circuit testing and fault diagnosis.

The conventional well-established technique of electric AC and DC testing is

costly, does not assure a complete fault identification. This technique also presents an
additional security problem making it possible to design faked circuits avoiding the
identification by this testing.1 Fabrication of and even perception of faked VLSI capable
of surreptitious performance has become an increasing problem often referred to as
“trojan hardware”.

Experimental techniques, such as laser scanning and terahertz imaging have a

limited resolution signal-to-noise ratios and encounter difficulties in defect identification.
A new approach of THz testing of Microwave Monolithic Integrated Circuits (MMICs) 6,
VLSI, and ULSIC is based on measuring the circuit responses at the pins or input/output
leads and comparing these responses with etalon responses.

This technique could augment or replace the electrical testing and/or laser and
THz scanning testing for production testing, burn-in testing, high temperature testing, and
infant mortality testing. It could also be extended for the fault diagnosis and identification
and for the lifetime and reliability predictions. To this end it could be augmented by the
low noise measurements.

The number of the detected responses could be very large, since the permutations
of the voltages between the pins and leads could be measured at the different positions of
the scanning THz beam, different THz frequencies and polarizations, in the pulsed and/or
CW mode, at the different modulation frequencies and at the different THz intensities.

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 This technique could be used under or without bias. The processing of these
responses forming multi-dimensional images in the excitation parameter space could be
processed using artificial intelligence algorithms and machine learning approaches
making this testing technique self-learning and self-improving. This testing could be
further improved by designing for testability by THz responses at the pins.

The selected integration approach should be compatible with the development of

receiver arrays whose elements are separated by distances on the order of the carrier
frequency.

Figure: 2.3.5 THz Test Circuit

THz Metrology:

The proposer will develop methods for testing transistor devices and circuits at
THz frequencies as required and, in particular, will develop and implement a test plan to
validate performance of Program Test Circuits relative to program goals. The approach
proposed should describe the selected strategy for producing low-loss fixtures and
transitions that allow testing of devices and circuits at frequencies to ~1.0THz. Innovative
means must be developed to overcome the lack of automated THz test equipment and to
minimize turnaround time.number of detector types are available for the THz frequency
range and one possible classification is given.

The detectors are characterized by fundamental physical operation (diode,

quantum, thermal) and by coupling type, ie. antenna, surface, or waveguide. (“Diode”
detection in this context denotes the existence of macroscopic THz currents, and is
unrelated to the IR usage of “photodiode”.)

Details on each type are given in the references provided in the table, and an
example of an antenna coupled microbolometer.A number of passive components are

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needed for THz measurements, both in waveguide and quasi-optical form, and are
available from too many sources to include all.

Low-loss waveguides in standard bands are available from a number of vendors,

e.g, as well as various waveguide components such as loads, waveguides, isolators, filters,
couplers, etc. Tapers be-tween standard waveguide sizes are common , and provide
access to components embedded in over moded waveguide.

Interestingly, it has been shown that over moded waveguide can have
extraordinarily low loss.Quasi-optical components such as scalar horns and lenses en-able
high-quality Gaussian beams for quasi-optical instruments. Corrugated horns such as the
one shown in can be designed to have very similar beams in the two planes with low
cross-polarization, and with very high coupling efficiency to a Gaussian beam.

There are always new technologies which hold promise for highquality THz
components. One such technology is the PolyStrata from Nuvotronics, LLC. Recent
advances in fabrication techniques for micro electro-mechanical systems(MEMS),
including surface and bulk micro-machining, pro-vide tools that make it possible to
produce miniaturized TEM rectangular coaxial lines with heights from 50mto800m.

Figure: 2.3.6 THz Metrology

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3. TERAHERTZ RADIATION

Introduction

Terahertz radiation falls in between infrared radiation and microwave radiation in

the electromagnetic spectrum, and it shares some properties with each of these. Terahertz
radiation travels in a line of sight and is non-ionizing. Like microwaves, terahertz
radiation can penetrate a wide variety of non-conducting materials; clothing, paper,
cardboard, wood, masonry, plastic and ceramics. The penetration depth is typically less
than that of microwave radiation. Like infrared, terahertz radiation has limited
penetration through fog and clouds and cannot penetrate liquid water or metal. Terahertz
radiation can penetrate some distance through body tissue like x-rays, but unlike them is
non-ionizing, so it is of interest as a replacement for medical X-rays. Due to its longer
wavelength, images made using terahertz waves have lower resolution than X-rays and
need to be enhanced (see figure at right).

