Addis Ababa Science and Technology University

Department of Mathematics
Lectures for Applied Mathematics

Lecture Title: Derivatives and their applications Academic Year: 2021/22

Course code: Math1014 Semester: Second
Course Title: Applied Mathematics-IB Year of study: Freshman
Enrollment: Regular Target Group: Engineering & Applied
 Chapter 4

Derivatives and Application of Derivatives

4.1 Definition, examples & properties of derivatives

4.1.1 Basic Definition of derivative
Definition 4.1.1 — Tangent Line. The tangent line to the curve y = f (x) at the point P(a, f (a)) is the
line passing through the point (a, f (a)) having slope
f (a + h) − f (a) f (x) − f (a)
m = lim = lim (4.1)
h→0 h x→a x−a
provided this limit exists.
We can find an equation of the tangent line at P by using the point-slope form of an equation of aline.
Thus,
y = m(x − a) + f (a)
Definition 4.1.2 The normal line to a curve at a given point is the line perpendicular to the tangent line
at that Point.
■ Example 4.1.1 — Finding a tangent line. Find an equation of the tangent line to the parabola y = x2
at the point P(1, 1). ■

Solution. To find the slope of the tangent line at the point P(1, 1), we use Equation (4.1) with a = 1,
obtaining

f (1 + h) − f (1)
m = lim
h→0 h
2
(1 + h) − 1 h(2 + h)
= lim = lim =2
h→0 h h→0 h

To find an equation of the tangent line, we use the point-slope form of an equation of a line to obtain
y − f (a) = m(x − a) ⇒ y − 1 = 2(x − 1)
⇒ y = 2x − 1

■ Example 4.1.2 Find the equation of the line tangent to the graph of f (x) = 1x at x = 2. ■

@AASTU 2022 Applied Mathematics-IB

4.1.1 Basic Definition of derivative 3

Solution. Again we use Equation (4.1) with a = 2

1
f (x) − f (2) −1
m = lim = lim x 2
x→2 x−2 x→2 x − 2
1
x − 12 2x (2 − x)
= lim = lim
x→2 x − 2 2x x→2 (x − 2)(2x)
−1 1
= lim =−
x→2 2x 4
To find the equation of the tangent line, we need a point on the line. We know that f (2) = 12 . Now we use
the point-slope equation of a line to find the equation of the tangent line.
1 1
y − f (a) = m(x − a) ⇒ y − = − (x − 2)
2 4
1 3
⇒ y = − x+
4 4
√
■ Example 4.1.3 Find an equation of the normal line to the curve y = x − 3 which is parallel to the
line 6x + 3y − 4 = 0. ■

Solution. Let ℓ be the given line. To find the slope of ℓ, we write its equation in the slope-intercept form,
which is
4
y = −2x +
3
Therefore, the slope of ℓ is −2 and the slope of the desired normal line is also −2 because the two lines
are parallel. √ √
f (x) − f (a) x−3− a−3
m = lim = lim
x→a x−a x→a x−a
√ √ √ √ 
x−3− a−3 x−3− a−3
= lim √ √
x→a x−a x−3+ a−3

(x − 3) − (a − 3) 1 1
= lim √ √
= lim √ √ = √
x→a (x − a) x−3+ a−3 x→a x − 3 + a − 3 2 a−3
Because the normal line at a point is perpendicular to the tangent line at that
√ point, the product of their
slopes is −1. Hence, the slope of the normal line√at (a, f (a)) is given by −2 a − 3. Since the slope of the
desired line is −2, so we solve the equation −2 a − 3 = −2 ⇒ a = 4. Therefore, the desired line is the
line through point (4, 1) on the curve and has a slope of −2. Using the point-slope form of an equation of
a line we obtain,
y = −2(x − 4) + 1 ⇒ y = −2x + 9

Definition 4.1.3 — Derivative. The derivative of a function f with respect to x is the function f ′
defined by the rule
f (x + h) − f (x)
f ′ (x) = lim (4.2)
h→0 h
The domain of f ′ consists of all values of x for which the limit exists.

@AASTU 2022 Applied Mathematics-IB

4.1.1 Basic Definition of derivative 4

R If we let x = a + h, then h = x − a. Hence h → 0 iff x → a. Therefore,

f (x) − f (a)
f ′ (x) = lim . (4.3)
x→a x−a

The following are two interpretations of derivatives:

1. Geometric Interpretation of the Derivative: The derivative f ′ of a function f is a measure of the
slope of the tangent line to the graph of f at any point (x, f (x)), provided that the derivative exists.
2. Physical Interpretation of the Derivative: The derivative f ′ of a function f measures the instanta-
neous rate of change of f at x.
Note:
1. The value of the derivative of f at a is denoted by f ′ (a)
2. The tangent line to y = f (x) at (a, f (a)) is the line through (a, f (a)) whose slope is equal to f ′ (a).
3. A function f (x) is said to be differentiable at a if f ′ (a) exists. More generally, a differentiable
function is one in which f ′ (x) exists on its domain.
Other Notation:
If we denote the dependent variable by y so that y = f (x), then some common alternative notations for
the derivative are as follows:
dy d f d
f ′ (x) = y′ = = = f (x) = D f (x) = Dx f (x).
dx dx dx

d f 
The value of the derivative at a is denoted by
dx x=a
■ Example 4.1.4 — Finding a Derivative. For f (x) = 3x2 − 4x + 1, find f ′ (2) ■

Solution. We can use either Equation (4.2) or (4.3) to get the same value.
Using Equation (4.2), we substitute the two values of the function into the equation to obtain
f (2 + h) − f (2)
f ′ (2) = lim
h→0 h
(3(2 + h)2 − 4(2 + h) + 1) − 5 h(3h + 8)
= lim = lim = 8
h→0 h h→0 h
Again using Equation (4.3), we substitute the given function and value directly into the equation
f (x) − f (2) (3x2 − 4x + 1) − 5
f ′ (x) = lim = lim
x→2 x−2 x→2 x−2
(x − 2)(3x + 2)
= lim = lim (3x + 2) = 8
x→2 x−2 x→2
√
■ Example 4.1.5 Find the derivative of f (x) = x ■

Solution. We directly apply the√definition of derivatives

√ given√in equation
√ (4.2) to get
√ √
′ x + h − x x + h − x x + h + x
f (x) = lim = lim ·√ √
h→0 h h→0 h x+h+ x

h 1 1
= lim √ √
= lim √ √
= √
h→0 h x+h+ x h→0 x+h+ x 2 x

@AASTU 2022 Applied Mathematics-IB

4.1.1 Basic Definition of derivative 5
p
■ Example 4.1.6 Let f (x) = 5 − x2 . Then find
′
1. f (x) and determine the domain of the derivative function
2. an equation of the tangent line to the graph of f (x) at x = −1
■

Solution. 1. From the definition for derivatives

p given in Equation
√ (4.2) we have,
f (x + h) − f (x) 5 − (x + h) − 5 − x2
2
f ′ (x) = lim = lim
h→0 h h→0 h
p √ ! p √ !
2 2
5 − (x + 2xh + h ) − 5 − x 2 5 − (x2 + 2xh + h2 ) + 5 − x2
= lim p √
h→0 h 5 − (x2 + 2xh + h2 ) + 5 − x2
(5 − x2 − 2xh − h2 ) − (5 − x2 )
= lim p √ 
h→0 h 2 2
5 − (x + 2xh + h ) + 5 − x 2

−2x − h −2x x
= lim p √ =√ √ = −√
h→0 5 − (x2 + 2xh + h2 ) + 5 − x2 5 − x2 + 5 − x2 5 − x2
√ √ √ √
Since f ′ (x) exists for − 5 < x < 5, then the domain of f ′ (x) is (− 5, 5).
2. The slope m of the tangent line to the graph of f (x) at x = −1 is
−(−1) 1
f ′ (−1) = p =
5 − (−1)2 2

x−2 dy
■ Example 4.1.7 Let y = . Find ■
1−x dx

Solution.
(x+h)−2 x−2
dy f (x + h) − f (x) 1−(x+h) − 1−x
= lim = lim
dx h→0 h h→0 h
−x + x + h − xh − 2 + 2x − [−x2 + 2x − xh + 2h + x − 2]
2
= lim
h→0 h(1 − x − h)(1 − x)
−h −1
= lim =
h→0 h(1 − x − h)(1 − x) (1 − x)2

■ Example 4.1.8 Calculate the instantaneous velocity at time t = 5 of an automobile whose position at
time t seconds is given by g(t) = t 3 + 4t 2 + 10 feet. ■

Solution. We know that the required instantaneous velocity is g′ (5). So that we calculate
g(5 + h) − g(5)
g′ (5) = lim
h→0 h
(5 + h)3 + 4(5 + h)2 + 10 − [53 + 4(5)2 + 10]
= lim
h→0 h
2
115h + 19h + h 3
= lim = lim 115 + 19h + h2 = 115
h→0 h h→0
We conclude that the instantaneous velocity of the moving body at time t = 5 is g′ (5) = 115 f t/sec.

