Summary of English language lessons

Condition Example: you had better work hard to pass your final exam.

You can take my providing that you don’t damage Negative form:

(Main clause) (Subordinate clause) Had better not +stem (a verb without “to”).

The meaning: Example: you look tired, you had better not go to school
today.
I will lend you my car on condition that you don't damage it.

𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑕𝑎𝑡 Result

‫𝑡𝑎𝑕𝑡 𝑑𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑜𝑟𝑝 ﻟ‬
Expressing results we use:
I
𝑎𝑠 𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔 𝑎𝑠
Verb in Future + +verb in present simple
❪ 𝑠𝑜 𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔 𝑎𝑠 𝑠𝑜 + 𝑎𝑑𝑗 + 𝑡𝑕𝑎𝑡
{ 𝑎 𝑛𝑜𝑢𝑛
I 𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑦 𝑖𝑓 𝑠𝑢𝑐𝑕 + + 𝑡𝑕𝑎𝑡
� 𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑦 𝑖𝑓 𝑝𝑕𝑟𝑎𝑠𝑒
�
Wishes - Subject + verb + so + adjective + that + the rest of
the sentence.
Present wish: (wish, past simple) Example: copies of brand are so cheap that some
consumers don’t hesitate to buy them.
Example: I wish I spoke Italian. (I don't speak Italian.)
- Subject + verb + such + a noun phrase + that + the
Present wish expresses an imaginary situation impossible rest of the sentence.
to happen. Example: It was such a good film that I watched it
twice.
If only = wish
We can express results using other link word:
Past wish: (wish, past perfect)
𝑎𝑠 𝑎 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑡
Example: I wish I hadn’t eaten so much. (I ate a lot.) ‫𝑙𝑡𝑛𝑒𝑢𝑞𝑒𝑠𝑛𝑜𝐶 ﻟ‬
I
𝑎𝑠 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒
Past wish expresses a regret about a situation happened ❪ 𝑠𝑜
I 𝑡𝑕𝑢𝑠
in the past.
𝗅 𝑡𝑕𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒
Future wish: (wish, would + stem (a verb without
Cause
“to”)) Example: I wish I would stop smoking.
Expressing causes: we use:
Can = could
𝑏𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑒
(You are smoking at the moment and it is annoying me.)
-
Sentence + { 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 + subject + verb …
𝑎𝑠
Future wish expresses impatience, annoyance Example: - He succeeded in his exam because he
or dissatisfaction with a present action. had worked hard.
- The audience cheered as it was a good
𝐼𝑓 𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑦 play.
Wish = { 𝐼𝑡′𝑠 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
𝐼𝑡 ′ 𝑠 + verb in past simple 𝑏𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝑜𝑓
𝑕𝑖𝑔𝑕𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒

𝐼𝑡′𝑠 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜

- Sentence + { + noun phrase.
𝑓𝑜𝑟
Had better
𝑜𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑔
𝑡𝑜
ought to
Had better is used to express
Had better + stem (a verb without “to”)
advice Had better = should =
 Summary of English language lessons
Example: - She succeeded in his
exam because of her work hard.
- I had to ask for help
because of the difficult of the
question.
 Summary of English language lessons

Modals Prefix & suffix

These modals express: Prefix: it comes before the word and changes its meaning.
- 𝑀𝑢𝑠𝑡 ⟼ Strong obligation - Opposites
- 𝑀𝑢𝑠𝑡𝑛’𝑡 ⟼ Prohibition “forbidden”
- 𝐻𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑡𝑜 ⟼ Necessity Agree ⟼ disagree Moral ⟼ immoral
𝑑𝑜𝑛′ 𝑡 𝑕𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑡𝑜 Legal ⟼ illegal Fair ⟼ unfair
- { 𝑛𝑒𝑒𝑑𝑛′𝑡 ⟼ Lack (absence) of Direct ⟼ indirect Responsible ⟼irresponsible
𝑑𝑜𝑛′ 𝑡 𝑛𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 obligation
𝐻𝑎𝑑 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑟
Suffix: it comes after the word and changes its form to
- { 𝑠𝑕𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑑
𝑜𝑢𝑔𝑕𝑡 𝑡𝑜 ⟼ Advice an adjective, an adverb, a noun, a verb.
𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑑 Example:
- {𝑚𝑖𝑔𝑕𝑡
𝑚𝑎𝑦 ⟼ Remote possibility (15%)
- { 𝑐𝑎𝑛 -
The suffix “ty” is added to an adjective to form a noun.
⟼ Possibility (50%)
𝐼𝑡′ 𝑠 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑏𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑦 𝑡𝑕𝑎𝑡
- { 𝐼𝑡 𝑤𝑖𝑙𝑙 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑏𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑦 ⟼ Probability (80%) Stupid ⟼ Stupidity
- 𝑤𝑖𝑙𝑙 𝑐𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑙𝑦 ⟼ Certainty (100%)
- The suffix “y” is added to a noun to form an adjective.
The “ing” form: Spice ⟼ Spicy
 As a past of verb called participle. Conditionals
Examples: I’m waiting, I’m playing. We have four types of conditionals:

