Problem 1.

1 [Difficulty: 2]

Given: Five basic conservation laws stated in Section 1-4.

Write: A word statement of each, as they apply to a system.

Solution: Assume that laws are to be written for a system.

a. Conservation of mass — The mass of a system is constant by definition.

b. Newton's second law of motion — The net force acting on a system is directly proportional to the product of the

system mass times its acceleration.

c. First law of thermodynamics — The change in stored energy of a system equals the net energy added to the

system as heat and work.

d. Second law of thermodynamics — The entropy of any isolated system cannot decrease during any process

between equilibrium states.

e. Principle of angular momentum — The net torque acting on a system is equal to the rate of change of angular

momentum of the system.

 Problem 1.2 [Difficulty: 3]

Open-Ended Problem Statement: Consider the physics of “skipping” a stone across the water surface

of a lake. Compare these mechanisms with a stone as it bounces after being thrown along a roadway.

Discussion: Observation and experience suggest two behaviors when a stone is thrown along a water surface:

1. If the angle between the path of the stone and the water surface is steep the stone may penetrate the water

surface. Some momentum of the stone will be converted to momentum of the water in the resulting splash.

After penetrating the water surface, the high drag* of the water will slow the stone quickly. Then, because the

stone is heavier than water it will sink.

2. If the angle between the path of the stone and the water surface is shallow the stone may not penetrate the water

surface. The splash will be smaller than if the stone penetrated the water surface. This will transfer less

momentum to the water, causing less reduction in speed of the stone. The only drag force on the stone will be

from friction on the water surface. The drag will be momentary, causing the stone to lose only a portion of its

kinetic energy. Instead of sinking, the stone may skip off the surface and become airborne again.

When the stone is thrown with speed and angle just right, it may skip several times across the water surface. With

each skip the stone loses some forward speed. After several skips the stone loses enough forward speed to penetrate

the surface and sink into the water.

Observation suggests that the shape of the stone significantly affects skipping. Essentially spherical stones may be

made to skip with considerable effort and skill from the thrower. Flatter, more disc-shaped stones are more likely to

skip, provided they are thrown with the flat surface(s) essentially parallel to the water surface; spin may be used to

stabilize the stone in flight.

By contrast, no stone can ever penetrate the pavement of a roadway. Each collision between stone and roadway will

be inelastic; friction between the road surface and stone will affect the motion of the stone only slightly. Regardless

of the initial angle between the path of the stone and the surface of the roadway, the stone may bounce several times,

then finally it will roll to a stop.

The shape of the stone is unlikely to affect trajectory of bouncing from a roadway significantly.
 Problem 1.3 [Difficulty: 1]

1.5 Make a guess at the order of magnitude of the mass (e.g., 0.01,
0.1, 1.0, 10, 100, or 1000 kg) of standard air that is in a room
3 m by 3m by 2.4 m, and then compute this mass in lbm and kg to
see how close your estimate was.

Given: Dimensions of a room.

Find: Mass of air.

Solution:

p
Basic equation: ρ=
R air ⋅ T

ft ⋅ lbf
Given or available data p = 14.7 psi T = (59 + 460)R R air = 53.33 ⋅
lbm ⋅ R

J
P = 101.3 kPa T = (15 + 273) K R = 286.9
air kg ⋅ K
V = 10 ⋅ ft × 10 ⋅ ft × 8 ⋅ ft V = 800 ⋅ ft 3
V = 3 m × 3 m × 2.4m = 21.6 m3

p lbm kg
Then ρ= ρ = 0.076 ρ = 1.23
R air ⋅ T ft 3 m3

M = ρ⋅V M = 61.2 lbm M = 26.6 kg

 Problem 1.4 [Difficulty: 1]

1.6 A spherical tank of inside diameter 500 cm contains com-

pressed oxygen at 7 MPa and 25°C. What is the mass of the
oxygen?

Given: Data on oxygen tank.

Find: Mass of oxygen.

Solution: Compute tank volume, and then use oxygen density (Table A.6) to find the mass.

The given or available D = 500 cm p = 7 MPa T = (25 + 273) ⋅ k T = 298 K

data is:

J
R O2 = 259.8 (Table A.6)
kg ⋅ K

For oxygen the critical temperature and pressure are: Tc = 155 ⋅ K p c = 5 MPa (data from NIST WebBook)

T p
so the reduced temperature and pressure are: TR = = 1.925 p R = = 1.379
Tc pc

Using a compressibility factor chart: Z = 0.948 Since this number is close to 1, we can assume ideal gas behavior.

M
Therefore, the governing equation is the ideal gas equation p = ρ ⋅ R O2 ⋅ T and ρ=
V

π ⋅ D3 π
where V is the tank volume V= V= × (5 m)3 V = 65.4 m 3
6 6

p⋅V N 1 kg ⋅ K 1 1
Hence M = V ⋅ρ = M = 7 × 106 2
× 65.4 m3 × ⋅ × ⋅
R O2 ⋅ T m 259.8 N ⋅ m 298 K

M = 5913 kg
 Problem 1.5 [Difficulty: 3]

Given: Small particle accelerating from rest in a fluid. Net weight is W, resisting force FD = kV, where V

is speed.

Find: Time required to reach 95 percent of terminal speed, Vt.

Solution: Consider the particle to be a system. Apply Newton's second law.