The earth's atmosphere is a strong absorber of terahertz radiation, so the range of

terahertz radiation in air is limited to tens of meters, making it unsuitable for long-
distance communications. However, at distances of ~10 meters the band may still allow
many useful applications in imaging and construction of high bandwidth wireless
networking systems, especially indoor systems. In addition, producing and detecting
coherent terahertz radiation remains technically challenging, though inexpensive
commercial sources now exist in the 0.3–1.0 THz range (the lower part of the spectrum),
including gyrotrons, backward wave oscillators, and resonant-tunneling diodes.

Figure: 3.1 TDS System

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 The terahertz band, covering the wavelength range between 0.1–1 mm, is
identical to the submillimeter wavelength band. However, typically, the term "terahertz"
is used more often in marketing in relation to generation and detection with pulsed lasers,
as in terahertz time domain spectroscopy, while the term "submillimeter" is used for
generation and detection with microwave technology, such as harmonic multiplication.

Electromagnetic radiation across the spectrum can be used to produce images. X-

rays are a familiar example. The level of detail of an image will depend on the
wavelength of the electromagnetic radiation being used. The smaller the wavelength, the
better the resolution. Terahertz waves may not have the same level of resolving power as
x-rays or visible light, but they are better than using microwaves or radio waves. It isn't
always desirable to use ultra-violet or x-rays because they are hazardous to living cells.

Visible light cannot be used to image in all circumstances (for example if the
item being imaged is covered in something that is opaque to visible light). Which leads
on to another important aspect of terahertz radiation. Many materials that are opaque to
visible light are transparent to terahertz radiation, including many textiles, paper and
cardboard.

Most vacuum electronic devices that are used for microwave generation can be
modified to operate at terahertz frequencies, including the magnetron, gyrotron,
synchrotron, and free electron laser. Similarly, microwave detectors such as the tunnel
diode have been re-engineered to detect at terahertz and infrared frequencies as well.
However, many of these devices are in prototype form, are not compact, or exist at
university or government research labs, without the benefit of cost savings due to mass
production.
This opens up a potential for security applications, for example,
as terahertz radiation could scan people for concealed weapons without using damaging
x-rays. This technology is already in use in some airports including Schipol in the
Netherlands. The energy of terahertz waves is too low to knock the electrons from atoms,
i.e. they do not have the potential to ionise materials, and therefore won't damage living
tissue.

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 This makes them very attractive for medical uses, but also for security
application, such as scanning airline passengers. Terahertz waves span a section of the
electromagnetic spectrum at which many molecules emit and absorb radiation.
Molecules have a distinct chemical "fingerprint" as a result of the particular wavelengths
of electromagnetic radiation that they absorb and emit. This can be used in a technique
called spectroscopy to identify substances.

Concealed plastic explosives could be identified by this technique, or a patient's

breath analysed.THz radiation exhibits three unique properties, which stimulate development
of the whole terahertz industry. The major advantage of terahertz waves (of sub-terahertz
frequency range 0.1 THz — 0.3 THz) is that many materials which block visible and IR spectra,
appear to be transparent in the terahertz region.With that said, as compared to microwave
radiation, the terahertz (or T-ray) frequency range enables to achieve a fairly good spatial
resolution required for rendering quality imaging. T-rays are non-ionizing, able to penetrate
clothing, polyethylene, polyester and other types of shrouds, covers and enclosures, made of
various opaque materials, selectively absorbed by water and organic substances. These unique
properties make T-rays much more attractive and informative than X-rays and near infrared
radiation (NIR).

The second unique property of THz emission is its harmlessness for biological
entities. As opposed to X-rays (Roentgen), terahertz waves have absolutely no ionizing
radiation impact, are non-invasive and absolutely safe for humans, animals and plants.
Moreover, many substances reveal their characteristics spectral lines in the far THz range
(1 — 3 THz), which provides unique information about their structure and allows
conducting their chemical analysis.

During the last few decades there have been a lot of speculations about terahertz
technology, yet not so many really successful breakthroughs have been made. TeraSense
tries to bridge the «terahertz gap» by developing a special imaging technology.