 As a noun or gerund. Type zero: T0

Example: The eating of GMF’s might harmful. If + Verb in present simple, Verb in present

 As an adjective. simple. Eg: If you heat water, it boils.

Example: This book is more interesting than that one.  T0 is used to describe a general or scientific truth.

Stative (state) & action verb Type one: T1

A state verb: is a verb which describes a states (has not If + Verb in present simple, verb in future (will + stem)
a well defined beginning & the end)
Eg: If she works hard, she will go to university.
Examples: like, agree, believe, dislike, deserve, love,
enjoy, prefer, hate, dread, and mind.  The situation in T1 is possible to happen.

 A state verb is usually use in the present form Type two: T2

 A state verb can’t be progressive
If + Verb in past simple, would + stem
(Continuous form (“ing” form)).
Eg: If I were you, I would buy a car.
An action verb: is a verb which describes an action or
an event (has a specific beginning & the end).  The situation in T2 is impossible to happen
(an imaginary situation).
Examples: go, stop, come, start, achieve, write,
win, Describe, Search, and Replace.

 An action verb can be used in simple and

continuous form (“ing” form) (progressive)
 Summary of English language lessons

Type three: T3
Content & structure (function) words
If + Verb in past perfect, would have + past participle
Sentences contain two kind of word:
Eg: If I had read the question well, I would have taken
Content words: are necessary and contain the meaning.
the best mark.
- Main verb (play, go, work…).
 The situation in T3 is a regret about an event that - Nouns.
had happened in the past
- Adjectives (serious, nice…).
Quantifiers - Adverbs (carefully, quickly…).
- Demonstratives pronouns (this, that…).
𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑦 - Negative auxiliaries (wasn’t, couldn’t…).
- { 𝑓𝑒𝑤 for countable nouns.
- Yes, No (auxiliary) questions.
𝑚𝑢𝑐𝑕
- { for uncountable nouns. - Wh questions.
𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑙𝑒
𝑎 𝑙𝑜𝑡 𝑜𝑓
- { for countable & uncountable nouns(both). Structure (function) words: they make the sentences correct
𝑠𝑜𝑚𝑒 grammatically.

𝑠𝑢𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡
{𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑒 - Pronouns (I, he, they…).
= 𝑒𝑛𝑜𝑢𝑔𝑕 (It’s the right quantity).
- Prepositions (on, the, at, to, under…).
𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑒𝑛𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑕 (It isn’t the right quantity). - Articles (a, an, the).
- Conjunctions (but, and, because…).
The excessive and the insufficient of something:
- Auxiliary verbs (is, are, do, have, can…).
𝑡𝑜𝑜 𝑚𝑢𝑐𝑕 ⟼ 𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑛𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑠
An excessive amount: { 𝑡𝑜𝑜 𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑦 ⟼ 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑛𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑠
Content words are stressed.
Note: { Structure words are not stressed.
𝑡𝑜𝑜 𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑙𝑒 ⟼ 𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑛𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑠
An insufficient amount: { 𝑡𝑜𝑜 𝑓𝑒𝑤 ⟼ 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑛𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑠 Comparatives & superlatives

Used for & Used to Comparatives

We must have two elements to compare.

𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜
{𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑜𝑟 are verbs used to describe purpose and
- Superiority
of objects function
Short adjectives: adjectives of one syllable
 Used to + stem (a verb without
“to”) Eg: It’s used to cut wood. Adj + er + than (Eg: she is taller than me.)
 Used for + verb+ing (gerund)
Long adjectives: adjectives of two or more syllables
Eg: It’s used for cutting wood.
More + adj + than (Eg: meat is more expensive than
How …?
chicken.)
How: is a word question used for ask about dimension
- Equality
and size of objects.
As + adj + as (she is as intelligent as her brother.)
- How tall…? ⟼ Height
- How long…? ⟼ Height - Inferiority:
- How high…? ⟼ Height
- How far…? ⟼ Distance Less + adj + than (he is less intelligent than me.)
- How fast…? ⟼ Speed
- How deep…? ⟼ Depth Not as + adj + as (our garden is not as large as
- How wide…? ⟼ Width
- How much…? ⟼ Weight yours). Not so + adj + as
 Summary of English language lessons

Superlatives:
Unless
We compare one element to a group or a whole.
Unless: expresses warning.
- Superiority:
Unless = If … not
Short adjectives: adjectives of one syllable
 Unless + an affirmative verb
The + Adj + est. (Eg: Uranus is the biggest planet in the
Unless + verb present, Future (will + stem).
solar system.)
(Will not = won’t)
Long adjectives: adjectives of two or more syllables
Example: Unless you revise your lessons, you won’t pass
The most + adj. (Eg: English is the most
your exam.
important language in the world.)
The real meaning: If you don’t revise your lessons, you
- Inferiority:
won’t pass your exam.
The least + adj. (Eg: the cat is the least dangerous animal.)
Articles
Adjectives ⟼ Comparatives ⟼ Superlatives
Well/good Better The best Indefinite articles:
⟼ ⟼
Bad ⟼ Worse ⟼ The worst
a: is used before consonants (sound).
Far ⟼ Farther ⟼ The farthest
Many ⟼ More ⟼ The most
an: is used before vowels (sound).
Much ⟼ More ⟼ The most
Little ⟼ Less ⟼ The least - We use it before countable nouns that are unknown:
Similarity & difference
Eg: a table, a car, a house.
Expressing Similarity:
- We use it before names of profession (jobs).
We use these expressions: like, the same as, such as, both,
similar to, too. Eg: a doctor, a painter.

Examples: - We use it before measurement.

- She is intelligent like her brother. Eg: a liter, an hour.

- Both she and her brother are intelligent.
- She is intelligent the same as (such as) her brother. Definite articles: (the)
- She is similar to her brother, they are intelligent.
- We use it before adjectives to specify the
- She is intelligent, her brother too.
category of people.
Expressing difference:
Eg: the homeless, the poor, the jobless, the rich.
We use these expressions: unlike, whereas, while, - We use it before an object that is the only one.
but, different from, in contrast to.
Eg: the moon, the earth, the pyramids.
Examples:
- When we talk about institutions.
- Unlike Algeria, U.S.A is a developed country.
- Algeria is different from U.S.A. Eg: the radio, the bank, the television.
- U.S.A is a developed country but (while, whereas)
Algeria is not. - When we refer to a class of animals.
- U.S.A is a developed country in contrast to Algeria.
Eg: the tiger is a dangerous animal.
 Summary of English language lessons

Zero articles: (∅) no article is used.

Concession
- Before uncountable nouns. (money, oil …)
Expressing concession:
- Before abstract nouns. (Peace, happiness…)
- Before names of people & places. We can express concession using a number of conjunctional
- Before plural nouns. phrases: although, even though, though, despite, in spite of.

Purpose (goal) 𝑎𝑙𝑡𝑕𝑜𝑢𝑔𝑕

- {𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑡𝑕𝑜𝑢𝑔𝑕 + Subject + verb …
Expressing purpose: 𝑡𝑕𝑜𝑢𝑔𝑕

We can express purpose using a number of conjunctional Examples: Although it rained a lot, we enjoyed our holiday.
phrases: to, so as to, in order to, so that, in order that.
𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓
- {
𝑡𝑜 + A Noun phrase or a Gerund.
𝑑𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑒
- Subject + verb + 𝑠𝑜 𝑎𝑠 𝑡𝑜 + stem.
{ 𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑒𝑟 Examples:
𝑡𝑜

Examples:
 In spite of being ill, she went to school.
 John went to the station to meet his parents.  Despite her illness, she went to school.
 I study in order to succeed.
Note:

There are also negative 𝑑𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡 𝑡𝑕𝑎𝑡

{𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡 𝑡𝑕𝑎𝑡 + Subject + verb…
forms:
𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑡𝑜
- Subject + verb + 𝑠𝑜 𝑎𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑡𝑜 + stem. Examples: we enjoyed our holiday despite the fact that
{ 𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑛𝑜𝑡 it rained a lot.
𝑡𝑜
Formation of plural
Examples:
The soldiers moved at night, so as not to alarm the villagers.
- The plural of the most nouns is formed by ending “s”
𝑠𝑜 𝑡𝑕𝑎𝑡
- { 𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑕𝑎𝑡
+ Subject + verb (model). Boy ⟼ Boys
Girl ⟼ Girls
Example:
Book ⟼ books
- Nouns ending in “s, ch, sh, x, z” we add “es”
I leave the window open so that the cat can get
Brush ⟼ brushes
out. Note: Kiss ⟼ kisses
Match ⟼ matches
- The Present purpose: we use these models - Most nouns ending in “o” also form their plural
by adding “es” to the singular.
𝑠𝑜 𝑡𝑕𝑎𝑡 𝑤𝑖𝑙𝑙
{
+ Subject + { 𝑐𝑎𝑛 + stem. Hero ⟼ heroes
𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑕𝑎𝑡 𝑚𝑎𝑦 Potato ⟼ potatoes
Volcano ⟼ volcanoes
- The past purpose: - Note that a few nouns ending in “o” merely add “s”.

𝑠𝑜 𝑡𝑕𝑎𝑡 Dynamo ⟼ dynamos

{
𝑤𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑑 Piano ⟼ pianos
+ Subject + { 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑑 + stem. Photo ⟼ photos
𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑕𝑎𝑡
𝑚𝑖𝑔𝑕𝑡 Logo ⟼ logos
Kilo ⟼ kilos
Example:
 Summary of English language lessons

We took an umbrella so that we wouldn’t get wet.

 Summary of English language lessons

- Nouns ending in a consonant “y”:

Word formation
 Before “y” a consonant, we change “y” into “ies”
We can form verbs by adding the suffix “en” to some
Lady ⟼ ladies adjectives.
City ⟼ cities
 Before “y” a vowel, we add “s” - Wide + en ⟼ widen.
- Bright + en ⟼ brighten.
boy ⟼ boys
- Nouns ending in “f” or “fe”, we form their plural - Short + en ⟼ shorten.
by changing “f” or “fe” into “ves”.
The prefix “self” is added to some adjectives
Wife ⟼ wives 𝒎𝒚𝒔𝒆𝒍𝒇
Leaf ⟼ leaves ‫ﻟ‬
𝒚𝒐𝒖𝒓𝒔𝒆𝒍𝒇
Half ⟼ halves I 𝒉𝒊𝒎𝒔𝒆𝒍𝒇
Except some nouns like: Self refer to: 𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒔𝒆𝒍𝒇
❪ 𝒐𝒖𝒓𝒔𝒆𝒍𝒗𝒆𝒔
Chief ⟼ Chiefs I 𝒚𝒐𝒖𝒓𝒔𝒆𝒍𝒗𝒆𝒔
Gulf ⟼ Gulfs 𝗅 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒎𝒔𝒆𝒍𝒗𝒆𝒔
Safe ⟼ Safes
Proof ⟼ Proofs Example: He is a self-educated person.
Invariable nouns ending in “s” or “es”:
He is educated himself.
News, Series, species, Billiards,
Expressing like & dislike:
Dominoes Some nouns form their plural
𝑒𝑛𝑗𝑜𝑦
by mutation:
Foot ⟼ feet 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑙𝑖𝑘𝑒
- { + Gerund (verb + “ing”).
Tooth ⟼ teeth 𝑑𝑜𝑛′ 𝑡 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑑
Goose ⟼ geese 𝑎𝑣𝑜𝑖𝑑
Man ⟼ men 𝑙𝑖𝑘𝑒
Ox ⟼ oxen 𝑙𝑜𝑣𝑒
Child ⟼ children - 𝑕𝑎𝑡𝑒 + Gerund or to + stem (infinitive).
′
𝑐𝑎𝑛 𝑡
𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑
𝗅 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒
Silent letter - It is better + to + stem.
- Would rather + stem (a verb without “to”).
A silent letter is a letter which is written and not
pronounced. Each other & one another
- k before n at the beginning. ⟼ Knife Compound pronoun, they express reciprocity.
- p before s at the beginning. ⟼ Psychology
- b before t at the end. ⟼ Dept Each other: is used to refer to two persons only.
- b after m at the end. ⟼ Lamb
- l before d ⟼ Should Eg: Women kiss each other.
- l before f ⟼ Half
- l before k ⟼ Walk One another: is used to refer to more than two (a group)
- s before l ⟼ Island
- w before r at the beginning ⟼ Write Eg: players hug one another when they score.
- t in the middle of some words ⟼ Castle
- d in the middle of some words ⟼ Wednesday Type of questions
- g before n at the end ⟼ Foreign
- n after m at the end ⟼ Autumn We have two types of questions:
- h at the beginning ⟼ Honest
- gh ⟼ High - Reference question: is a direct question.
- r before consonant ⟼ Bird
- Inference question: is a indirect question, you
- h before the sounds |𝑘; 𝑑; 𝑡| ⟼ Ask him
have to read between the lines to find the
 Summary of English language lessons