@AASTU 2022 Applied Mathematics-IB

4.1.1 Basic Definition of derivative 6

■ Example 4.1.9 A rubber balloon is losing air steadily. At time t minutes the balloon contains

75 − 10t 2 + t cubic inches of air. What is the rate of loss of air in the balloon at time t = 1? ■

Solution. Let f (t) = 75 − 10t 2 + t. We calculate

f (1 + h) − f (1) −19h − 10h2
f ′ (1) = lim = lim = −19
h→0 h h→0 h
In this case, the rate of air loss in the balloon at time t = 1 is f ′ (1) = −19 f t 3 /sec. The negative sign in
this answer indicates that the change is negative, i.e., that the quantity is decreasing.

Theorem 4.1.1 — Differentiability Implies Continuity. Let f be a function and a be in its domain. If f
is differentiable at a, then f is continuous at a.

Proof. If f is differentiable at a, then f ′ (a) exists and, if x is in the domain of f and x ̸= a, we need to
show that f (x) is continuous at a by showing that lim f (x) = f (a). Thus,
x→a
 

f (x) − f (a)
lim f (x) = lim f (x) − f (a) + f (a) = lim · (x − a) + f (a)
x→a x→a x→a x−a
 
f (x) − f (a)  
= lim · lim (x − a) + lim f (a) = f ′ (a) · 0 + f (a) = f (a)
x→a x−a x→a x→a
and this shows that f is continuous at a, as asserted. ■
We have just proven that differentiability implies continuity, but now let’s consider some situations in
which a continuous function fails to be differentiable.
• The function f (x) = |x| is continuous everywhere; however, f ′ (0) is doesn’t exist.
f (x) − f (0) |x| − |0| |x|
f ′ (0) = lim = lim = lim .
x→0 x−0 x→0 x − 0 x→0 x
This limit does not exist because
|x| |x|
lim = −1 and lim =1
x→0 − x x→0 + x
√
• Consider the function f (x) = 3 x √
′
3
x−0 1
f (0) = lim = lim √3 2
= +∞.
x→0 x − 0 x→0 x
Thus f ′ (0) does not exist.
■ Example 4.1.10 — A Piece-wise Function that is Continuous and Differentiable. A toy company
wants to design a track for a toy car that starts out along a parabolic curve and then converts to a straight
(
1 2
x + bx + c, if x < −10
line. The function that describes the track is to have the form f (x) = 101
− 4 x + 25 , if x ≥ −10

where x and f (x) are in inches. For the car to move smoothly along the track, the function f (x) must be
both continuous and differentiable at −10. Find values of b and c that make f (x) both continuous and
differentiable. ■

Solution. For the function to be continuous at x = −10, lim f (x) = f (−10).

x→10−
1
lim f (x) = (−10)2 − 10b + c = 10 − 10b + c = f (−10) = 5 ⇒ c = 10b − 5.
x→−10− 10

@AASTU 2022 Applied Mathematics-IB

 4.1.2 Basic Rules of Differentiation 7

For the function to be differentiable at −10

f (x) − f (−10)
f ′ (10) = lim
x→−10 x + 10
must exist. Hence,
1 2
f (x) − f (−10) 10 x + bx + c − 5
lim = lim
x→−10− x + 10 x→−10− x + 10
1 2
10 x + bx + (10b − 5) − 5
= lim
x→−10− x + 10
x2 − 100 + 10bx + 100b
= lim
x→−10− 10(x + 10)
(x + 10)(x − 10 + 10b)
= lim = b−2
x→−10− 10(x + 10)
We also have
f (x) − f (−10) − 14 x + 52 − 5
lim = lim
x→−10+ x + 10 x→−10+ x + 10

−(x + 10) 1
= lim = −
x→−10+ 4(x + 10) 4

This gives us, b − 2 = − 14 . Thus b = 7 7 25

4 and c = 10 4 −5 = 2.

4.1.2 Basic Rules of Differentiation

d
Theorem 4.1.2 — Derivative of a Constant Function. If c is a constant, then (c) = 0.
dx
Theorem 4.1.3 — The Power Rule. If n is any real number and f (x) = xn , then
d n
f ′ (x) = (x ) = nxn−1 .
dx

■ Example 4.1.11 — Applying the Power Rule. If

d
1. f (x) = x14 , then f ′ (x) = (x14 ) = 14x14−1 = 14x13
dx
1 d 1 d −6
2. f (x) = 6 , then f (x) = ( 6 ) = (x−6 ) = −6x−6−1 = 7
′
x dx x dx x
■

Theorem 4.1.4 — The Constant Multiple Rule. If f is a differentiable function and c is a constant, then
d d
[c f (x)] = c [ f (x)]
dx dx

Theorem 4.1.5 — The Sum Rule. If f and g are differentiable functions, then
d d d
[ f (x) ± g(x)] = [ f (x)] ± [g(x)] = f ′ (x) ± g′ (x)
dx dx dx

■ Example 4.1.12 Find the derivative of f (x) = 2x6 + 3x4 − 4x3 + x2 − 5x + 9 ■

@AASTU 2022 Applied Mathematics-IB

4.1.2 Basic Rules of Differentiation 8

Solution.
′ d h 6 4 3 2
i
f (x) = 2x + 3x − 4x + x − 5x + 9
dx
d d d d d d
= 2 (x6 ) + 3 (x4 ) − 4 (x3 ) + (x2 ) − 5 (x) + (9)
dx dx dx dx dx dx
5 3 2
= 12x + 12x − 12x + 2x − 5

Theorem 4.1.6 — The Product Rule. Let f (x) and g(x) be differentiable functions. Then
d d d
[ f (x)g(x)] = g(x) [ f (x)] + f (x) [g(x)] = f ′ (x)g(x) + g′ (x) f (x)
dx dx dx

■ Example 4.1.13 Find the derivative of p(x) = (x2 + 2)(3x3 − 5x) ■

Solution. If we set f (x) = x2 + 2 and g(x) = 3x3 − 5x, then

p′ (x) = f ′ (x)g(x) + g′ (x) f (x) = (2x)(3x3 − 5x) + (9x2 − 5)(x2 + 2)
=2x(3x3 ) − 2x(5x) + 9x2 (x2 ) + 9x2 (2) − 5(x2 ) − 5(2)
=6x4 − 10x2 + 9x4 + 18x2 − 5x2 − 10 = 15x4 + 3x2 − 10
To check, we see that p(x) = 3x5 + x3 − 10x and, consequently, p′ (x) = 15x4 + 3x2 − 10.
√
■ Example 4.1.14 Find the derivative of f (x) = (x2 − 1)( x − 2x). ■

Solution.
√ d d √
f ′ (x) =( x − 2x) (x2 − 1) + (x2 − 1) ( x − 2x)
dx dx
√ √
 
2 d d
=( x − 2x)(2x) + (x − 1) ( x) − (2x)
dx dx

√ √ x2 − 1
 
1
=2x x − 4x2 + (x2 − 1) √ −2 = 2 x − 6x2 + √ + 2
2 x 2 x

Theorem 4.1.7 — The Quotient Rule. If f and g are differentiable functions and g(x) ̸= 0, then
f ′ (x)g(x) − g′ (x) f (x)
 
d f (x)
=
2 .
dx g(x) g(x)

x2 − x
■ Example 4.1.15 Find the derivative of f (x) = 3 ■
x +1

Solution.
d d
d x2 − x (x3 + 1) dx (x2 − x) − (x2 − x) dx (x3 + 1)
 
′
f (x) = =
dx x3 + 1 (x3 + 1)2
(x3 + 1)(2x − 1) − (x2 − x)(3x2 ) (2x4 − x3 + 2x − 1) − (3x4 − 3x3 )
= =
(x3 + 1)2 (x3 + 1)2
−x4 + 2x3 + 2x − 1
=
(x3 + 1)2

@AASTU 2022 Applied Mathematics-IB

 4.1.3 The Chain Rule 9

4.1.3 The Chain Rule

Theorem 4.1.8 — The Chain Rule. If g is differentiable at x and f is differentiable at g(x), then the
composite function h(x) = ( f · g)(x) = f g(x) is differentiable at x and h′ is given by the product

h′ (x) = f ′ g(x) · g′ (x).