Terahertz rays (T-rays) are a unique type of electromagnetic radiation, whose

great potential is yet to be further developed by human civilization. Many of the existing
T-rays devices use single-pixel detectors, which require ultra-low temperatures of liquid
helium. Such T-ray instruments are typically very large, difficult to use, intended for
specific narrow applications, and prohibitively expensive.

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Sources
Natural
Terahertz radiation is emitted as part of the black-body radiation from anything
with a temperature greater than about 2 kelvins. While this thermal emission is very
weak, observations at these frequencies are important for characterizing cold 10–20 K
cosmic dust in interstellar clouds in the Milky Way galaxy, and in distant starburst
galaxies.
Telescopes operating in this band include the James Clerk Maxwell Telescope,
the Caltech Submillimeter Observatory and the Submillimeter Array at the Mauna Kea
Observatory in Hawaii, the BLAST balloon borne telescope, the Herschel Space
Observatory, the Heinrich Hertz Submillimeter Telescope at the Mount Graham
International Observatory in Arizona, and at the recently built Atacama Large Millimeter
Array. The opacity of the Earth's atmosphere to submillimeter radiation restricts these
observatories to very high altitude sites, or to space.

Artificial
As of 2012, viable sources of terahertz radiation are the gyrotron, the backward
wave oscillator ("BWO"), the organic gas far infrared laser, Schottky diode multipliers,
varactor (varicap) multipliers, quantum cascade laser, the free electron laser, synchrotron
light sources, photomixing sources, single-cycle or pulsed sources used in terahertz time
domain spectroscopy such as photoconductive, surface field, photo-Dember and optical
rectification emitters, and electronic oscillators based on resonant tunneling diodes have
been shown to operate up to 700 GHz.

There have also been solid-state sources of millimeter and submillimeter waves
for many years. AB Millimeter in Paris, for instance, produces a system that covers the
entire range from 8 GHz to 1000 GHz with solid state sources and detectors. Nowadays,
most time-domain work is done via ultrafast lasers.

In mid-2007, scientists at the U.S. Department of Energy's Argonne National

Laboratory, along with collaborators in Turkey and Japan, announced the creation of a
compact device that could lead to portable, battery-operated terahertz radiation sources.
The device uses high-temperature superconducting crystals, grown at the University of

22
Tsukuba in Japan. These crystals comprise stacks of Josephson junctions, which exhibit
a property known as the Josephson effect: when external voltage is applied, alternating
current flows across the junctions at a frequency proportional to the voltage. This
alternating current induces an electromagnetic field. A small voltage (around two
millivolts per junction) can induce frequencies in the terahertz range.

In 2008 engineers at Harvard University achieved room temperature emission of

several hundred nanowatts of coherent terahertz radiation using a semiconductor source.
THz radiation was generated by nonlinear mixing of two modes in a mid-infrared
quantum cascade laser. Previous sources had required cryogenic cooling, which greatly
limited their use in everyday applications.

In 2009 it was discovered that the act of unpeeling adhesive tape generates non-
polarized terahertz radiation, with a narrow peak at 2 THz and a broader peak at 18 THz.
The mechanism of its creation is tribocharging of the adhesive tape and subsequent
discharge; this was hypothesized to involve bremsstrahlung with absorption or energy
density focusing during dielectric breakdown of a gas.

In 2013 researchers at Georgia Institute of Technology's Broadband Wireless

Networking Laboratory and the Polytechnic University of Catalonia developed a method
to create a graphene antenna: an antenna that would be shaped into graphene strips from
10 to 100 nanometers wide and one micrometer long. Such an antenna could be used to
emit radio waves in the terahertz frequency range.

Most vacuum electronic devices that are used for microwave generation can be
modified to operate at terahertz frequencies, including the magnetron, gyrotron,
synchrotron, and free electron laser. Similarly, microwave detectors such as the tunnel
diode have been re-engineered to detect at terahertz and infrared frequencies as well.
However, many of these devices are in prototype form, are not compact, or exist at
university or government research labs, without the benefit of cost savings due to mass
production.

