LITERARY SOURCES

RELIGIOUS
A. BRAHMANA

B. BUDDHIST

C. JAINA

A. BRAHMANAS

a) SHRUTI: - are considered to have been heard and transmitted

by earthly sages.
b) SMRITI: - are author oriented and written by someone by
memorizing the events.

SHRUTI

 VEDAS (samhita)
 BRAHMAN TEXTS (rituals)
 ARANYAKA (mystical)
 UPNISHADS (philosophies)

VEDAS
 The word VEDA is derived from the route word “VID” meaning
‘ TO KNOW’ .
 There are four vedas namely RIGVEDA SAMAVEDA
YAJURVEDA ATHARVAVEDA

RIGVEDA
 OLDEST VEDA
 1028 HYMNS
 10 MANDALS
 2ND TO 7TH MANDALS ARE FAMILY MANDALS
3RD – VISHVAMITRA [GAYATRI MANTRA]
9TH MANDAL OF RIGVEDA IS DEVOTED TO LORD
SOMA (PLANT GOD)
10TH MANDAL KNOWN AS PURUSUKTA TELLS US
ABOUT THE 4 VARNAS i.e., BRAHMANA KSHATRIYA
VAISHYA SHUDRA.
1ST AND 10TH MANDAL WERE ADDED LATER.

SAMAVEDA
 BELONGS TO MELODIES AND CHANTS
 UDAGATA OR UDAGATRI IS THE PUROHIT .
 SAMA MEANS MELODY
 1875 MANTRAS ARE THERE

 YAJURVEDA
 YAJUS MEANS YAGYA
 RITUALISTIC TEXT
 PPROSE AND POETRY MIX STYLE
 ADHARYU IS THE PUROHIT
RIGVEDA + SAMAVEDA+ YAJURVEDA IS KNOWN AS
“VEDATRAYI
ATHARVA VEDA
 LATEST VEDA COMPOSED BY ATHARVA AND
AGNIRAS RISHIS.
 SOME NON ARYANS ACTIVITIES ARE MENTIONED IN
THIS TEXTBOOK.
 TANTRAS AND MANTRAS ARE PRESCRIBED
NOT CONSIDERED TO BE HOLY BY MANY AS IT IS
NON ARYAN

BRAHAMAN TEXTS

 DEALS WITH SCIENCE OF SACRIFICE.

  WRITTEN IN PROSE WITH RITUALS AS THE SUBJECT
MATTER.
 DEMONSTRATIONS AFRE GIVEN IN THEM.
VEDAS BRAHMAN TEXTS

RIGVEDA AITREYA , KAUSHTAKI

SAMAVEDA PANCHVISH , SADAVISH , TANDYA

YAJURVEDA TAITREYA , VAJSANEYI , TAITREYA

ATHARVA VEDA GOPATH

ARANYAKAS
 COMPOSED IN ARANYA (FOREST).

 FOREST BOOKS

 DEALS WITH MYSTICISM AND SYMBOLISM OF SACRIFICE AND

PRIEST PHILOSOPHY.

 CONTAINS TRANSITIONAL MATERIAL BETWEEN MYTHOLOGY &

RITUALS OF THE SAMHITAS AND BRAHMAN TEXTS.

 SOME ARANYAKAS ARE AITREYA TAITREYA MAITRAYANI

SANKHYAYANA BRIHADARANYAKA MADHYANDIN
TALLAWAL ARANYAKA.

UPNISHADS
 PHILOSOPHICAL TEXTS WITH TOPICS LIKE UNIVERSAL SOUL
AND THE ABSOLUTE.
 THEY CRITICISE THE SLAUGHTERING OF ANIMALS AND LAY
STRESS ON THE VALUE OF RIGHT BELIEF AND KNOWLEDGE.

 KNOWN AS VEDANTA BECAUSE THESE ARE WRITTEN AT THE

END OF THE VEDIC LITERATURE.

 COMPOSED MAINLY IN VIDEHA AND PANCHAL JANPADS.THEY

ARE 108 IN NUMBERS.