Also, if we write u = g(x) and y = f (u) = f (g(x)), then

dy dy du
= · .
dx du dx

■ Example 4.1.16 Find the derivative of h(x) = (2x + 1)5 (3x − 2)7 ■

Solution. First apply the product rule, then apply the chain rule to each term of the product.
d d
h′ (x) = (2x + 1)5 · (3x − 2)7 + (3x − 2)7 · (2x + 1)5



dx dx
= 5(2x + 1) · 2(3x − 2) + 7(3x − 2)6 · 3 · (2x + 1)5
4 7

= 10(2x + 1)4 (3x − 2)7 + 21(3x − 2)6 (2x + 1)5

= (2x + 1)4 (3x − 2)6 (10(3x − 2) + 21(2x + 1))
= (2x + 1)4 (3x − 2)6 (72x + 1)

dy
■ Example 4.1.17 Find if y = u3 − u2 + u + 1 and u = x3 + 1 ■
dx

Solution.
dy dy du
= = (3u2 − 2u + 1)(3x2 )
dx du dx
= 3x2 (3x6 + 4x3 + 2)

4.2 Derivatives of; Inverse, Trigonometric and Hyperbolic Functions

4.2.1 Derivatives of Inverse Functions
Theorem 4.2.1 — Inverse Function Theorem. Let f (x) be a function that is both

invertible and
−1 ′ −1
differentiable. Let y = f (x) be the inverse of f (x). For all x satisfying f f (x) ̸= 0
dy d −1

′ 1
= f (x) = f −1 (x) = ′ −1
.
dx dx f f (x)
1
Alternatively, if y = g(x) is the inverse of f (x), then g′ (x) = ′
.
f g(x)

x+2
■ Example 4.2.1 Use the inverse function theorem to find the derivative of g(x) = . ■
x

x+2 2
Solution. The inverse of g(x) = is f (x) = . We will use Equation (4.2.1) and begin by finding
x x−1
−2 ′ −2 −2 x2
f ′ (x). Thus, f ′ (x) =


and f g(x) = = 2
= − .
(x − 1)2 (g(x) − 1)2 2
 
x+2
−1
x

@AASTU 2022 Applied Mathematics-IB

 4.2.2 Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions 10
1 2
Finally, g′ (x) =
= − 2.
f′ g(x) x

4.2.2 Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions

Theorem 4.2.2 — Rules for Differentiating Trigonometric Functions.
d d
(sin x) = cos x (csc x) = − csc x cot x
dx dx
d d
(cos x) = − sin x (sec x) = sec x tan x
dx dx
d d
(tan x) = sec2 x (cot x) = − csc2 x
dx dx
Proof.
d sin(x + h) − sin x sin x cos h + cos x sin h − sin x
(sin x) = lim = lim
dx h→0
 h h→0
 h
sin x cos h − sin x cos x sin h
= lim +
h→0 h h
    
cos h − 1 sin h
= lim sin x + (cos x)
h→0 h h
   
cos h − 1 sin h
= (sin x) lim + (cos x) lim
h→0 h h→0 h
= (sin x)(0) + (cos x)(1) = cos x
■

■ Example 4.2.2 Differentiate y = cos4 (7x2 + 1). ■

■ Example 4.2.3 Find the derivative of

4
(a) f (x) = sec(4x5 + 2x)
(c) h(x) = 1 + cos 3x2
sin x
(b) g(x) = (sec x)(x − tan x) (d) k(x) =
1 − 2 cos x
■

Definition 4.2.1 — Inverse Trigonometric Functions.

Inverse function Domain
y = sin−1 x iff x = sin y [−1, 1]
y = cos−1 x iff x = cos y [−1, 1]
−1
y = tan x iff x = tan y (−∞, ∞)
−1
y = csc x iff x = csc y (−∞, −1] ∪ [1, ∞)
y = sec−1 x iff x = sec y (−∞, −1] ∪ [1, ∞)
y = cot−1 x iff x = cot y (−∞, ∞)

@AASTU 2022 Applied Mathematics-IB

 4.2.3 Hyperbolic Functions 11

Properties of Inverse Trigonometric Functions

sin(sin−1 x) = x for −1 ≤ x ≤ 1
π π
sin−1 (sin x) = x for − ≤x≤
2 2
cos(cos−1 x) = x for −1 ≤ x ≤ 1
−1
cos (cos x) = x for 0≤x≤π
−1
tan(tan x) = x for −∞ ≤ x ≤ ∞
π π
tan−1 (tan x) = x for − ≤x≤
2 2

Theorem 4.2.3 — Rules for Differentiating Inverse Trigonometric Functions.

d 1 d 1
sin−1 x = √ csc−1 x = − √



dx 1 − x2 dx |x| x2 − 1
d 1 d 1
cos−1 x = − √ sec−1 x = √



dx 1 − x2 dx |x| x2 − 1
d 1 d 1
tan−1 x = cot−1 x = −



dx 1 + x2 dx 1 + x2

Proof. We
 πuseπ the inverse function theorem to find the −1 derivative of g(x) = sin−1 x Since for x in the
interval − 2 , 2 , f (x) = sin x is the inverse of g(x) = sin x begin by finding f ′ (x). Since f ′ (x) = cos x
and
p
f ′ g(x) = cos sin−1 x = 1 − x2

we see that
d 1 1
g′ (x) = sin−1 x = ′



=√
dx f g(x) 1 − x2
■

4.2.3 Hyperbolic Functions

Definition 4.2.2 — The Hyperbolic Functions.
ex − e−x 1
sinh x = cschx =
2 sinh x
ex + e−x 1
cosh x = sechx =
2 cosh x
sinh x cosh x
tanh x = coth x =
cosh x sinh x

R The domain of coth x and cschx is x ̸= 0 while the domain of the other hyperbolic functions is all real
numbers.

@AASTU 2022 Applied Mathematics-IB

4.2.3 Hyperbolic Functions 12

Theorem 4.2.4 — Hyperbolic Identities.

sinh(−x) = − sinh x cosh(−x) = − cosh(x)
cosh2 x − sinh2 x = 1 sech2 x = 1 − tanhx
sinh(x + y) = sinh x cosh y + cosh x sinh x sinh 2x = 2 sinh x cosh x
cosh(x + y) = cosh x cosh y + sinh x sinh y cosh2 x = cosh2 x + sinh2 x
1 1
cosh2 x = (1 + cosh 2x) sinh2 x = (−1 + cosh 2x)
2 2

Derivatives of Hyperbolic Functions

Theorem 4.2.5 — Derivative of Hyperbolic Functions.
d d
(sinh x) = cosh x (cschx) = −cschx coth x
dx dx
d d
(cosh x) = sinh x (sechx) = −sechx tanh x
dx dx
d d
(tanh x) = sechx (coth x) = −cschx
dx dx

Derivatives of Inverse Hyperbolic Functions

Definition 4.2.3 — Inverse Hyperbolic Functions.
Inverse Hyperbolic Functions Domain
y = sinh−1 x iff x = sinh y [−∞, ∞]
y = cosh−1 x iff x = cosh y [1, ∞]
−1
y = tanh x iff x = tanh y (−1, 1)
−1
y = csch x iff x = cschy (−∞, 0) ∩ (0, ∞)
y = sech−1 x iff x = sechy (0, 1]
y = coth−1 x iff x = coth y (−∞, −1] ∩ [1, ∞)

Representations of Inverse Hyperbolic Functions

 in Terms
 of Logarithmic Functions
p
−1
sinh x = ln x + x2 + 1 (−∞, ∞)
 p 
cosh−1 x = ln x + x2 − 1 [1, ∞)
 
1 1+x
tanh−1 x = ln (−1, 1)
2 1−x

We proof the first and left the others as an exercise for the students. Let y = sinh−1 x. Then
ey − e−y
x = sinh y =
2
−y
⇒e − 2x − e = 0 ⇒ e2y − 2xey − 1 = 0
y

p
Using the quadratic formula, we have ey = x ± x2 + 1.