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Methods
Direct laser methods

Because of the characteristic spectral profile of a thermal emitter , the only direct
emission methods for producing terahertz waves use a non-Boltzmann source, involving
laser technology. Four principal laser methods are at various stages of development and
investigation: difference frequency mixing, terahertz parametric oscillators, molecular
gas lasers and quantum cascade lasers. Of these, the molecular gas laser, often called an
optically pumped terahertz laser, generates the highest power and is at the forefront of
CW imaging applications development.

In its simplest embodiment, an optically pumped terahertz laser system comprises

a grating-tuned CO2 pump laser operating on a single output line, together with a
terahertz gas cell mounted in a laser resonator. The pump beam enters the cell through an
aperture in the high-reflecting resonator mirror —typically a simple metal mirror. The
pump laser is tuned to the appropriate molecular vibrational absorption band, and lasing
occurs between two rotational levels of the excited vibration state.

Figure: 3.3.1 Direct laser method

First developed for military and potential communications applications, CW
optically pumped terahertz lasers can be based on a number of small organic molecules,
such as methanol, difluoromethane or vinyl chloride, each offering tens to hundreds of
different emission lines. In addition, isotopic substitutions can further multiply the
number of available lines.

Historically, individual research groups built their own optically pumped

terahertz lasers, but these systems typically were very large and extremely difficult to
use and maintain. The main challenge is maintaining a stable output wavelength and
power from the CO2 pump laser, along with a constant cavity length in the terahertz
resonator. Today, commercial laser systems are much smaller, turnkey and reliable. A

24
key to these improvements has been the development of permanently sealed, single-
mode, frequency-stabilized, folded-cavity, radio-frequency-excited, waveguide CO2
lasers.

Just as important has been the development of sealed terahertz gas cells that
eliminate gas-transport issues, as well as passive resonator structures that are inherently
stable, coupled with automated feedback stabilization technologies. As a result, the
optically pumped terahertz laser can be optimized to deliver TEM00 output in a single
longitudinal mode, with a typical 30-second integrated line width of <50 kHz at 2 THz
(150 μm). Over the majority of the 1- to 5-THz range, the output is greater than 50 mW
and can exceed 100 mW at select lines.

Laser-enabled Method

The most prominent laser-enabled approach uses a dipole antenna constructed

from a near-IR absorbing semiconductor material, together with an ultrafast laser. Called
a time-domain system, this hardware eliminates the need for high-speed electronic
circuitry. Specifically, an incident ultrafast laser pulse is tightly focused into this switch,
which is pre-biased with an external voltage supply. Absorption of the pulse creates a
massive but transient population of charge carriers, allowing current to flow across the
antenna. Because of fast natural recombination of electrons and holes, this current is
short-lived.

This device emits a burst of electromagnetic radiation with a pulse shape that is
dependent on the laser pulse. If the pulse is in the picosecond or 100-fs range, the
resulting electromagnetic waveform is in the terahertz regime. The pulse is intense but
with a fairly broad spectral bandwidth given by the Fourier transform of the carrier rise
and decay profile. Figure 4 illustrates the basics of this time-domain system source,
including the high-numerical-aperture (hemispherical) lens that collimates the terahertz
output into a useful beam.

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 Figure: 3.3.2 Laser-enabled Method
The output of this device is a train of pulses whose repetition frequency is the
same as that of the femtosecond pump laser; i.e., 75 to 80 MHz for typical commercial
ultrafast lasers. Pulse widths are less than 1 ps, with average powers on the order of
microwatts and a bandwidth of >500 GHz (FWHM). The bandwidth is often centered
below 1 THz (Figure 5), but this can vary significantly, depending upon the design of the
switch as well as the pumping characteristics.

Recently, researchers have produced measurable output at frequencies up to 30

THz with a time-domain system setup, although the power spectral density is
commensurately lower because the total average power is spread over a wider bandwidth.

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 4 APPLICATIONS

Security

Detecting powder, liquids, explosives and other threats in small packages and mail
has recently become highly important. After discovering letters containing anthrax, such
new threats as CBRE (chemical, biological and radiological elements) are perceived as
real and requiring new and effective detection approaches to counter them. Designed for
inspecting flat objects (envelopes, letters, small packages), our Terahertz imaging scanner
offers a brand-new approach for security screening in terms of safety, accessibility and
detection.