 BRIHADARANYAK UPNISHAD [BETWEEN GARGI AND

YAJNYAVALKA]

 KATHOPNISHAD[BETWEEN YAM AND NACHIKETA]

 MUNDAKOPNISHAD[SATYAMEV JAYATE]

 MANDUKYA[SMALLEST]

SMRITI
 UPVEDA

 VEDANG

 PURANAS

 EPICS

 SUTRAS

UPVEDA
 RIGVEDA AYURVEDA[COMPLETE LIFESTYLE]
 SAMAVEDA GANDHARVAVEDA
 YAJURVEDA DHARMAVEDA
 ATHARVAVEDA SHILPAVEDA[MEDICINE]

VEDANG
1. KALP [HANDS OF VEDAS ]
RITUALS
2. SHIKSHA [NOSE ] UCCHHARAN
3. NIRUKTA [EAR]
ETYMOLOGY/ORIGIN
4. CHHAND [FOOT]
METRICS/LAYA
5. VYAKRAN [MOUTH] GRAMMAR
6. JYOTISHA [EYES] ASTONOM
Y/ASTROLOGY
KALPA IS FURTHER DIVIDED INTO FOUR
DHARMASUTRA{ETHICS AND CUSTOMS]
GRIHASUTRA[DOMESTIC LIFE]
SRAUTSUTRA[RITUALS OF SACRIFICE]
SAULVASUTRA[GEOMETRY AND PART OF
SRAUTSUTRA]

PURANAS
 SOURCE OF POLITICAL HISTORY ON ACCOUNT OF
GENEOLOGIES.
 GREATER INSIGHT OF ALL ASPECTS AND STAGES OF
HINDUISM LIKE MONOTHEISM PANTHEISM IDOL
WORSHIP PHILOSOPHT SUPERSTITIONS FESTIVALS
CEREMONIES AND ETHICS.
 DIVIDED INTO FIVE
1. SARGA
2. PRATISARGA
3. VAMSA/VANS
4. MANVANTRA
5. VANSCHARITA
 NAMES AND DISTANCE BETWEEN THE CITIES ARE
MENTIONED
 NAMES OF MOUNTAINS AND RIVERS TOO
 THEY ARE 18 IN NO. SOME OF THEM ARE
1. VISHNU PURANA [BHARATVARSHA NAME]
2. MATSYAPURANA [OLDEST]
3. VAYUPURANA[SOURCE OF GUPTA AGE]
4. GARUDAPURANA
5. SHIVAPURANA
SIX PHILOSOPHIES
1. NYAYA DARSHAN GAUTAM
2. VAISHESHIK KANAD
3. SANKHYA KAPIL
4. YOGA PATANJALI
5. PURVA MIMANSA JAIMINI
6. UTTAR MIMANSA SHANKARACHARYA

EPICS

 RAMAYANA

 BY VALMIKI IN SANSKRIT
 KAMPANYA WROTE TAMIL RAMAYANA
 SEVEN KANDS
1. BAL
2. AYODHYA
3. ARANYAK
4. KISHKINDHA
5. SUNDAR
6. YUDHHA
7. UTTAR
 COMPLETED IN GUPTA AGE

 MAHABHARATA
 BY MAHARSHI VED VYAS
  KNOWN AS JAI SAMHITA

 GRIHASUTRA WAS MENTIONED FIRST TIME HERE

 18 PARVAS

 1ST PARVA IS ADI PARVA

 18TH PARVA IS SWARGAROHAN PARVA

 COMPLETED IN GUPTA AGE

SMRITIS AS A SOURCE OF HINDU LAW

 KNOWN AS DHARMA SHASTRA

 ARE A GOOD SOURCE OF HINDU LAW

 CONTAINS THOSE PORTIONS OF THE SHRUTIS WHICH THE

SAGES FORGET IN THEIR ORIGINAL FORM.

 DIVIDED INTO TWO

1. EARLY[DHARMASUTRA] WHICH IS WRITTEN IN PROSE/SUTRAS

BETWEEN 800 TO 200 BC AND MEANT TO BE TRAINING SAGES
FOR TEACHING STUDENTS.THEY INCORPORATE THE TEACHING
OF VEDAS IN LOCAL CUSTOMS.

2. LATE SMRITIS [DHARMASHASTRA] WHICH IS IN POETRY

STYLE/SHLOKAS AS A MEMOIR OF KNOWLEDGE OF SAGES.