Basic equation: ∑Fy = may

Assumptions: FD = kV

1. W is net weight Particle

2. Resisting force acts opposite to V
y
Then W

∑F
dV W dV
y = W − kV = ma y = m =
dt g dt

dV k
or = g(1 − V)
dt W

dV
Separating variables, = g dt
1− W
k
V

dV W
( )
V t
Integrating, noting that velocity is zero initially, ∫0 1 − Wk V
= −
k
ln 1 − k
W
V = ∫0 gdt = gt

W ⎛⎜ ⎞
kgt kgt
k − −
or 1 − V = e ; V = ⎜1 − e W ⎟⎟
W
W k ⎝ ⎠
kgt
V −
But V→Vt as t→∞, so Vt = W
k
. Therefore = 1− e W
Vt

kgt
− kgt
When V
Vt
= 0.95 , then e W = 0.05 and W
= 3. Thus t = 3W/gk
 Problem 1.6 [Difficulty: 2]

Given: Small particle accelerating from rest in a fluid. Net weight is W,

resisting force is FD = kV, where V is speed.

FD = kV
Find: Distance required to reach 95 percent of terminal speed, Vt.
Particle
Solution: Consider the particle to be a system. Apply Newton's second law.
y
Basic equation: ∑Fy = may W
Assumptions:

1. W is net weight.

2. Resisting force acts opposite to V.

Then, ∑F y = W − kV = ma y = m dV
dt =
W
g V dV
dy or 1 − Wk V = V dV
g dy

At terminal speed, ay = 0 and V = Vt = W

k . Then 1 − V
Vg = g1 V dV
dy

V dV
Separating variables = g dy
1 − V1t V

Integrating, noting that velocity is zero initially

0.95Vt
0.95Vt V dV ⎡ ⎛ V ⎞⎤
gy = ∫ = ⎢ −VVt − Vt 2 ln ⎜1 − ⎟⎥
1
1 − V ⎢⎣ ⎝ Vt ⎠ ⎥⎦ 0
0

Vt

gy = −0.95Vt 2 − Vt 2 ln (1 − 0.95) − Vt 2 ln (1)

gy = −Vt 2 [ 0.95 + ln 0.05] = 2.05 Vt 2
2.05 2 W2
∴y = Vt = 2.05 2
g gt
 Problem 1.7 [Difficulty: 2]

Given: Mass of nitrogen, and design constraints on tank dimensions.

Find: External dimensions.

Solution: Use given geometric data and nitrogen mass, with data from Table A.6.

The given or available data is: M = 5 ⋅ kg p = ( 200 + 1 ) ⋅ atm p = 20.4⋅ MPa

J
T = ( 20 + 273 ) ⋅ K T = 293 ⋅ K RN2 = 296.8 ⋅ (Table A.6)
kg⋅ K

M
The governing equation is the ideal gas equation p = ρ⋅ RN2⋅ T and ρ=
V

2
π⋅ D
where V is the tank volume V= ⋅L where L = 2⋅ D
4

Combining these equations:

2 2 3
p⋅ V p π⋅ D p π⋅ D p ⋅ π⋅ D
Hence M = V⋅ ρ = = ⋅ ⋅L = ⋅ ⋅ 2⋅ D =
RN2⋅ T RN2⋅ T 4 RN2⋅ T 4 2 ⋅ RN2⋅ T

1 1
3 3
⎛ 2 ⋅ RN2⋅ T⋅ M ⎞ ⎛2 N⋅ m m ⎞
2
D = ⎜ × 296.8 ⋅
1
Solving for D D= ⎜ × 293 ⋅ K × 5 ⋅ kg × ⋅
⎝ p⋅ π ⎠ ⎜π kg⋅ K 6 N
⎝ 20.4 × 10 ⎠

D = 0.239 ⋅ m L = 2⋅ D L = 0.477 ⋅ m

These are internal dimensions; the external ones are 2 x 0.5 cm larger: L = 0.249 ⋅ m D = 0.487 ⋅ m
 Problem 1.8 [Difficulty: 4]

1.10 In a combustion process; gasoline particles are to be NOTE: Drag formula is in error. It should be:
dropped in air at 93°C. The particles must drop at least 25 cm FD = 3 ⋅ π ⋅ V ⋅ d
in 1 s. Find the diameter d of droplets required for this.
(The drag on these particles is given by FD = π µVd , where
V is the particle speed and µ is the air viscosity. To solve
this problem, use Excel’s Goal Seek.)

Given: Data on sphere and formula for drag.

Find: Diameter of gasoline droplets that take 1 second to fall 25 cm.

Solution: Use given data and data in Appendices; integrate equation of

motion by separating variables.

The data provided, or available in the Appendices, are:

N ⋅s kg kg
µ = 1.8 × 10 −5 ρ w = 999 ⋅ SG gas = 0.72 ρ gas = SG gas ⋅ ρ w ρ gas = 719 ⋅
m2 m3 m3
Newton’s 2nd law for the sphere (mass M) is (ignoring buoyancy effects)

dV
M⋅ = M ⋅ g − 3⋅ π ⋅ µ ⋅ V ⋅ d
dt

dV
so = dt
3⋅ π ⋅µ ⋅ d
g− ⋅V
M
Integrating twice and using limits

M ⋅g  ⋅t  M⋅g   
−3⋅ π⋅µ ⋅d −3⋅π ⋅µ ⋅d
M ⋅t
V(t) = ⋅1 − e M  x (t) = ⋅ t + ⋅ e M
−1  
3⋅ π ⋅µ ⋅ d   3 ⋅ π ⋅ µ ⋅ d  3⋅ π ⋅µ ⋅ d   