Figure: 4.1.1 Security screening of letters, envelopes and small packages

Unlike X-ray machines, Terahertz waves are completely harmless for humans and
have no ionizing radiation, but can easily penetrate clothes and some other enclosures.
These properties make THz-based people screening solutions extremely valuable for
applications where human health and safety are of utmost importance.

Security systems for people screening and luggage scanning. Here the emphasis is
primarily made on the fact that unlike X-ray, THz radiation is not detrimental to human
body. THz scanners allow remote detection of metallic, plastic, ceramic and other objects
concealed under clothes — at a distance of several meters.

27
 The TeraSense security body scanner operates in reflection mode and is intended
for stand-off detection of weapons, including cold steel and firearms, bombs and grenades,
explosive belts and various contraband items hidden under clothes.

Figure:4.1.2 Security screening of people (body scanner)

Pharma

There are a number of materials used in Pharmaceutical and Cosmetics industries

which are fairly transparent in terahertz waves. This makes our THz imaging technology
very attractive as a harmless non-destructive testing (NDT) technique for drugs, pills,
medical products and baby’s diapers on industrial production lines. For instance, tablet
manufacturers can use our high-speed terahertz imaging scanner at a speed up to 15m/sec
for quality control (QC) to make sure every pouch in a tablet blister is properly filled with
a tablet and that there are no empty blisters at the end of the process line.
Paper, carton and plastic are common packing materials and completely
transparent in THz light, which enables Terasense technology to ‘see through’ the
package and identify all missing items. THz tomography in medicine allows conducting
analysis of the upper layers of a human body — skin, vessels, joints and muscles. There
are known successful applications of THz tomography for detecting skin and breast
cancers at early stages. Most interesting is also the capability of visualizing current
conditions of wounds under gypsum/bandage layers.

28
 Figure: 4.2 Pharma

Food and Agriculture

Perhaps more so than anywhere else, in the food and agricultural industries it is
highly critical for quality control and inspection testing to avoid the use of ionizing
radiation (X-rays) due to their detrimental effect on biological agents. This is where
terahertz imaging technology, developed and commercialized by TeraSense, is extremely
useful; for instance, checking if a robotic arm has put all candy bars into the carton, or
checking for foreign bodies and insects inside of packaged food containers. Seeing
through cardboard or PE packaging poses no problem to our THz imager. Checking the
quality of various agricultural products like nuts and seeds also opens up huge
perspectives for THz technology in this field too.

Figure: 4.3 Food and agriculture

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Ceramics

The High-Speed Linear Terahertz Scanning system developed and manufactured

by TeraSense for conveyor applications is a perfect solution for non-destructive testing
and quality control of different materials in an industrial environment. One of the key
benefits of the TeraSense THz imaging technology is its high sensitivity to different
features and inclusions in the volume of non-metallic materials (ceramics, plastics, wood).
Evaluation of density and humidity variations in the pressed powders (‘green tiles’ and
kiln-fired tiles in the ceramic industry) is one of the most distinguished applications of the
system, which has already been proved by factory tests

Figure: 4.4 Ceramics

Automotive

Research into new materials and semiconductor technology had expanded existing
boundaries to the terahertz extremes, which opened doors for commercializing the THz
technologies in numerous markets and various applications.TeraSense’s technology
shows promise in the automotive industry for such applications as detection of disrupted
steel (and nylon) reinforcement and foreign inclusions inside rubber parts and detection of
corrosion in coated metal parts.

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 Figure: 4.5 Automotive

Medical

Terahertz photons are not energetic enough to break chemical bonds or ionize
molecules / atoms, and are therefore harmless for living organisms. THz radiation is not
highly scattered in tissues (unlike optical emission).

THz tomography in medicine allows conducting analysis of the upper layers of a

human body — skin, vessels, joints and muscles. There are known successful applications
of THz tomography for detecting skin and breast cancers at early stages. Most interesting
is also the capability of visualizing current conditions of wounds under gypsum/bandage
layers.Besides this, due to strong absorption of T-rays by water, terahertz imaging can be
a useful tool to investigate soft tissues.

These unique properties of T-rays make them eligible for use in various medical
applications, some of which hold enormous promise, like a non-invasive technique for
early detection of cancer, ex-vivo spectroscopy, dental care etc.