MAJOR SMRITIS
 SECULAR LAW DEALING ON MORALITY AND RELIGION

 INCLUDED PENAL PROVISIONS PUNISHMENTS MORALITY RULES

AND ADJUDICATION OF DISPUTES.
 MANU SMRITI
 OLDEST BY MANU

 ORALLY TRANSMITTED

 BRAHAMANS WERE ELITE CLASS

 NO RIGHTS FOR WOMEN OR SHUDRAS

 FUNDAMENTAL IMPORTANCE IN ANY HINDU LAW.

YAJANAVALKYA SMRITI
 WRITTEN BETWEEN PERIOD OF BUDDHA AND VIKRAMADITYA.

 MORE CONCISE AND SYSTEMATIC THAN MANUSMRITI

 WOMEN RIGHT OF INHERITANCE AND HOLDING OF PROPERTY.

 BETTER POSITIONS TO SHUDRAS

 1010 SHLOKAS

NARADSMRITI
 NEPALI SAGE

 WIDOW REMARRIAGE

 WOMENS RIGHT TO PROPERTY

 SUPREMACY OF KING MADE LAW

 RULES OF PLEADING EVIDENCE AND WITNESS FOR THE 1ST TIME

BUDDHIST LITERATURE
 TRIPITAKS
1. SUTTAPITAKA :- TEACHINGS OF LORD BUDDHA COMPILED AT
1ST COUNCIL BY ANAND

2. VINAYAPITAKA :- RULES AND REGULATION FOR BUDDHIST

MONKS AT 1ST BUDDHIST COUNCIL BY UPALI

3. ABHIDHAMMAPITAKA:-3RD BUDDHIST COUCIL HELD IN

ASHOKARAM VIHAR IN PATLIPUTRA. PHILOSOPHY OF
BUDDHISM IS MENTIONED IN THIS BOOK.

JAIN LITERATURE
 PRAKRIT LANGUAGE

1. 12 ANGAS

2. 12 UPANGAS

3. 10 PRAKIRNA

4. 6 CHHEDASUTRA

5. 4 MULASUTRA

 THE GREEKS AND THE ROMANS

HERODOTUS:- FATHER OF HISTORY AND CONSIDERED TO BE THE
FIRST HISTORIAN OF THE WORLD.HE WROTE THE BOOK
HISTORICA.HE MENTIONED INDIAN SOLDIERS FIGHTING ALONG
SIDE OF PERSIANS IN THE WAR BETWEEN PERSIA AND GREECE.

MEGASTHENESE:- HE WAS THE AMBASSADOR OF SELEUCUS

NICATOR. HE WROTE THE BOOK INDICA WHICH IS LOST AND
ACCOUNT OF IT ARE FOUND IN THE ACCOUNTS OF OTHER
HISTORIANS.HE DESCRIBED THE LAYOUT OF PATLIPUTRA DURING
MAURYAN EMPIRE , SOCIAL STRUCTURE , CASTE SYSTEM ETC..
PTOLEMY:- HE WAS ROMAN GEOGRAPHER WHO PROVIDED
INFORMATION ON GEOGRAPHICAL TREATIS OF INDIA.

PLINY:- HIS BOOK NATURAL HISTORICA DESCRIBES THE RELATION

BETWEEN ROME AND INDIA , INDIAN FLORA AND FAUNA .

CHINESE TRAVELLERS
FA HEIN (405-411 AD) :- HE CAME TO INDIA DURING GUPTA
PERIOD.HE WAS A BUDDHIST MONK , VISITED INDIA TO SEEK
KNOWLEDGE AND VISIT BUDDHIST PILGRIMAGE CENTERS.DURING
HIS 3 YEARS OF TRAVEL HE HAS DESCRIBED SOCIETY AND
CULTURE OF NORTH INDIA DURING GUPTA PERIOD.

HIUEN TSANG:- HE WAS BUDDHIST MONK WHO VISITED INDIA

DURING KING HARSHVARDHANA RULE.HE STARTED HIS JOURNEY
IN 629 AD AND REACHED INIDA IN 630 AD. HE VISITED BUDDHIST
PILGRIMAGE CENTERS , STAYED AT NALANDA ,UNIVERSITY AND
STUDIED BUDDHISM. HE READ ORIGINAL BUDDHIST WORK ,
COLLECTED ORIGINAL MANUSCRIPTS AND MEMENTOS , MADE
THEIR COPIES AND ATTENDED HARSHA’S ASSEMBLIES DURING HIS
15 YEARS OF STAY IN INDIA. . HE DESCRIBED ABOUT SOCIAL
POLITICAL ECONOMIC AND RELIGIOUS LIFE OF INDIAN SOCIETY
AND REACHED BACK CHINA IN 645 AD.