Replacing M with an expression involving diameter d

ρ gas ⋅ d 2 ⋅ g  ρ gas ⋅ d 2  
−18⋅µ
π ⋅ d3  ρgas ⋅d 2
⋅t
M = ρ gas ⋅ x (t) = ⋅ t + ⋅e −1 

6 18 ⋅ µ  18 ⋅ µ  
  

This equation must be solved for d so that x(1 ⋅ s) = 25 cm. The answer can be obtained from manual iteration, or by
using Excel’s Goal Seek.
 d = 0.1075 cm

Note that the particle quickly reaches terminal speed, so that a simpler approximate solution would be to solve
Mg = 3πµVd for d, with V = 0.25 m/s (allowing for the fact that M is a function of d)!
 Problem 1.9 [Difficulty: 3]

1.11 For a small particle of styrofoam (16 kg/m3) (spherical,

with diameter d = 0.3 mm) falling in standard air at speed V,
the drag is given by FD = 3πµVd, where µ is the air viscosity.
Find the maximum speed starting from rest, and the time it
takes to reach 95 percent of this speed. Plot the speed as a
function of time.

Given: Data on sphere and formula for drag.

Find: Maximum speed, time to reach 95% of this speed, and plot speed as a function of time.

Solution: Use given data and data in Appendices, and integrate equation of motion by separating variables.
The data provided, or available in the Appendices, are:

kg N ⋅s kg
ρ air = 1.17 ⋅ µ = 1.8 × 10 −5 ⋅ ρ w = 999 ⋅ SG Sty = 0.016 d = 0.3 ⋅ mm
m3 m2 m3

kg
Then the density of the sphere is ρSty = SG Sty ⋅ ρ w ρSty = 16
m3
3

The sphere mass is M = ρSty ⋅

π ⋅ d3 kg
= 16 ⋅ 3 × π ×
( 0.0003.m ) M = 2.26 × 10−10 kg
6 m 6

Newton’s 2nd law for the steady state motion becomes (ignoring buoyancy effects) M ⋅ g = 3⋅ π ⋅ V ⋅ d

So

M⋅g 1 m m2 1
Vmax = = × 2.26 × 10−10 ⋅ kg × 9.81 ⋅ 2 × −5
×
3⋅ π ⋅µ ⋅ d 3⋅ π s 1.8 × 10 ⋅ N ⋅ s 0.0003 ⋅ m
m
Vmax = 0.0435
s

dV
Newton's 2nd law for the general motion is (ignoring buoyancy effects) M⋅ = M ⋅ g − 3⋅ π ⋅µ ⋅ V ⋅ d
dt

dV
so = dt
3⋅ π ⋅µ ⋅ d
g− ⋅V
M
  −3⋅π ⋅µ ⋅d 
 ⋅t 
 M 
M ⋅ g 1−e 



Integrating and using limits V(t) = ⋅
3⋅ π ⋅µ ⋅ d

Using the given data

 −3⋅π⋅µ⋅d 
M⋅g  ⋅t 
The time to reach 95% of maximum speed is obtained from ⋅ 1−e M 
= 0.95 ⋅ Vmax
3⋅ π ⋅µ ⋅ d
M  0 ⋅ 95 ⋅ Vmax ⋅ 3 ⋅ π ⋅ µ ⋅ d 
So t = − ⋅ ln 1 −  Substituting values t = 0.0133 s
3⋅ π ⋅µ ⋅ d  M⋅g 
The plot can also be done in Excel.
 Problem 1.10 [Difficulty: 3]

1.12 In a pollution control experiment, minute solid particles

(typical mass 5 × 10−11kg) are dropped in air. The terminal
speed of the particles is measured to be 5 cm/s. The drag of
these particles is given by FD = kV, where V is the instan-
taneous particle speed. Find the value of the constant k. Find the
time required to reach 99 percent of terminal speed.

Given: Data on sphere and terminal speed.

Find: Drag constant k, and time to reach 99% of terminal speed.

Solution: Use given data; integrate equation of motion by separating variables.

The data provided are: M = 5 cm/s Vt = 5 × 10−11 kg

Newton’s 2nd law for the general motion is (ignoring buoyancy effects)

dV
M⋅ = M ⋅ g − k ⋅ V (1)
dt
Newton’s 2nd law for the steady state motion becomes (ignoring buoyancy effects) M ⋅ g = k ⋅ Vt so
M⋅g
k =
Vt

m s N⋅s
k = 5 × 10−11 kg × 9.81 2
× k = 9.81 × 10−9 ⋅
s 0.05 m m

dV
To find the time to reach 99% of Vt, we need V(t). From 1, separating variables = dt
k
g − ⋅V
M

M  k 
Integrating and using limits t= − ⋅ ln 1 − ⋅V
k  M ⋅g 

cm
We must evaluate this when V = 0.99 ⋅ Vt V = 4.95 ⋅
s

m N ⋅ s2
t = − 5 ×10 − 11 ⋅ kg × × ⋅
9.81×10 − 9 ⋅ N ⋅ s kg ⋅ m
 N ⋅s 1 s2 0.0495 m kg ⋅ m 
ln  1 − 9.81×10 −9 ⋅ × −11
× × × 
 m 5×10 ⋅ kg 9.81 m s N ⋅ s2 

t = 0.0235s
 Problem 1.11 [Difficulty: 4]

2
N⋅ s
Given: Data on sky diver: M = 70⋅ kg k = 0.25⋅
2
m
Find: Maximum speed; speed after 100 m; plot speed as function of time and distance.

Solution: Use given data; integrate equation of motion by separating variables.