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 Figure:4.6 Dental
Science

Development of semiconductor technology and the research of new materials has

expanded the utilized frequency limits to THz regions and opened doors for new
applications in a number of industries such as wireless communication, homeland and
personal security, medical diagnostics, FMCG packaging, food and wood processing,
ceramic tiles production, and many more.

The scientific applications of THz radiation include spectroscopy of long-

wavelength lattice vibrations of crystals, bending vibrations of molecules. Frequencies of
soft modes in ferroelectric materials and frequencies matching the energy of apertures in
superconductors are also «residing» within the THz range.More recently terahertz
technology has been used in only a few scientific applications in radio astronomy and lab
research, and these terahertz systems were expensive and bulky solutions. Indeed, every
research project has its specific requirements.Some of the popular practical applications
of our THz imaging cameras are beam profiling/measurement, which includes imaging of
beams from TDS and FDS spectroscopy systems.

Figure: 4.7 THz Imaging

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5. ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES

Advantages of Terahertz (THz)

 It offers greater bandwidth than microwave frequencies. The data bandwidth exceeds
wireless protocols e.g. 802.11b.
 THz radiation waves can easily pass through non-conducting materials as mentioned
above.
 It can be used in image sensing and higher bandwidth wireless networking systems
for distances of about 10 to 100 meters.
 It has minimum effects on human body as it is non-ionizing in nature.

Disadvantages of Terahertz (THz)

 It does not support long range communication due to scattering and absorption by
cloud, dust, rain etc.
 It supports less penetration depth than microwave radiation. Moreover it has limited
penetration through clouds and fog. THz waves can not penetrate liquid water or
metal.
 It is difficult to detect terahertz frequencies as black body radiation at room
temperatures is very strong at these frequencies.
 Sources, detectors, modulators are not available at affordable prices which lead to
hinderances in its commercial availability as communication system.

33
 6. CONCLUSION
Terahertz frequency radiation possesses a unique combination of desirable
properties for noninvasive imaging and spectroscopy of materials. Terahertz
spectroscopy is of prime importance for tablet coating technology. Most important
advantage of terahertz technology is that it is nondestructive method of analysis. Tablets
can be re-examined at later times to monitor coating stability or used for further
functional studies with prior knowledge of the coating uniformity.

The applications mentioned here show that THz imaging is desired by many
different parts of industry and research, so that it can be expected that much effort will
go into this field. But despite the number of potential applications for THz imaging no
technology is yet the ideal way, though the recent advances could lead to practicable and
compact systems. Hence, research in this field is going to be very lively and interesting
in the future. The development of a variety of THz sources has been gradually filling the
THz gap in recent years, providing complementary characteristics in terms of frequency
of operation, average and peak power.

Large scale FEL facilities are capable of providing high power CW THz
radiation while low-cost solid state oscillators and QCLs are expected to drive the
realization of THz systems for a variety of applications in the near future. It has been
shown that low-cost small size FELs can also be built in the THz region. Their peculiar
feature is the capability of providing high peak power in the kW range with peak electric
field in the range 104 ñ 106 V/cm, which is crucial for the investigation of non-linear
phenomena.

The generation of ultra-short electron pulses (50 ñ 100 fs) will significantly
increase the available bandwidth of free electron THz radiators, and improvements in
RF-gun technology will make a table-top high power CW source a possibility in the near
future.

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7. BIBILOGRAPHY

BOOKS:

I. D. Chattaopadhyay, P.C Rakshit Electronics Fundamental andApplicationsNinth

Edition, New Age International Publishers.

II. Ben G. Streetman, Sanjay Kumar Banerjee Solid State Electronics DevicesSixth
Edition, PHI Learning Private Limited

WEB:

I. http://news.soft32.com/closer-to-1-terahertz-transistor_3037.html
II. http://www.techimo.com/articles/index.pl?photo=24
III. http://www.theregister.co.uk/2001/12/03/ibm_amd_unveil_terahertz_transistor
IV. en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel_TeraHertz
V. en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TransistorVI.ott.web.arizona.edu/techs/terahertz-transistor
VI. http://www.pctechguide.com/21Architecture_TeraHertz_technology.htm
VII. arizona.technologypublisher.com/technology/2730
VIII. www.intel.com/rearch
IX. www.scribd.com/terahertz
X. www.pdfsearch.com/terahertztransister

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