@AASTU 2022 Applied Mathematics-IB

 4.3 Higher-Order Derivatives and Implicit Differentiation 13
√ √
As x < p x2 + 1, only the rootx + px2 + 1 is
 admissible. Therefore, we have
y
e = x + x2 + 1.so y = ln x + x2 + 1
 p 
That is, sinh−1 x = ln x + x2 + 1 .
Theorem 4.2.6 — Derivatives of Inverse Hyperbolic Functions.
d 1 d 1
sinh−1 x = √ csch−1 x = − √



dx x2 + 1 dx |x| x2 + 1
d 1 d 1
cosh−1 x = √ sech−1 x = − √



dx x2 − 1 dx x 1 − x2
d 1 d 1
tanh−1 x = coth−1 x =



dx 1 − x2 dx 1 − x2

Proof. The derivatives of the inverse hyperbolic functions can be found by using the inverse functions
method or differentiating the logarithmic function directly. Let y = sinh−1 x, so sinh y = x. Then
d
sinh y = cosh(y) · y′ = 1,
dx
1 1 1
and so y′ = =p =√ .
cosh y 2
1 + sinh y 1 + x2
And
d d  p 
(cosh−1 x) = ln x + x2 − 1
dx dx  
1 x
= √ 1+ √
x + x2 − 1 x2 − 1 !
√
1 x2 − 1 + x
= √ √
x + x2 − 1 x2 − 1
1
=√
x2 − 1
■

4.3 Higher-Order Derivatives and Implicit Differentiation

4.3.1 Higher order derivatives
The derivative f ′ of a function f is itself a function. As such, we may consider differentiating the function
f ′ . The derivative of f ′ , if it exists, is denoted by f ′′ and is called the second derivative of f . Continuing
in this fashion, we are led to the third, fourth, fifth, and higher-order derivatives of f , whenever they exist.
Notations for the first, second, third, and in general, the nth derivative of f are
f ′ , f ′′ , f ′′′ , · · · , f (n)
or
d d2 d3 dn
[ f (x)], 2 [ f (x)], 3 [ f (x)], · · · , n [(x)]
dx dx dx dx
respectively.
■ Example 4.3.1 For f (x) = 2x2 − 3x + 1, f ′ (x) = 4x − 3 and f ′′ (x) = 4 ■

@AASTU 2022 Applied Mathematics-IB

 4.3.2 Implicit Differentiation 14

■ Example 4.3.2 If f (x) = 1x , then

1 ′′ 2 6 24
f ′ (x) = − 2
, f (x) = 3 , f ′′′ (x) = − 4 , f (4) (x) = 5
x x x x
■

■ Example 4.3.3 The position of a particle moving along a straight line is given by
s = f (t) = 2t 3 − 15t 2 + 24t, t ≥ 0
where t is measured in seconds and s in feet.
(a) Find an expression giving the velocity of the particle at any time t. What are the velocity and
speed of the particle when t = 2?
(b) Determine the position of the particle when it is stationary.
(c) Find the acceleration function of the particle. What is the acceleration of the particle when t = 2?
(d) When is the acceleration zero? Positive? Negative?
■

Solution. (a) The required velocity of the particle is given by

ds
v(t) = = f ′ (t) = 6t 2 − 30t + 24 = 6(t − 1)(t − 4)
dt
The velocity of the particle when t = 2 is
v(2) = 6(2 − 1)(2 − 4) = −12
The speed of the particle when t = 2 is |v(2)| = 12 ft/sec. In short, the particle is moving in the
negative direction at a speed of 12 ft/sec.
(b) The particle is stationary when its velocity is equal to zero. Setting v(t) = 0 gives
v(t) = 6(t − 1)(t − 4) = 0
and we see that the particle is stationary at t = 1 and t = 4. Its position at t = 1 is given by
f (1) = 2(1)3 − 15(1)2 + 24(1) = 11
Its position at t = 4 is given by
f (4) = 2(4)3 − 15(4)2 + 24(4) = −16
dv
(c) a(t) = = f ′′ (t) = 12t − 30
dt
In particular, the acceleration of the particle when t = 2 is
a(2) = 12(2) − 30 = −6
The particle is decelerating at 6 f t/sec2 when t = 2.
(d) The acceleration of the particle is zero when a(t) = 0, or
5
12t − 30 = 0 ⇒ t = .
2
Since 2t − 5 < 0 when t < 25 and 2t − 5 > 0 when t > 52 , we also conclude that the acceleration is
negative for 0 < t < 52 and positive for t > 25 .

4.3.2 Implicit Differentiation

dy
Suppose that a function y = f (x) is defined implicitly via an equation in x and y. To compute use the
dx
following steps:
1. Differentiate both sides of the equation with respect to x. Make sure that the derivative of any term
dy
involving y includes the factor
dx
dy
2. Solve the resulting equation for in terms of x and y.
dx

@AASTU 2022 Applied Mathematics-IB

 4.4 Applications of Derivatives 15

dy
■ Example 4.3.4 If 2x2 y2 − 3x3 + 5y3 + 6xy2 = 5, find . ■
dx

Solution. Follow the steps in the problem-solving strategy above to get

dy 9x2 − 6y2 − 4xy2
=
dx 4xy2 + 15y2 + 12xy

dy π
■ Example 4.3.5 Find at ( , π), if x sin y − y cos 2x = 2x ■
dx 2

dy 4
Solution. =
dx 2 − π

■ Example 4.3.6 Find an equation of the tangent line to the bifolium 4x4 + 8x2 y2 − 25x2 y + 4y4 = 0 at
the point (2, 1). ■

dy dy
Solution. The slope of the tangent line to the bifolium at any point (x, y) is given by . To compute ,
dx dx
we differentiate both sides of the equation with respect to x to obtain
d d

4x4 + 8x2 y2 − 25x2 y + 4y4 =


0
dx dx
dy dy dy
⇒ 16x3 + 16x2 y + 16xy2 − 25x2 − 50xy + 16y3 = 0
dx dx dx
dy
By substituting x = 2 and y = 1 into the last equation, we obtain = 3. Using the slope-intercept form
dx
for an equation of a line, we see that an equation of the tangent line is y = 3x − 5

■ Example 4.3.7 Find y′ implicitly for y4 + x4 = 16. Then find the value of y′′ at the point (−2, 0). ■

x3
Solution. 4y3 y′ + 4x3 = 0 ⇒ y′
= − 3 .To find y′′ we differentiate this expression for y′ using the Quotient
y
Rule and remembering that y is a function of x:  
 3 2 3 3 2 ′ 3x 2 y3 − 3x2 y3 − x3
d x 3x y − 3x y y y3
y′′ = − 3 =− 6
=− 6
dy y y y
2 4
3x (x + y )4 2
3x (16) 48x 2
=− 7
=− 7
=− 7
y y y

4.4 Applications of Derivatives

4.4.1 Related Rate
In a related rates problem the idea is to compute the rate of change of one quantity in terms of the rate of
change of another quantity (which may be more easily measured). The procedure is to find an equation
that relates the two quantities and then use the Chain Rule to differentiate both sides with respect to time.

@AASTU 2022 Applied Mathematics-IB

4.4.1 Related Rate 16

Guidelines for Solving a Related Rates Problem

1. Label the variable quantities involved in the problem and draw a figure if applicable.
2. Write down the given values of the variables and their rates of change with respect to t.
3. Find an equation that relates the variables.
4. Differentiate both sides of this equation implicitly with respect to t.
5. Replace the variables and derivative in the resulting equation by the values found in Step 2,
and solve this equation for the required rate of change.

■ Example 4.4.1 A rocket is launched so that it rises vertically. A camera is positioned 5000ft from
the launch pad. When the rocket is 1000 f t above the launch pad, its velocity is 600 f t/sec. Find the
necessary rate of change of the camera’s angle as a function of time so that it stays focused on the rocket.
■

Solution. Step 1. Draw a picture introducing the variables.