Treat the sky diver as a system; apply Newton's 2nd law:

dV 2
Newton's 2nd law for the sky diver (mass M) is (ignoring buoyancy effects): M⋅ = M⋅ g − k⋅ V (1)
dt

2 M⋅ g FD = kV2
(a) For terminal speed Vt, acceleration is zero, so M ⋅ g − k ⋅ V = 0 so Vt =
k
1
2
a = dV/dt
⎛ 2
N⋅ s ⎞
2
Vt = ⎜ 70⋅ kg × 9.81⋅ ×
m m m
⋅ Vt = 52.4
⎜ 2 2 kg × m s Mg
⎝ s 0.25⋅ N⋅ s ⎠

dV dV dy dV 2
(b) For V at y = 100 m we need to find V(y). From (1) M ⋅ = M⋅ ⋅ = M ⋅ V⋅ = M⋅ g − k⋅ V
dt dy dt dt

V
⌠ V ⌠
y
Separating variables and integrating: ⎮ dV = ⎮ g dy
⎮ 2 ⌡
⎮ k⋅ V 0
1−
⎮ M⋅ g
⌡
0
⎛ −
2⋅ k⋅ y ⎞
⎛ k⋅ V ⎞
2
2⋅ k M⋅ g ⎜
ln⎜ 1 −
2 M
so =− y or V = ⋅⎝1 − e ⎠
⎝ M ⋅ g ⎠ M k
1
2
⎛ −
2⋅ k⋅ y ⎞
⎜ M
Hence V( y ) = Vt⋅ ⎝ 1 − e ⎠
1
2
⎛ N⋅ s
2
1 kg⋅ m ⎞
⎜ − 2× 0.25⋅ × 100⋅ m× ×
m ⎜ m
2 70⋅ kg s 2⋅ N m
For y = 100 m: V( 100 ⋅ m) = 52.4⋅ ⋅ ⎝ 1 − e ⎠ V( 100 ⋅ m) = 37.4⋅
s s
 60

40

V(m/s)
20

0 100 200 300 400 500

y(m)

dV 2
(c) For V(t) we need to integrate (1) with respect to t: M⋅ = M⋅ g − k⋅ V
dt

V
⌠ V ⌠
t
Separating variables and integrating: ⎮ dV = ⎮ 1 dt
⎮ M⋅ g 2 ⌡
−V 0
⎮ k
⌡
0

⎛⎜ M⋅ g ⎞
+V
⎟ = 1 ⋅ M ⋅ ln⎛⎜ t
M ⎜ 1 k V +V ⎞
so t= ⋅ ⋅ ln
2 k⋅ g ⎜ M⋅ g ⎟ 2 k⋅ g ⎝ Vt − V ⎠
⎜⎝ −V
k ⎠

⎛ k⋅ g ⎞
⎜ 2⋅ M
⋅t

Rearranging V( t) = Vt⋅
⎝e − 1⎠
or V( t) = Vt⋅ tanh⎛⎜ Vt⋅ ⋅ t⎞
k
⎛ k⋅ g ⎞ ⎝ M ⎠
⎜ 2⋅ M
⋅t
⎝e + 1⎠

60

40
V(m/s)

V ( t)
20

0 5 10 15 20
t
t(s)

The two graphs can also be plotted in Excel.

 Problem 1.12 [Difficulty: 5]

2 2
N⋅ s N⋅ s m
Given: Data on sky diver: M = 70⋅ kg k vert = 0.25⋅ k horiz = 0.05⋅ U0 = 70⋅
2 2 s
m m
Find: Plot of trajectory.

Solution: Use given data; integrate equation of motion by separating variables.

Treat the sky diver as a system; apply Newton's 2nd law in horizontal and vertical directions:

dV 2
Vertical: Newton's 2nd law for the sky diver (mass M) is (ignoring buoyancy effects): M⋅ = M ⋅ g − k vert⋅ V (1)
dt

For V(t) we need to integrate (1) with respect to t:

V
⌠ ⌠
t
Separating variables and integrating: ⎮ V
dV = ⎮ 1 dt
⎮ M⋅ g 2 ⌡
⎮ −V 0
⎮ k vert
⌡
0
⎛ M⋅ g ⎞
⎜ +V
k vert
⋅ ln⎜ ⎟
1 M
so t= ⋅
2 k vert⋅ g ⎜ M⋅ g ⎟
⎜ −V
⎝ k vert
⎠
⎛ kvert ⋅ g ⎞
⎜ 2⋅ ⋅t
⎜ M ⎛ k vert⋅ g ⎞
M⋅ g ⎝ e − 1⎠ M⋅ g
Rearranging oV( t) = ⋅ so V( t) = ⋅ tanh⎜ ⋅t
r k vert ⎛ kvert ⋅ g ⎞ k vert ⎝ M ⎠
⎜ 2⋅ ⋅t
⎜e M
⎝ + 1⎠

dy ⌠
For y(t) we need to integrate again: =V or y = ⎮ V dt
dt ⌡

t
⌠
⌠
t ⎮ M⋅ g ⎛ kvert⋅ g ⎞ M⋅ g ⎛ ⎛ k vert⋅ g ⎞ ⎞
y ( t) = ⎮ V( t) dt = ⎮ ⋅ tanh⎜ ⋅ t dt = ⋅ ln⎜ cosh⎜ ⋅t
⌡
0 ⎮ k vert ⎝ M ⎠ k vert ⎝ ⎝ M ⎠⎠
⌡
0

M⋅ g ⎛ ⎛ kvert⋅ g ⎞ ⎞
y ( t) = ⋅ ln⎜ cosh⎜ ⋅t
k vert ⎝ ⎝ M ⎠⎠
After the first few seconds we reach steady state:

30 600

20 400
y(m)

y(m)
y( t) y( t)
10 200

0 1 2 3 4 5 0 20 40 60
t t
t(s) t(s)

dU 2
Horizontal: Newton's 2nd law for the sky diver (mass M) is: M⋅ = −k horiz⋅ U (2)
dt

For U(t) we need to integrate (2) with respect to t:

t
⌠
U ⌠ k k horiz
⎮ 1 ⎮ horiz 1 1
Separating variables and integrating: dU = − dt so − ⋅t = − +
⎮ 2 ⎮ M M U U0
⎮ U ⌡
⌡U 0
0

U0
Rearranging U( t) =
k horiz⋅ U0
1+ ⋅t
M

dx ⌠
For x(t) we need to integrate again: =U or x = ⎮ U dt
dt ⌡

t
⌠
⌠
t
⎮ U0 M ⎛ k horiz⋅ U0 ⎞
x ( t) = ⎮ U( t) dt = ⎮ dt = ⋅ ln⎜ ⋅t + 1
⌡ k ⋅U k horiz ⎝ M ⎠
0 ⎮ 1 + horiz 0 ⋅ t
⎮ M
⌡
0

M ⎛ khoriz⋅ U0 ⎞
x ( t) = ⋅ ln⎜ ⋅t + 1
k horiz ⎝ M ⎠
 2

1.5
x(km)

0.5

0 20 40 60

t(s)

Plotting the trajectory:

0 1 2 3

−1
y(km)

−2

−3

x(km)

These plots can also be done in Excel.

 Problem 1.13 [Difficulty: 2]

Given: Basic dimensions M, L, t and T.

Find: Dimensional representation of quantities below, and typical units in SI and English systems.

Solution:
Energy Force × Distance F⋅ L
(a) Power Power = = =
Time Time t
M⋅ L
From Newton's 2nd law Force = Mass × Acceleration so F=
2
t
2 2 2
F⋅ L M ⋅ L⋅ L M⋅ L kg⋅ m slug⋅ ft
Hence Power = = =
t 2 3 3 3
t ⋅t t s s
Force F M⋅ L M kg slug
(b) Pressure Pressure = = = =
Area 2 2 2 2 2 2
L t ⋅L L⋅ t m⋅ s ft⋅ s

Force F M⋅ L M kg slug
(c) Modulus of elasticity Pressure = = = =
Area 2 2 2 2 2 2
L t ⋅L L⋅ t m⋅ s ft⋅ s

Radians 1 1 1
(d) Angular velocity AngularVelocity = =
Time t s s
2 2 2
M ⋅ L⋅ L M⋅ L kg⋅ m slug⋅ ft
(e) Energy Energy = Force × Distance = F⋅ L = =
2 2 2 2
t t s s
2 2 2
M ⋅ L⋅ L M⋅ L kg⋅ m slug⋅ ft
(f) Moment of a force MomentOfForce = Force × Length = F⋅ L = =
2 2 2 2
t t s s
L M⋅ L kg⋅ m slug⋅ ft
(g) Momentum Momentum = Mass × Velocity = M ⋅ =
t t s s

Force F M⋅ L M kg slug
(h) Shear stress ShearStress = = = =
Area 2 2 2 2 2 2
L t ⋅L L⋅ t m⋅ s ft⋅ s
LengthChange L
(i) Strain Strain = = Dimensionless
Length L
2 2 2
M⋅ L M⋅ L kg⋅ m slugs⋅ ft
(j) Angular momentum AngularMomentum = Momentum × Distance = ⋅L =
t t s s
 Problem 1.14 [Difficulty: 1]

Given: Viscosity, power, and specific energy data in certain units

Find: Convert to different units

Solution:
Using data from tables (e.g. Table G.2)
2
⎛ 1 ⋅ ft ⎞
2 2 ⎜ 2
m m 12 ft
(a) 1⋅ = 1⋅ ×⎜ = 10.76 ⋅
s s ⎝ 0.0254⋅ m ⎠ s

1 ⋅ hp
(b) 100 ⋅ W = 100 ⋅ W × = 0.134 ⋅ hp
746 ⋅ W

kJ kJ 1000⋅ J 1 ⋅ Btu 0.454 ⋅ kg Btu

(c) 1⋅ = 1⋅ × × × = 0.43⋅
kg kg 1 ⋅ kJ 1055⋅ J 1 ⋅ lbm lbm
 Problem 1.15 [Difficulty: 1]

Given: Pressure, volume and density data in certain units

Find: Convert to different units

Solution:
Using data from tables (e.g. Table G.2)

6895⋅ Pa 1⋅ kPa
(a) 1⋅ psi = 1⋅ psi × × = 6.89⋅ kPa
1⋅ psi 1000⋅ Pa

1⋅ quart 1⋅ gal
(b) 1⋅ liter = 1⋅ liter × × = 0.264⋅ gal
0.946⋅ liter 4⋅ quart
2
⎛ 1 ⋅ ft ⎞
lbf ⋅ s lbf ⋅ s 4.448⋅ N ⎜ 12 N⋅s
(c) 1⋅ = 1⋅ × ×⎜ = 47.9⋅
ft
2
ft
2 1⋅ lbf ⎝ 0.0254m
⋅ ⎠
m
2
 Problem 1.16 [Difficulty: 1]