answer.
 Summary of English language lessons

Stress 𝑐𝑦 ‫ﻟ‬
𝑡𝑕
Definition: 𝑡𝑦
I 𝑝𝑦
𝑕
rd
Stress is an extra force used when pronouncing e. Word ending in “ 𝑔𝑦 ” are all stressed on the 3
❪ 𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙
a particular word or syllable.
𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒
- A prefix is not stressed I 𝑎𝑡𝑒
- A suffix in not stressed 𝗅 𝑒𝑛𝑡

- |ə| schwa is never stressed syllable from the end.

a. A word of one syllable has stress on the first letter.
Eg: competence, identical, democracy.
Eg: hot, teach, got, take.
𝑖𝑛
‫𝑚𝑖 ﻟ‬
b. A word of two syllables: I 𝑖𝑙
- A noun has stress on the 1𝑠𝑡 𝑠𝑦𝑙𝑙𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒. f. Word with prefix “ 𝑖𝑟 ” are stressed on the root.
❪ 𝑢𝑛
Eg: teacher, actor, English. I 𝑑𝑖𝑠
𝗅𝑚𝑖𝑠
- An adjective has stress on the 1𝑠𝑡 𝑠𝑦𝑙𝑙𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒.
Eg: impossible, disagree, mislead, irregular, illegal.
Eg: happy, sunny, stupid.
g. Word with suffixes like: ee, eer, ese are stressed on
- A adverb has stress on the 1𝑠𝑡 𝑠𝑦𝑙𝑙𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒. the suffix itself.

Eg: under, over, always, never, after. Eg: trainee, engineer, Japanese.

- A verb has stress on the 2nd syllable. h. Word with the following suffixes are stressed on the
syllable before them.
Eg: correct, present. - Ish - Ive - Ian
- Ity - Ia - Ient
- Aty - Ial - Ious
c. Most word of three syllables words: nouns, verbs,
adjectives, adverbs are stressed on 1st syllable.

Eg: difficult, consider, photograph. Eg: university, society, expensive.

But: remember, together, advisor.

- Nouns ending by “ion” are stressed on the syllable

before the last.

Eg: addition, solution.

d. Words ending in “ic” are stressed on the 2nd syllable from

the end.

Eg: graphic, sympathetic.

 Summary of English language lessons

Phonetics Examples:

The final “s”: Simple Present: Rita writes a letter.

The final “s” is pronounced in different ways, - A letter is written by Rita.

according the “Sound” before:
Simple Past: Rita wrote a letter.
- “s” is pronounced |𝑠| after: |𝑝; 𝑡; 𝑘; 𝑓; 𝜃|
- “s” is pronounced |𝑖𝑧| after: |𝑠; 𝑧; ∫; 𝑡 ∫; 𝐷𝜁| - A letter was written by Rita.
- “s” is pronounced |𝑧| after:
 Vowels: goes. Present Perfect: Rita has written a letter.
 Nasals sounds: cleans.
 Voiced sounds: drives. - A letter has been written by Rita.

The final “ed”: Future simple: Rita will write a letter.

- A letter will be written by Rita.