Figure 4.1: A camera is positioned 5000 ft from the launch pad of the rocket.
Let h denote the height of the rocket above the launch pad and θ be the angle between the camera lens
and the ground.
Step 2. We are trying to find the rate of change in the angle of the camera with respect to time when
the rocket is 1000 ft off the ground. That is, we need to find dθdt when h = 1000 f t. At that time, we know
dh
the velocity of the rocket is dt = 600 f t/sec.
Step 3. Now we need to find an equation relating the two quantities that are changing with respect to
time: h and θ . How can we create such an equation? Using the fact that we have drawn a right triangle, it
is natural to think about trigonometric functions. Recall that tan θ is the ratio of the length of the opposite
side of the triangle to the length of the adjacent side. Thus, we have
h
tan θ = .
5000
This gives us the equation
h = 5000 tan θ .
Step 4. Differentiating this equation with respect to time t, we obtain
dh dθ
= 5000 sec2 θ .
dt dt
Step 5. We want to find dθ dh
dt when h = 1000 f t. At this time, we know that dt = 600 f t/sec. We need to
determine sec2 θ . Recall that sec θ is the ratio of the length of the hypotenuse to the length of the adjacent
side. We know the length of the adjacent side is 5000 f t. To determine the length of the hypotenuse, we use
the Pythagorean theorem, where the length of one leg is 5000 f t, the length of the other leg is h = 1000 f t,
and the length of the hypotenuse is c feet as shown in the following figure.

@AASTU 2022 Applied Mathematics-IB

4.4.1 Related Rate 17

We see that
10002 + 50002 = c2
and we conclude that the hypotenuse is √
c = 1000 26 ft.
Therefore, when h = 1000, we have
√ !2
1000 26 26
sec2 θ = = .
5000 25
Recall from step 4 that the equation relating dθ
dt to our known values is
dh dθ
= 5000 sec2 θ .
dt dt
26
When h = 1000 f t, we know that dh 2
dt = 600 and sec θ = 25 . Substituting these values into the previous
equation, we arrive at the equation  
26 dθ
600 = 5000 .
25 dt
dθ 3
Therefore, = rad/sec.
dt 26

■ Example 4.4.2 Water is draining from the bottom of a cone-shaped funnel at the rate of 0.03 ft3 /sec.
The height of the funnel is 2 ft and the radius at the top of the funnel is 1 ft. At what rate is the height of
the water in the funnel changing when the height of the water is 12 ft? ■

Solution. Step 1: Draw a picture introducing the variables.

Let h denote the height of the water in the funnel, r denote the radius of the water at its surface, and V
denote the volume of the water.
1
Step 2: We need to determine dh dV
dt when h = 2 ft. We know that dt = −0.03 ft/sec.
Step 3: The volume of water in the cone is
1
V = πr2 h.
3

@AASTU 2022 Applied Mathematics-IB

 4.4.2 Extrema of a Function 18

From the figure, we see that we have similar triangles. Therefore, the ratio of the sides in the two triangles
is the same. Therefore, hr = 21 or r = h2 . Using this fact, the equation for volume can be simplified to
 2
1 h π
V= π h = h3 .
3 2 12
Step 4: Applying the chain rule while differentiating both sides of this equation with respect to time t, we
obtain
dV π dh
= h2 .
dt 4 dt
1
Step 5: We want to find dh
dt when h = 2 ft. Since water is leaving at the rate of 0.03 ft3 /sec, we know that
dV 3
dt = −0.03 ft /sec. Therefore,  2
π 1 dh
−0.03 = ,
4 2 dt
which implies
π dh
−0.03 = .
16 dt
It follows that
dh 0.48
=− = −0.153 ft/sec.
dt π

4.4.2 Extrema of a Function

Definition 4.4.1 — Extrema of a function. A function f has an absolute maximum at c if f (x) ≤ f (c)
for all x in the domain D of f . The number f (c) is called the maximum value of f on D. Similarly, f
has an absolute minimum at c if f (x) ≥ f (c) for all x in D. The number f (c) is called the minimum
value of f on D. The absolute maximum and absolute minimum values of f on D are called the
extreme values, or extrema, of f on D.
Definition 4.4.2 — Relative Extrema of a Function. A function f has a relative (or local) maximum at
c if f (c) ≥ f (x) for all values of x in some open interval containing c. Similarly, f has a relative (or
local) minimum at c if f (c) ≤ f (x) for all values of x in some open interval containing c.

Figure 4.2: Abs min f (a), abs max f (d), loc min f (c) , f (e), loc max f (b), f (d)

Theorem 4.4.1 — Fermath’s Theorem. If f has a relative extremum at c, then either f ′ (c) = 0 or f ′ (c)
does not exist.
Definition 4.4.3 — Critical Number of a function. A critical number of a function f is any number c
in the domain of f at which f (c) = 0 or f ′ does not exist.

@AASTU 2022 Applied Mathematics-IB

4.4.2 Extrema of a Function 19
√
■ Example 4.4.3 — Locating critical points. Find the critical numbers of f (x) = x − 3 3 x ■

2
′ x3 − 1
Solution. f = 2 . Then the critical numbers are −1, 0, and 1.
x3

Theorem 4.4.2 — The Extreme Value Theorem. Let f be continuous on a closed, bounded interval
[a, b]. Then f has a maximum and a minimum value on [a, b].

Guidelines for Finding the Extrema of a Continuous Function f on [a, b]

1. Find the critical numbers of f that lie in (a, b).
2. Compute the value of f at each of these critical numbers, and also compute f (a) and f (b).
3. The absolute maximum value of f and the absolute minimum value of f are precisely the
largest and the smallest numbers found in Step 2.

■Example 4.4.4 For each of the following functions, find the absolute maximum and absolute minimum
over the specified interval and state where those values occur.
(a) f (x) = 3x4 − 4x3 − 8 on [−1, 2]
(b) f (x) = x2 − 3x2/3 on [0, 2]
(c) f (x) = 2 cos x − x on [0, 2π]
■

Solution. (a) Since f is a polynomial function, it is continuous everywhere; in particular, it is continu-

ous on the closed interval [−1, 2]. Therefore, we can use the Extreme Value Theorem. First, we find
the critical numbers of f in (−1, 2):
f ′ (x) = 12x3 − 12x2 = 12x2 (x − 1)
Observe that f ′ (x) is continuous on (−1, 2). Next, setting f ′ (x) = 0 gives x = 0 or x = 1. Therefore,
0 and 1 are the only critical numbers of f in (−1, 2). Next, we compute f (x) at these critical numbers
as well as at the endpoints −1 and 2. These values are f (0) = −8, f (1) = −9, f (−1) = −1 and
f (2) = 8 Thus, f attains the absolute maximum value of 8 at 2 and the absolute minimum value of
−9 at 1.
(b) Evaluate f at the endpoints x = 0 and x = 2.
f (0) = 0 and f (2) = 4 − 3 (2)2/3 ≈ −0.762
The derivative of f is given by
2 2x4/3 − 2
f ′ (x) = 2x − 1/3 =
x x1/3
4
for x ̸= 0. The derivative is zero when 2x 3 −2 = 0, which implies x = ±1. The derivative is undefined
at x = 0. Therefore, the critical points of f are x = 0, 1, −1. The point x = 0 is an endpoint, so we
already evaluated f (0). The point x = −1 is not in the interval of interest, so we need only evaluate
f (1). We find that
f (1) = −2.
We conclude that the absolute maximum of f over the interval [0, 2] is zero, and it occurs at x = 0.
The absolute minimum is −2, and it occurs at x = 1.
(c) The function f is continuous everywhere; in particular, it is continuous on the closed interval [0, 2π].
Therefore, the Extreme Value Theorem is applicable. First, we find the critical numbers of f in

@AASTU 2022 Applied Mathematics-IB

 4.4.3 The Mean Value Theorem 20

(0, 2π). We have f ′ (x) = −2 sin x − 1 = 0 Observe that f ′ (x)is continuous on (0, 2π). Next, setting
f ′ (x) = 0gives
1
−2 sin x − 1 = 0 ⇒ sin x = −
2
Thus, x = 7π 11π 7π 11π
6 or 6 .(Remember x lies in (0, 2π).) So 6 or 6 are the only critical numbers of f in
(0, 2π).
Next, we compute the values of f at these critical numbers as well as at the endpoints 0 and 2π.
These values are
7π √ 7π
f (0) =2, f (2π) = 2 − 2π = −4.28, f ( ) = − 3 − = −5.40,
6 6
11π √ 7π
f( ) = 3− = −4.03.
6 6
Thus, f attains the absolute maximum value of 2 at 0 and the absolute minimum value of approxi-
mately −5.4 at 7π6 .

4.4.3 The Mean Value Theorem

The Mean Value Theorem has powerful consequences for derivatives and integrals, and enters into solutions
of applied problems.
We begin with a special case of the Mean Value Theorem called Rolle’s Theorem, which is named
after the seventeenth-century French mathematician Michel Rolle(Pronounced "Role.").
Theorem 4.4.3 — Rolle’s Theorem. Let f be continuous on [a, b] and differentiable on (a, b). If
f (a) = f (b), then there exists at least one number c in (a, b) such that f ′ (c) = 0.