Given: Specific heat, speed, and volume data in certain units

Find: Convert to different units

Solution:
Using data from tables (e.g. Table G.2)

kJ kJ 1 ⋅ Btu 1 ⋅ kg 1⋅ K Btu
(a) 4.18⋅ = 4.18⋅ × × × = 0.998 ⋅
kg⋅ K kg⋅ K 1.055 ⋅ kJ 2.2046⋅ lbm 1.8⋅ R lbm⋅ R

m m 3.281 ⋅ ft 1 ⋅ mi 3600⋅ s mi
(b) 30⋅ = 30⋅ × ⋅ ⋅ = 67.1⋅
s s 1⋅ m 5280⋅ ft hr hr

3 3
1⋅ m ⎛ 100 ⋅ cm × 1⋅ in ⎞ = 305 ⋅ in3
(c) 5⋅ L = 5⋅ L × × ⎜ 1⋅ m
1000⋅ L ⎝ 2.54⋅ cm ⎠
 Problem 1.17

1.17 Express the following in SI units:

(a) 7 5 acre/ft
(b) 190 in3/s
(c) 5 gpm
(d) 5 mph/s

Given: Quantities in English Engineering (or customary) units

To find: Quantities in SI units

Calculation: Use Table G.2 and other sources

a) 7.5 acre.ft

1 acre = 4047 m2  table G.2 

1 ft = 0.3048 m

Thus, to convert acre.ft into SI units

4047 m 2 0.3048 m
7.5 acre×ft=7.5 acre× ×
1 acre 1ft
= 9.25×103×m3

b) 190 in3/s

1inch=25.4 mm=0.0254 m  tableG.2

Thus, to convert in3/s into SI unit
3
in 3 in 3  0.0254 m 
190 =190 × 
s s  1 in 
m3
= 0.00311
s

c) 5 gpm
 m3
1 gpm = 6.309×10 -5
 table G.2 
s
1 gal = 231 in 3  table G.2 
1 in = 0.0254 m  table G.2 
Thus, to convert gpm into SI unit
3
gal 231 in 3  0.0254 m  1 min
5 gpm = 5 × ×  ×
min 1 gal  1 in  60s
m3
= 0.000315
s

d) 5 mph/s

1 mile = 1609 m (table G.2)

Thus, to convert mph/s into SI unit

mph mile 1609 m 1 hr

5 =5 × ×
s hrs 1 mile 3600s
m
= 2.23
s2
 Problem 1.18 [Difficulty: 1]

Given: Quantities in English Engineering (or customary) units.

Find: Quantities in SI units.

Solution: Use Table G.2 and other sources (e.g., Google)

3 3 3 3
ft ft ⎛ 0.0254⋅ m × 12⋅ in ⎞ × 1 ⋅ min = 0.0472⋅ m
(a) 100 ⋅ = 100 ⋅ × ⎜ 1 ⋅ in
m min ⎝ 1 ⋅ ft ⎠ 60⋅ s s

3 3
231 ⋅ in ⎛ 0.0254⋅ m ⎞ = 0.0189⋅ m3
(b) 5 ⋅ gal = 5 ⋅ gal × × ⎜ 1⋅ in
1 ⋅ gal ⎝ ⎠

mile 1852⋅ m 1 ⋅ hr m
(c) 65⋅ mph = 65⋅ × × = 29.1⋅
hr 1 ⋅ mile 3600⋅ s s

3
4047⋅ m 4 2
(d) 5.4⋅ acres = 5.4⋅ acre × = 2.19 × 10 ⋅ m
1 ⋅ acre
 Problem 1.19 [Difficulty: 1]

Given: Quantities in SI (or other) units.

Find: Quantities in BG units.

Solution: Use Table G.2.

3
3 ⎛ 1⋅ m × 1⋅ in × 1⋅ ft ⎞ = 6.36 × 10− 3⋅ ft 3
(a) 180⋅ cc = 180⋅ cm × ⎜ 100⋅ cm 0.0254m
⎝ ⋅ 12⋅ in ⎠

1000⋅ W 1⋅ hp
(b) 300⋅ kW = 300⋅ kW × × = 402⋅ hp
1⋅ kW 746⋅ W

2
N⋅s N⋅s 1⋅ lbf ⋅
⎛ 0.0254m 12⋅ in ⎞ lbf ⋅ s
(c) 50⋅ = 50⋅ × × ⎜ 1⋅ in × 1⋅ ft = 1.044⋅
m
2
m
2 4.448⋅ N ⎝ ⎠ ft
2

2
2 2 ⎛ 1⋅ in × 1⋅ ft ⎞ ⋅ hr = 431⋅ ft 2⋅ hr
(d) 40⋅ m ⋅ hr = 40⋅ m × ⎜ 0.0254m
⎝ ⋅ 12⋅ in ⎠
 Problem 1.20 [Difficulty: 2]

Given: Geometry of tank, and weight of propane.

Find: Volume of propane, and tank volume; explain the discrepancy.

Solution: Use Table G.2 and other sources (e.g., Google) as needed.

The author's tank is approximately 12 in in diameter, and the cylindrical part is about 8 in. The weight of propane specified is 17 lb.