The final “ed” is pronounced in different ways,
according the “Sound” before:
Modals: Rita can write a letter.
- “s” is pronounced |𝑡| after: |𝑝; 𝑘; 𝑓; 𝜃; ∫; 𝑡 ∫; 𝑠| - A letter can be written by Rita.
- “s” is pronounced |𝑖𝑑| after: |𝑡; 𝑑|
- “s” is pronounced |𝑑| after: Present Progressive (Continuous): Rita is writing a letter.
 Vowels: prayed.
 Nasals sounds: cleaned. - A letter is being written by Rita.
 Voiced sounds: traveled.
Past Progressive (Continuous): Rita was writing a letter.
Active & Passive Voice
- A letter was being written by Rita.
Use of Passive:
Past Perfect: Rita had written a letter.
- Passive voice is used when the focus is on the
action. It is not important or not known, - A letter had been written by Rita.
however, who or what is performing the action.
- Sometimes a statement in passive is more polite Future perfect: Rita will have written a letter.
than active voice
- A letter will have been written by
Form of Passive:
Rita. Conditional simple: Rita would write a
Subject (the Object in active) + finite form of to be + Past
Participle (3rd column of irregular verbs) + Object (the letter.
Subject in active).
- A letter would be written by Rita.
When rewriting active sentences in passive voice, note the
following: Conditional perfect: Rita would have written a letter.

 the object of the active sentence becomes the - A letter would have been written by Rita.
subject of the passive sentence
 the finite form of the verb is changed (to be + Pronouns
past participle) - I - Me
 the subject of the active sentence becomes the - She - Her
object of the passive sentence (or is dropped) - He - His
- It - It
- You - You
- We - Us
- They - Them
 Summary of English language lessons

Direct & reported Other changes:

speech

When we report we a statement, we use one of these main Modals:

verbs: say, tell, announce, declare, order, ask, and wanted to
know.
Direct Reported
 Rule one:
- Will - Would
- Can - Could
When the main verb is in the present tense, the future - Must - Had to
or present perfect: - May - Might
- Should - Should
We can report without any change of - Ought to - Ought to

tense. Eg: Paul says: “I am trying to get a

Time and place reference:
taxi.”
Direct Reported
⟼ Paul says that he is trying to get taxi.
- Now. - Then.
 Rule two: - Today. - That day.
- Tonight. - That night.
When the main verb is in the past: - Here. - There.
- This. - That.
We have to change the tense of the verbs used in - These. - Those.
the statement. - This week. - That week.
- Tomorrow. - The day after.
Present simple: “I play football”. - Tomorrow. - The next (following) day.
- Next week. - The week after.
To Simple Past: He said that he played football - Next week. - The following week.
- Yesterday. - The day before.
Past simple: “I played football”. - Yesterday. - The previous day.
- Last week. - The week before.
- Last week. - The previous week.
To Past Perfect: He said that he had played football
- 2 week ago. - 2 week before.
Present Perfect: “I have played football”.

Reporting question:
To Past Perfect: He said that he had played football

Present Continuous: “I am playing football”. When we report a question we use: asked,

questioned, wanted to know.
To Past Continuous: He said that he was playing football
There is no question mark “?”
Past Continuous: “I was playing football”.
- “Wh” question:
To Past perfect continuous: He said that he had been playing
football. “Wh” question are reported with the question

Past Perfect: “I had played football”. word. The verb has the form of normal statement.

To Past Perfect: He said that he had played football. Note: we do not use: do, does, did in the reported.

Present perfect continuous: “I have been playing football.” Eg: “Where are you going?”

To Past perfect continuous: He said that he had been playing ⟼ I asked her where she was going.
football.
 Summary of English language lessons

- Auxiliary question (Yes/No):

Apologize: subject + apologized for + verb + ing (gerund).

When we report an auxiliary question we use: Eg: “I am sorry for being late.”

If. We omit (delete): do, does, did. ⟼ I apologized for being late.

The verb has the form of normal statement. Congratulation: subject + congratulated on + verb + ing.

Eg: “Do you like hamburgers?”

Eg: “well done, you’ve passed your exam.”