Figure 4.3: Rolle’s Theorem says that a differentiable curve has at least one horizontal tangent between
any two points where it crosses a horizontal line. It may have just one (a), or it may have more (b).

■ Example 4.4.5 Let f (x) = x3 − x

(a) Show that f satisfies the hypotheses of Rolle’s Theorem on [−1, 1].
(b) Find the number(s) c in (−1, 1) such that f ′ (c) = 0 as guaranteed by Rolle’s Theorem.
■

Solution. (a) The polynomial function f is continuous and differentiable on (−∞, ∞) . In particular, it
is continuous on [−1, 1] and differentiable on (−1, 1) . Furthermore, f (−1) = (−1)3 − (−1) = 0
and f (1) = 13 − 1 = 0 and the hypotheses of Rolle’s theorem are satisfied.
(b) Rolle’s Theorem guarantees that there exists at least one number c in (−1, 1) such that f ′ (c) = 0.
But f ′ (x) = 3x2 − 1, so to find c , we solve √
2 3
3c − 1 = 0 ⇒ c = ±
3

@AASTU 2022 Applied Mathematics-IB

 4.4.4 The First and Second Derivative Tests 21

Theorem 4.4.4 — The Mean Value Theorem. Let f be continuous on [a, b] and differentiable on (a, b).
Then there exists at least one number c in (a, b) such that
f (b) − f (a)
f ′ (c) = (4.4)
b−a

■ Example 4.4.6 Let f (x) = x3 − 5x2 − 3x

(a) Show that f satisfies the hypotheses of the Mean Value Theorem on [1, 3].
(b) Find the number(s) c in (1, 3) such that f ′ (c) = f (3)−
3−1
f (1)
as guaranteed by the Mean Value
Theorem.
■

Solution. (a) f is a polynomial function, so it is continuous and differentiable on (−∞, ∞).In particular,
it is continuous on [−1, 1] and differentiable on (−1, 1). So the hypotheses of the Mean Value
Theorem are satisfied.
(b) f ′ (x) = 3x2 − 10x − 3, so f ′ (c) = 3c2 − 10c − 3. With a = 1 and b = 3 , Equation (4.4) gives
f (3) − f (1)
f ′ (c) =
3−1
−27 − (−7)
3c2 − 10c − 3 =
3−1
2
3c − 10c − 3 = − 10 ⇒ (3c − 7)(c − 1)
7 7
c = 1 or c = So there are two numbers, c1 = 1 and c2 = in (1, 3) that satisfy Equation (4.4).
3 3

■ Example 4.4.7 Suppose a ball is dropped from a height of 200 ft. Its position at time t is s(t) =
−16t 2 + 200. Find the time t when the instantaneous velocity of the ball equals its average velocity. ■

4.4.4 The First and Second Derivative Tests

Definition 4.4.4 — Increasing and Decreasing Functions. A function f is increasing on an interval
I, if for every pair of numbers x1 and x2 in I,
x1 < x2 implies that f (x1 ) < f (x2 )
f is decreasing on I if, for every pair of numbers x1 and x2 in I, x1 < x2 implies that f (x1 ) > f (x2 )
f is monotonic on I if it is either increasing or decreasing on I.
Theorem 4.4.5 Suppose f is differentiable on an open interval (a, b).
1. If f ′ (x) > 0 for all x in (a, b), then f is increasing on (a, b).
2. If f ′ (x) < 0 for all x in (a, b), then f is decreasing on (a, b).
3. If f ′ (x) = 0 for all x in (a, b), then f is constant on (a, b).

■ Example 4.4.8 Determine the intervals where the function f (x) = 2x3 + 3x2 − 12x − 3 is increasing
and where it is decreasing. ■

Solution. First we find the derivative of f f ′ (x) = 6x2 + 6x − 12 = 6(x + 2)(x − 1) from which we see that
f ′ is continuous everywhere and has zeros at −2 and 1. These zeros of f partition the domain of f into
the intervals (−∞, −2), (−2, 1) and (1, ∞). To determine the sign of f ′ (x) on each of these intervals, we
use sign chart

@AASTU 2022 Applied Mathematics-IB

4.4.4 The First and Second Derivative Tests 22

It follows that f ′ (x) > 0 for x in (−∞, −2) and (1, ∞), and f ′ (x) < 0 for x in (−2, 1). Therefore the
Theorem above implies that f is increasing on (−∞, −2] and [1, ∞) and is decreasing on [−2, 1].

■ Example 4.4.9 Let f (x) = x2 ex . Determine the intervals on which f is increasing and those on which
it is decreasing. ■

Solution. We begin by taking the derivative of f :

f ′ (x) = 2xex + x2 ex = x(2 + x)ex .
Again we assemble a sign chart to determine the sign of f ′ (x):

Since ex > 0 for all x, the table needs no separate entry for ex . It follows from the table that f is
increasing on (−∞, −2] and [0, ∞), and is decreasing on [−2, 0].

Caution: Theorem 4.4.5 says that if f (x) > 0 ( f (x) < 0) for all x in an interval I, then f is increasing
(decreasing) on I. The fact that I is an interval is critical. In the following example, f has a negative
derivative throughout its domain, but is not decreasing on its domain-which is not an interval.
1
■ Example 4.4.10 Let f (x) = . Show that f ′ (x) < 0 for all x in the domain of f . Then determine
x
whether f is decreasing on its domain. ■

Solution. Since f ′ (x) = − x12 , it follows that f ′ (x) < 0 for all x in the domain of f . However, f is not
decreasing on its domain because for each x in (−∞, 0) and each z in (0, ∞), the inequality f (x) < f (z)
holds. However, f is decreasing on each of the intervals (−∞, 0) and (0, ∞) separately

Theorem 4.4.6 — The First Derivative Test. Let f be differentiable on an open interval about the number
c except possibly at c, where f is continuous.
1. If f ′ changes sign from positive to negative at c, then f has a relative maximum value at c.
2. If f ′ changes sign from negative to positive at c, then f has a relative minimum value at c.

■ Example 4.4.11 Let f (x) = 4x3 + 9x2 − 12x + 3. Show that f has a relative maximum value at −2
and a relative minimum value a 12 . ■

Solution. First we find the derivative of f : f ′ (x) = 12x3 + 18x − 12 = 6(2x3 + 3x − 2) = 6(2x − 1)(x + 2).
To determine where f changes sign, we assemble the chart below.

@AASTU 2022 Applied Mathematics-IB

4.4.4 The First and Second Derivative Tests 23

Consequently f changes from positive to negative at −2 and from negative to positive at 12 . Thus the
First Derivative Test implies that f has a relative maximum value at −2 and f has a relative minimum
value at 21 .

1 3
■ Example 4.4.12 Let f (x) = x − 3x. Find the relative extreme values of f . ■
4

3 3 3
Solution. The derivative is given by f ′ (x) = x2 − 3 = (x2 − 4) = (x + 2)(x − 2). The pertinent
4 4 4
information about the sign of f ′ (x) is summarized in the chart below.

1
Consequently f changes from positive to negative at −2 and from negative to positive at . Thus the
2
First Derivative Test implies that f has a relative maximum value at −2 and f has a relative minimum
1
value at . We conclude that f is increasing on (−∞, −2] and on [2, ∞) and is decreasing on [−2, 2].
2
Furthermore, f changes from positive to negative at −2 and from negative to positive at 2. Therefore by
the First Derivative Test, f (−2) = 4 is a relative maximum value and f (2) = −4 is a relative minimum
value of f .

Theorem 4.4.7 — The Second Derivative Test. Assume that f ′ (c) = 0 and that f ′′ (c) exists
a. If f ′′ (c) < 0, then f (c) is a relative maximum value of f .
b. If f ′′ (c) > 0, then f (c) is a relative minimum value of f .
If f ′′ (c) = 0, then from this test alone we cannot draw any conclusions about a relative extreme
value of f at c.