The tank diameter is D = 12⋅ in

The tank cylindrical height is L = 8⋅ in

The mass of propane is mprop = 17⋅ lbm

The specific gravity of propane is SG prop = 0.495

kg
The density of water is ρ = 998⋅
3
m
mprop mprop
The volume of propane is given by Vprop = =
ρprop SGprop⋅ ρ

3 3
1 m 0.454 ⋅ kg ⎛ 1⋅ in ⎞ 3
Vprop = 17⋅ lbm × × × × ⎜ 0.0254⋅ m Vprop = 953 ⋅ in
0.495 998 ⋅ kg 1 ⋅ lbm ⎝ ⎠

The volume of the tank is given by a cylinder diameter D length L, πD2L/4 and a sphere (two halves) given by πD3/6
2 3
π⋅ D π⋅ D
Vtank = ⋅L +
4 6

2 3
π⋅ ( 12⋅ in) ( 12⋅ in) 3
Vtank = ⋅ 8 ⋅ in + π⋅ Vtank = 1810⋅ in
4 6

Vprop
The ratio of propane to tank volumes is = 53⋅ %
Vtank

This seems low, and can be explained by a) tanks are not filled completely, b) the geometry of the tank gave an overestimate of
the volume (the ends are not really hemispheres, and we have not allowed for tank wall thickness).
 Problem 1.21 [Difficulty: 1]

Given: Acreage of land, and water needs.

Find: Water flow rate (L/min) to water crops.

Solution: Use Table G.2 and other sources (e.g., Machinery's Handbook, Mark's Standard Handbook) as needed.

4⋅ cm
The volume flow rate needed is Q = × 10⋅ hectare
week
4 2
4⋅ cm × 10⋅ hectare 0.04⋅ m × 10⋅ hectare 1 × 10 ⋅ m 1000⋅ L 1⋅ week 1⋅ day 1⋅ hr
Performing unit conversions Q= = × × × × ×
week week 1⋅ hectare 3 7⋅ day 24⋅ hr 60⋅ min
m
L
Q = 397⋅
min
 Problem 1.22 [Difficulty: 1]

1.29 The density of mercury is given as 13,550 kg/m3. Calculate

1.29
the specific gravity and the specific volume in m3/kg of the
mercury. Calculate the specific weight in N/m3 on Earth and
on the moon. Acceleration of gravity on the moon is 1.67 m/s2.

Given: Density of mercury.

Find: Specific gravity, volume and weight.

Solution: Use basic definitions.

ρ kg 13,550
SG = From Appendix A ρ W = 1000 so SG = SG = 13.6
ρW m3 1000

1 m3 −5 m3
v= so v= v = 7.38 × 10
ρ 13,550 kg kg

γ = ρ⋅g

kg m
Hence on earth γ E = 13,550 3
× 9.81 2 = 1.33 × 105 N/m 3
m s

kg m
On the moon γ M = 13,550 3
× 1.67 2 = 2.26 × 104 N/m3
m s
Note that mass-based quantities (SG and v) are independent of gravity.
 Problem 1.23 [Difficulty: 1]

1.30 The kilogram force is commonly used in Europe as a

1.30
unit of force. (1 kgf is the force exerted by a mass of 1 kg
in standard gravity.) Moderate pressures, such as those for
auto or truck tires, are conveniently expressed in units of
kgf/cm2. Convert 220 kPa to these units.

Given: Definition of kgf.

Find: Conversion from 220 kPa to kgf/cm2.

Solution: Use Table G.2.

m
Define kgf kgf = 1 ⋅ kg × 9.81 ⋅ kgf = 9.81 N
s2
Then converting unit ‘kPa’ to ‘kgf/cm2’,
N
1 kPa = 103
m2
Now,
N N (10−2 m) 2 kgf kgf
103 2
= 103 2 × 2 2
× = 0.0101 2
m m 1 ⋅ cm 9.81 N cm
kgf
∴1 kPa = 0.0101
cm 2
kgf
∴ 220 kPa = 220 × 0.0101
cm 2
= 2.22 kgf /cm 2
 Problem 1.24 [Difficulty: 3]

Given: Information on canal geometry.

Find: Flow speed using the Manning equation, correctly and incorrectly!

Solution: Use Table G.2 and other sources (e.g., Google) as

needed.
2 1
3 2
Rh ⋅ S0
The Manning equation is V= which assumes Rh in meters and V in m/s.
n

1
The given data is Rh = 7.5⋅ m S0 = n = 0.014
10
1
2
2
7.5 ⋅ ⎛⎜ ⎞
3 1

Hence V=
⎝ ⎠
10
V = 86.5⋅
m
(Note that we don't cancel units; we just write m/s
0.014 s next to the answer! Note also this is a very high
speed due to the extreme slope S0.)

1 ⋅ in 1 ⋅ ft
Using the equation incorrectly: Rh = 7.5⋅ m × × Rh = 24.6⋅ ft
0.0254⋅ m 12⋅ in

1
2
2
24.6 ⋅ ⎛⎜ ⎞
3 1

Hence V =
⎝ 10 ⎠ V = 191 ⋅
ft
(Note that we again don't cancel units; we just
0.014 s write ft/s next to the answer!)

ft 12⋅ in 0.0254⋅ m m
This incorrect use does not provide the correct answer V = 191 ⋅ × × V = 58.2 which is wrong!
s 1 ⋅ ft 1 ⋅ in s

This demonstrates that for this "engineering" equation we must be careful in its use!