I-TSING:- VISITED INDIA IN 671 AD AT MAGADHA AND LEFT IN 695

AD AND WAS A BUDDHIST MONK. HE WROTE BIOGRAPHIES OF
EMINENT BUDDHIST MONKS AND DESCRIBED ABOUT SOCIAL
RELIGIOUS POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC LIFE OF INDIA.HE RESIDED AT
NALANDA MONASTERY.

THE ARABS
SULAIMAN:- HE WROTE ABOUT PAL AND PRATIHAR RULERS OF
HIS TIME IN 9TH CEN AD.

AL MASUDI:-STAYED IN INDIA FROM 941 – 943 AND WOTE

ABOUT RASHTRAKUTAS.

AL BERUNI:- HE CAME TO INDIA WITH MAHMUD OF GHAZANAVI

IN 1017 AD. HE WAS AN IRANIAN SCHOLAR. HE WROTE THE
BOOK KITAB UL HIND/TAHQEEQAT I HIND (ABOUT INDIA) AND
TAREEK UL HIND (MAHMUD GHAZNAVI’S ATTACKS).

ABDUR RAZZAK :- (1443-1444 AD ) HE WAS PERSIAN SCHOLAR

AND AMBASSADOR . HE VISITED INDIA DURING DEVARAYA II OF
VIJAYNAGAR EMPIRE.

 IBN BATUTA[ MOROCCO (AFRICA)] 1333-1347 AD

HE WROTE THE BOOK REHLA AND CAME TO INDIA DURIN THE

RULE OG MUHAMMAD BIN TUGHLAQ. HE MENTIONED ABOUT
THE POSITION OF WOME , SATI , PURDAH , MARRIAGE ETC.,

THE EUROPEANS
 MARCO POLO 1292-1294 AD (ITALY) :- HE VISITED SOUTH
INDIA DURING THE RULE OF RUDRAMMA DEVI OF KAKATIYAS.

 NICOLO CONTI 1420-1421AD (ITALY) :- HE VISITED DURING THE

RULE OF DEVARAYA I OF VIJAYNAGAR.

 WILLIAM HAWKINS :- (1608-1611) HE CAME TO INDIA ON THE

SHIP NAMED HECTOR AND MET JAHANGIR IN 1609 AND GOT
THE TITLE OF ENGLISH FOR HIS COMMAND ON TURKISH
LANGUAGE BUT COULDN’T GET THE PERMISSION FOR
ESTABLISHMENT OF ENGLISH FACTORY.
 THOMAS ROE 1615-1619 AD :- HE WROTE “JOURNALS OF THE
MISSION TO THE MUGHAL EMPIRE”.

FRANCOIS BERNIER 1656-1668 AD :- HE WAS A FRENCH

PHYSICIAN AND TRAVELLER AND STAYED IN INDIA DURING THE
REIGN OF SHAH JAHAN AND AURANGZEB. IN HIS BOOK
“TRAVELS IN THE MUGHAL EMPIRE” HE WROTE ABOUT THE
RULE OF DARA SIKOH AND AURANGZEB

SECULAR LITERATURE
 ARTHASHASHTRA BY KAUTILYA (CHANAKYA)

 ASHTHADHYAYI BY PANINI

 GARGI SAMHITA BY GARGI

 MUDRARAKSHASHA BY VISHAKHADUTTA

 MAHABHASHYA BY PATANJALI

 DEVICHANDRAGUPTAM BY VISHAKHADUTTA

 NITISAR BY KAMANDAKA (DISCIPLE OF CHANAKYA)

 HARSHCHARITRAM BY BANBHATTA

 MALVIKAAGNIMITRAM BY KALIDAS

 RAJTARANGINI BY KALHAD

 TOLAKAPIYYAM BY TOLAKAPIYYAR (TAMIL GRAMMAR)