■ Example 4.4.13 Let f (x) = x3 − 3x − 2. Using the Second Derivative Test, find the relative extreme
values of f . ■

Solution. By differentiation we obtain

f ′ (x) = 3x2 − 3 = 3(x − 1)(x + 1) and f ′′ (x) = 6x.
Therefore f ′ (x) = 0 when x = −1 or x = 1. Since
f ′′ (−1) = −6 < 0 and f ′′ (1) = 6 > 0
we know from the Second Derivative Test that f (−1) = 0 is a relative maximum value of f , whereas
f (1) = −4 is a relative minimum value of f . These are the only relative extreme values of f .

@AASTU 2022 Applied Mathematics-IB

 4.4.5 Concavity and Inflection Point 24

■ Example 4.4.14 Let f (x) = 3x4 − 4x3 . Find the relative extreme values of f . ■

Solution. Differentiating, we have

f ′ (x) = 12x3 − 12x2 = 12x2 (x − 1) (4.5)
and
f ′′ (x) = 36x2 − 24x
Consequently f ′ (x) = 0 for x = 0 or x = 1. Since f ′′ (1) = 12, the Second Derivative Test tells us that
f (1) = −1 is a relative minimum value of f . However, since f ′′ (0) = 0, the Second Derivative Test cannot
be applied to f at 0. But we observe from (4.5) that f ′ (x) < 0 for all x in (−∞, 1) except 0, so that f is
decreasing on (−∞, 1). Therefore f cannot have an extreme value at 0.

4.4.5 Concavity and Inflection Point

Definition 4.4.5 — Concavity of the Graph of a Function. Let f be differentiable on an open interval
I. The graph of f is concave upward on I provided that f is increasing on I. The graph of f is concave
downward on I provided that f is decreasing on I.
Theorem 4.4.8 Assume that f exists on an open interval I.
1. If f ′′ (x) > 0 for all x in I, then the graph of f is concave upward on I.
2. If f ′′ < 0 for all x in I, then the graph of f is concave downward on I

■ Example 4.4.15 Let f (x) = 3x4 − 4x3 . Find the intervals on which the graph of f is concave upward
and those on which it is concave downward. ■

Solution. From Example 4.4.14 we know that

f ′ (x) = 12x3 − 12x2 = 12x2 (x − 1)
f ′′ (x) = 36x2 − 24x = 12x(3x − 2)
and that f (1) = −1 is a relative minimum value of f . Now we determine the sign of f (x) from the
following sign chart

Using the sign of f (x) along with Theorem 4.4.8, we deduce that the graph of f is concave upward on
(−∞, 0) and on ( 23 , ∞) and is concave downward on (0, 23 ).

■ Example 4.4.16 Let f (x) = 4x3 − 6x2 − 9x. Find the intervals on which the graph of f is concave
upward and those on which it is concave downward. ■

Solution. Differentiating f , we have

f ′ (x) = 12x2 − 12x − 9 = 3(4x2 − 4x − 3)
  
3 1
= 3(2x − 3)(2x + 1) = 12 x − x+
2 2

@AASTU 2022 Applied Mathematics-IB

 4.4.6 Curve Sketching 25

Next we find that  

′′ 1
f = 24x − 12 = 24 x −
2
By Theorem 4.4.8 the graph of f is concave downward on (−∞, 12 ) and concave upward on ( 12 , ∞). From
the first derivative we know that the critical numbers are − 12 and 32 . Since f ′′ (− 12 ) = −24, it follows from
the Second Derivative Test that f (− 21 ) = 52 is a relative maximum value of f and f ( 23 ) = − 27 2 is a relative
minimum value of f .
Definition 4.4.6 — Inflection Point. Let the function f be continuous on an open interval containing
the point c, and suppose the graph of f has a tangent line at P(c, f (c)). If the graph of f changes from
concave upward to concave downward (or vice versa) at P, then the point P is called an inflection point
of the graph of f .

■ Example 4.4.17 Let f (x) = x4 − 6x2 + 8x + 10. Find the inflection points of the graph of f . ■

Solution. The derivatives of f are

f ′ (x) = 4x3 − 12x + 8
f ′′ (x) = 12x2 − 12 = 12(x + 1)(x − 1)
Now we determine the signs of f ′′ (x)

Observe that f ′′ (1) = f ′′ (−1) = 0 and that f ′′ changes sign at both 1 and −1. It follows that
(1, f (1)) = (1, 13) and (−1, f (−1)) = (−1, −3) are inflection points.

■ Example 4.4.18 Let f (x) = sin x for −2π ≤ x ≤ 2π. Find the inflection points of the graph of f and
discuss its concavity. ■

Solution. The derivatives are

f ′ (x) = cos x and f ′′ (x) = − sin x.
Now f ′′ (x) = 0 for x = −π, 0, and π. Since f ′′ changes sign at each of these values of x, it follows
that (−π, 0), (0, 0), and (π, 0) are inflection points. Moreover, the graph of f is concave downward on
(−2π, −π) and (0, π) and concave upward on (−π, 0) and (π, 2π).

4.4.6 Curve Sketching

Strategy for Graphing y = f (x)
1. Identify the domain of f and any symmetries the curve may have.
2. Find f ′ and f ′′
3. Find the critical points of f , and identify the function’s behavior at each one.
4. Find where the curve is increasing and where it is decreasing.
5. Find the points of inflection, if any occur, and determine the concavity of the curve.
6. Identify any asymptotes.
7. Plot key points, such as the intercepts and the points found in Steps 3–5, and sketch the curve.

@AASTU 2022 Applied Mathematics-IB

4.4.6 Curve Sketching 26

(x + 1)2
■ Example 4.4.19 Using the Graphing Strategy, Sketch the graph of f (x) = . ■
1 + x2

Solution. 1. The domain of f is −∞, ∞ and there are no symmetries about either axis or the origin.
2. find f and f ′′
′

(x + 1)2
f (x) = x intercept (−1, 0), y intercept (0, 1)
1 + x2
(x + 1)2 · 2(x + 1) − (x + 1)2 · 2x
f ′ (x) = 2
(1 + x2 )
2(1 − x)2
= 2
critical points : x = −1, x = 1
(1 + x2 )
(x2 + 1)2 · 2(−2x) − 2(1 − x2 )[2(1 + x2 ) · 2x]
f ′′ (x) = 4
(1 + x2 )
4x x2 − 3


= 3
(1 + x2 )
3. Behavior at critical points. The critical points occur only at x = ±1 where f ′ (x) = 0 (Step 2) since
f ′ exists everywhere over the domain of f . At x = −1, f ′′ (−1) = 1 > 0 yielding a relative minimum
by the Second Derivative Test. At yielding a relative maximum by the Second Derivative Test.
4. Increasing and decreasing. We see that on the interval (−∞, −1) the derivative f ′ (x) < 0 and the
curve is decreasing. On the interval (−1, 1), f ′ (x) > 0 and the curve is increasing; it is decreasing
on (1, ∞) where f ′ (x) < 0 again.
5. Inflection points. Notice that the denominator√of the second √ derivative (Step 2) is always positive.
The second derivative f ′′ is zero when x = −√ 3, 0 and 3. The√second derivative changes √ sign
at each of these points: √ negative on (−∞, − 3), positive on (− 3, 0), negative on (0, 3), and
positive again on ( √3, ∞). Thus each point√is a point of inflection. The√curve is concave down on
the interval
√ (−∞, − 3), concave up on (− 3, 0), concave down on (0, 3), and concave up again
on ( 3, ∞).
6. Asymptotes. We see that f (x) → 1+ as x → ∞ and that f (x) → 1− as x → −∞ Thus, the line
y = 1 is a horizontal asymptote. Since f decreases on (−∞, −1) and then increases on (−1, 1),
we know that f (−1) = 0 is a local minimum. Although f decreases on (1, ∞) it never crosses the
horizontal asymptote y = 1 on that interval (it approaches the asymptote from above). So the graph
never becomes negative, and f (−1) = 0 is an absolute minimum as well. Likewise, f (1) = 2 is an
absolute maximum because the graph never crosses the asymptote y = 1 on the interval (−∞, −1)
approaching it from below. Therefore, there are no vertical asymptotes (the range of f is 0 ≤ y ≤ 2)
7. The graph of f is sketched in Figure 4.4. Notice how the graph is concave down as it approaches
the horizontal asymptote y = 1 as x → −∞ and concave up in its approach to y = 1 as x → ∞.