⟼ He asked me if I like
⟼ She congratulated her on passing her exam.

hamburgers. Reported other forms of

Denying: subject + denied + verb + ing.
speech: Commands or request:
Eg: Alice said: “No, I didn’t take it! I was there.”
𝑡𝑜𝑙𝑑 + 𝑡𝑜 + 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚
⟼ Alice denied taking it.
Subject + {𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑 + 𝑡𝑜 + 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚
𝑎𝑠𝑘𝑒𝑑 + 𝑡𝑜 + 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚
Inviting: subject + invited + to + stem.
Eg: “stop writing” ⟼ he told them to stop writing.
Eg: “would you like to come to the cinema, Jane?”
“Please wait” ⟼ I asked her to wait.
⟼ They invited Jane to come to the cinema.
𝑠𝑕𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑑
𝑜𝑢𝑔𝑕𝑡 𝑡𝑜 Offering: subject + offered + to + stem.
Advice: when we find in direct speech: 𝑕𝑎𝑑 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑟
Eg: “Shall I carry your case, Pam?”
𝐼𝑓 𝐼 𝑤𝑒𝑟𝑒
𝗅𝑤𝑕𝑦 𝑑𝑜𝑛′ 𝑡 𝑦𝑜𝑢
⟼ He offered to carry Pam’s case.
The reported: are: subject + advised + to + stem.
Promising: subject + promised + to + stem.
Eg: “I wouldn’t buy that car if I were you.”
Eg: “I’ll be at home by eight.”
⟼ I advised him not to buy that car.
⟼ He promised to be at home by eight.
𝐿𝑒𝑡′ 𝑠
Suggestion: when we find in direct speech: { 𝐻𝑜𝑤 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑡 Summary of commends statement
𝑊𝑕𝑎𝑡 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑡
- Told + to + stem.
𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑏 + 𝑖𝑛𝑔
- Ordered + to + stem.
The reported: are: subject + suggested + { 𝑜𝑟 - Asked + to + stem.
𝑡𝑜 + - Advised + to + stem.
𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 - Apologized for + verb + ing.
Eg: “Let’s go to the theatre.” - Congratulated on + verb + ing.
- Denied + verb + ing.
⟼ He suggested going to the theatre. - Suggested + verb + ing.
- Suggested + to + stem.
Agreement: subject + agreed + to + stem. - Agreed + to + stem.
- Invited + to + stem.
Eg: “Ok, I’ll give you a lift.” - Offered + to + stem.
- Promised + to + stem.
⟼ He agreed to give me a lift.
 Summary of English language lessons

How to ask a question - Whose: possession

“Wh” question: Whose + noun + aux + subject + verb?

Wh + Auxiliary + Subject + Verb? a) The pen is mine.

b) Whose pen is it?
 If the auxiliary exist we don’t change the tense
of the verb. - Which: choice
 If the auxiliary doesn’t exist we use the infinitive
of the verb. Which + noun + aux + subject + verb?

Example:
a) They took the blue Jacket.
b) Which jacket did they take?
The lion eats the meats. (Subject, verb, object)
- How: manner
- What eats the meats? (subject) (we replace a) She feels better now.
the subject by “Wh”) b) How does she feel now?
- What does the lion do? (verb)
- What does the lion eat?  How often: (Always, Usually, Often,
Sometimes, Never).
(Object) WH Question Words: a) He sometimes visits his friend.
b) How often does he visit his friend?
- Who: subject person.
a) His mother prepares the lunch.  How long: period of time (duration).
b) Who prepares the lunch? a) The exam lasted two hours.
b) How long did the exam last?
Subject (thing / animal)
- What: { 𝑉𝑒𝑟𝑏  How many: countable nouns (numbers).
𝑂𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 (thing / animal) a) Three pupils got a good mark.
a) The lion eats the meats. b) How many pupils got a good mark?
b) What does the lion eat?
a) They will visit four towns in the country.
- Whom: Object person. b) How many towns will they visit?
a) She phoned to her friend.
b) Whom did she phone to?  How much: uncountable nouns (quantity).
a) He put some sugar in the cup.
- When: Time (Last, next, yesterday, tomorrow). b) How much sugar did he put in the cup?
a) She will have an exam next week.
b) When will she have an exam?

- Where: Place.
a) She is leaving to Paris.
b) Where is she leaving?

- Why: Cause (reason).

a) They move to new house because the first one is
too old.
b) Why do they move to new house?

- What … for: purpose, goal (to, in order to, so as to).

a) They are working hard to succeed
b) What are they working hard for?