@AASTU 2022 Applied Mathematics-IB

 4.5 Indeterminate Forms and L’Hôspital’s Rule 27

(x + 1)2
Figure 4.4: The graph of f (x) =
1 + x2

x2
■ Example 4.4.20 Sketch the graph of y = 2 ■
x −1

4.5 Indeterminate Forms and L’Hôspital’s Rule

4.5.1 The Indeterminate Form 0/0 and ∞/∞
f (x)
If lim f (x) = 0 and lim g(x) = 0, then lim , is called an indeterminate form of the type 0/0. As the
x→a x→a x→a g(x)
name implies, the undefined expression 0/0 does not provide us with a definitive answer concerning the
existence of the limit or its value, if the limit exists.
f (x)
If lim f (x) = ±∞ and lim g(x) = ±∞, then lim , is called an indeterminate form of the type
x→a x→a x→a g(x)
∞/∞.
To see why this limit is an indeterminate form, we simply write
1
g(x)
lim
x→a 1
f (x)
which has the form 0/0 and, therefore, is indeterminate.
Theorem 4.5.1 — L’Hôpital’s Rule. Suppose f and g are differentiable functions over an open interval
f (x)
containing a, except possibly at a and g′ (a) ̸= 0 for all x in the interval. If lim is indeterminate
x→a g(x)
f (x) f ′ (x)
form of the type 0/0 or ∞/∞, then lim = lim ′ , assuming the limit on the right exists or is ∞
x→a g(x) x→a g (x)
or −∞. This result also holds if we are considering one-sided limits, or if a = ∞ or a = −∞.

■ Example 4.5.1 Evaluate each of the following limits by applying L’Hôpital’s rule.

@AASTU 2022 Applied Mathematics-IB

4.5.1 The Indeterminate Form 0/0 and ∞/∞ 28
1 − cos x ln x
(a) lim (c) lim
x→0 x x→0+ cot x
sin(πx) sin x − x
(b) lim (d) lim ■
x→1 ln x x→0 x2
x3
(e) lim 2x
x→∞ e

Solution. (a) Since the numerator 1 − cos x → 0 and the denominator x → 0, we can apply L’Hôpital’s
rule to evaluate this limit. We have
d

1 − cos x 1 − cos x lim sin x 0
sin x x→0
lim = lim dx = lim = = = 0.
x→0 x x→0 d
x→0 1 lim 1 1
x x→0
dx
(b) As x → 1, the numerator sin(πx) → 0 and the denominator ln(x) → 0. Therefore, we can apply
L’Hôpital’s rule. We obtain
sin(πx) π cos(πx)
lim = lim
x→1 ln x x→1 1/x
= lim (πx) cos(πx) .
x→1
= (π · 1)(−1) = −π
(c) Here lim ln x = −∞ and lim cot x = ∞. Therefore, we can apply L’Hôpital’s rule and obtain
x→0+ x→0+
ln x 1/x 1 sin2 x
lim = lim = lim = lim .
x→0+ cot x x→0+ − csc2 x x→0+ −x csc2 x x→0+ −x
Now lim sin2 x = 0 and lim −x = 0 so apply L’Hôpital’s rule again. We find
x→0+ x→0+
sin2 x 2 sin x cos x 0
lim = lim = = 0.
x→0+ −x x→0+ −1 −1
We conclude that
ln x
lim = 0.
x→0+ cot x
(d) As x → 0, both the numerator and denominator approach zero. Therefore, we can apply L’Hôpital’s
rule. We obtain
sin x − x cos x − 1
lim 2
= lim .
x→0 x x→0 2x
Since the numerator and denominator of this new quotient both approach zero as x → 0, we apply
L’Hôpital’s rule again.
cos x − 1 − sin x
lim = lim = 0.
x→0 2x x→0 2
Therefore, we conclude that
sin x − x
lim = 0.
x→0 x2
(e) lim (x3 ) = ∞ and lim (e2x ) = ∞. Then it is an indeterminate form of the type ∞/∞ and we apply
x→∞ x→∞
L’Hôpital’s rule.

@AASTU 2022 Applied Mathematics-IB

 4.5.2 The Indeterminate Form ∞ − ∞ and 0 · ∞ 29
d 3

x3 x 3x2
lim 2x = lim dx = lim

x→∞ 2e2x
x→∞ e x→∞ d
e2x
dx
d
3x2


dx 6x x3
= lim
= x→∞
lim 2x Hence, lim 2x = 0.
x→∞ d 4e x→∞ e
2e2x
dx
d

6x 6
= lim dx lim 2x = 0

= x→∞
x→∞ d 8e
4e2x
dx

4.5.2 The Indeterminate Form ∞ − ∞ and 0 · ∞

If lim f (x) = ∞ and lim g(x) = ∞ then the limit lim ( f (x) − g(x)) is said to be an indeterminate form of
x→a x→a x→a
the type ∞ − ∞. An indeterminate form of this type can often be expressed as one of the type 0/0 or ∞/∞
by algebraic manipulation.
If lim f (x) = 0 and lim g(x) = ±∞ then the limit lim ( f (x)g(x)) is said to be an indeterminate form
x→a x→a x→a
of the type 0 · ∞. An indeterminate form of this type can often be expressed as one of the type 0/0 or ∞/∞
by algebraic manipulation.
 
1 1
■ Example 4.5.2 Evaluate lim − . ■
x→0+ x2 tan x

1 1 (tan x) − x2
Solution. We have − = . As x → 0+ , tan x−x2 → 0 and x2 tan x → 0. Therefore, we can
x2 tan x x2 tan x
(tan x) − x2 (sec2 x) − 2x
apply L’Hôpital’s rule to obtain lim = lim . As x → 0+ , (sec2 x)−2x → 1
x→0+ x2 tan x x→0+ x2 sec2 x + 2x tan x
and x2 sec2 x + 2x tan x → 0. Since the denominator is positive as x approaches zero from the right, we
(sec2 x) − 2x
conclude that lim 2 2 = ∞.
x→0+ x sec x + 2xtan x
1 1
Therefore, lim 2
− = ∞.
x→0+ x tan x

■ Example 4.5.3 Evaluate lim x ln x. ■

x→0+

Solution. First, rewrite the function x ln x as a quotient to apply L’Hôpital’s rule. If we write
ln x
x ln x =
1/x
1
we see that ln x → −∞ as x → 0+ and → ∞ as x → 0+ . Therefore, we can apply L’Hôpital’s rule and
x
obtain
d

ln x ln x 1/x
lim = lim dx = lim = lim (−x) = 0.
x→0+ 1/x x→0+ d
x→0+ −1/x2 x→0+
1/x
dx
We conclude that lim x ln x = 0.
x→0+

@AASTU 2022 Applied Mathematics-IB

 4.5.3 Indeterminate forms of ∞0 , 00 30

4.5.3 Indeterminate forms of ∞0 , 00

The limit lim [ f (x)]g(x) is said to be an indeterminate form of the type
x→a
00 if lim f (x) = 0 and lim g(x) = 0
x→a x→a
∞0 if lim f (x) = 0 and lim g(x) = 0
x→a x→a
1∞ if lim f (x) = 0 and lim g(x) = 0.
x→a x→a
These indeterminate forms can usually be converted to indeterminate forms of the type 0 · ∞ by taking
logarithms or by using the identity [ f (x)]g(x) = eg(x) ln f (x)
■ Example 4.5.4 — Indeterminate Form of Type ∞0 . Evaluate lim x1/x . ■
x→∞

1 ln x
Solution. Let y = x1/x . Then,ln(x1/x ) = ln x = .
x x
ln x
We need to evaluate lim
x→∞ x
Applying L’Hôpital’s rule, we obtain
ln x 1/x
lim ln y = lim = lim = 0.
x→∞ x→∞ x x→∞ 1
Therefore, lim ln y = 0. Since the natural logarithm function is continuous, we conclude that
x→∞  
ln lim y = 0,
x→∞
which leads to
lim x1/x = lim y = eln(limx→∞ y) = e0 = 1.
x→∞ x→∞

Hence, lim x1/x = 1.

x→∞

1 x
 
sin x x
■ Example 4.5.5 Evaluate (a) lim x (b) lim x (c) lim 1 + ■
x→0+ x→0+ x→∞ x

References
1. Ellis R, Gulick D. Calculus with Analytic Geometry: Sixth Edition, Cengage Learning, 2006.
2. Stewart J. Caculus: Early Transcendentals, Senventh Edition. Cengage Learning. 2012.
3. Thomas GB, Weir MD, Hass J, Heil C, Behn A. Thomas’ calculus: Early transcendentals. Boston:
Pearson; 2010.
4. https://math.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Calculus/

@AASTU 2022 Applied Mathematics-IB