To generate a Manning equation valid for Rh in ft and V in ft/s, we need to do the following:
2 1
3 2
1 ⋅ in 1 ⋅ ft Rh ( m) ⋅ S0 1 ⋅ in 1 ⋅ ft ⎞
⎛
V⎜
ft ⎞ ⎛
= V⎜
m⎞
× × = × ⎛⎜ ×
⎝s⎠ ⎝ s ⎠ 0.0254⋅ m 12⋅ in n ⎝ 0.0254⋅ m 12⋅ in ⎠
 2 1 2 2 1 1
−
3 2 3 2
Rh ( ft) ⋅ S0
⎛ 1 ⋅ in × 1⋅ ft ⎞ = Rh ( ft) ⋅ S0 × ⎛ 1⋅ in × 1 ⋅ ft ⎞
3 3
V⎛⎜
ft ⎞ ⎛ 1⋅ in × 1 ⋅ ft ⎞
= × ⎜ × ⎜ ⎜
⎝s⎠ n ⎝ 0.0254⋅ m 12⋅ in ⎠ ⎝ 0.0254⋅ m 12⋅ in ⎠ n ⎝ 0.0254⋅ m 12⋅ in ⎠

1
3
⎛ 1 ⋅ 1 ⎞ = 1.49
In using this equation, we ignore the units and just evaluate the conversion factor ⎜
⎝ .0254 12 ⎠
2 1
3 2
⎛ ft ⎞ 1.49⋅ Rh ( ft) ⋅ S0
Hence V⎜ =
⎝s⎠ n

Handbooks sometimes provide this form of the Manning equation for direct use with BG units. In our case
we are asked to instead define a new value for n:
2 1
3 2
n ⎛ ft ⎞ Rh ( ft) ⋅ S0
n BG = n BG = 0.0094 where V⎜ =
1.49 ⎝s⎠ n BG
1
2
2
24.6 ⋅ ⎛⎜ ⎞
3 1

Using this equation with Rh = 24.6 ft: V = ⎝ 10 ⎠ V = 284

ft
0.0094 s

ft 12⋅ in 0.0254⋅ m m
Converting to m/s V = 284 ⋅ × × V = 86.6 which is the correct
s 1 ⋅ ft 1 ⋅ in s answer!
 Problem 1.25

1.25 The density of tetrabromorthane is 2950 kg/m3. Calculate

the specific volume in m3/kg and specific gravity of the
mercury Calculate the specific weight in N/m3 on Earth and on
the Mars. Acceleration of gravity on the moon is 3.7 m/s2.

Given: Density of tetrabromoethane.

Find: Specific gravity, volume and weight.

Solution: Use basic definitions

ρ kg 2,950
SG = From Appendix A ρ w  1000 so SG = SG = 2.95
ρw m 3
1000

1 m3 kg
v so v= v  3.39  104
ρ 2950 kg m3

γ = ρg

kg m N
Hence on Earth γ E  2,950 3
 9.81 2  2.9  104 3
m s m

kg m N
On the Mars γ M  2,950 3
 3.7 2  1.09  104 3
m s m
Note that mass-based quantities (SG and v) are independent of gravity.
 Problem 1.26 [Difficulty: 2]

1.33 The maximum theoretical flow rate (slug/s) through a

supersonic nozzle is
At p0
m
max = 2.38
T0
where At (m2) is the nozzle throat area, p0 (Pa) is the tank pressure,
and T0 (K) is the tank temperature. Is this equation dimensionally
correct? If not, find the units of the 2.38 term.

Given: Equation for maximum flow rate.

Find: Whether it is dimensionally correct. If not, find units of 2.38 coefficient.

Solution: Rearrange equation to check units of 2.38 term.

m max
T0
"Solving" the equation for the constant 2.38: 2.38 =
A t ⋅ p0

Substituting the units of the terms on the right, the units of the constant are

kg 1 1 kg ½ 1 m 2 N ⋅ s 2 K½ ⋅ s
× K½ × 2 × = ×K × 2 × × =
s m Pa s m N kg ⋅ m m

K½ ⋅ s
Hence the constant is actually c = 2.38
m
 Problem 1.27 [Difficulty: 1]

Given: Equation for drag on a body.

Find: Dimensions of CD.

Solution: Use the drag equation. Then "solve" for CD and use dimensions.

1 2
The drag equation is FD = ⋅ ρ⋅ V ⋅ A ⋅ CD
2
2⋅ FD
"Solving" for CD, and using dimensions CD =
2
ρ⋅ V ⋅ A

F
CD =
2
M ⎛ L ⎞ × L2
× ⎜t
L
3 ⎝ ⎠
L
But, From Newton's 2nd law Force = Mass ⋅ Acceleration or F = M⋅
2
t
3 2
F M⋅ L L t 1
Hence CD = = × × × =0
2 2 M 2 2
M ⎛ L⎞ 2 t L L
× ⎜t ×L
L
3 ⎝ ⎠
The drag coefficient is dimensionless.
 Problem 1.28 [Difficulty: 1]

1.36 A container weighs 15.5 N when empty. When filled with water
at 32°C, the mass of the container and its contents is 36.5 kg. Find
the weight of water in the container, and its volume in cubic meter,
using data from Appendix A.

Given: Data on a container and added water.

Find: Weight and volume of water added.

Solution: Use Appendix A.

For the empty container Wc = 15.5 N

For the filled container M total = 36.5 kg

The weight of water is then Ww = M total ⋅ g − Wc

m
Ww = 36.5 kg × 9.81 − 15.5 N Ww = 342.5 N
s2

The temperature is 32°C and from Table A.7 ρ = 996 kg/m3

Mw Ww
Hence Vw = or Vw =
ρ g ⋅ρ

1 s2 1 m3
Vw = 342.5 N × ⋅ × ⋅ VW = 3.5 × 10−2 m3
9.81 m 996 kg
 Problem 1.29 [Difficulty: 1]

Given: Equation for vibrations.

Find: Dimensions of c, k and f for a dimensionally consistent equation. Also, suitable units in SI and BG systems.

Solution: Use the vibration equation to find the diemsions of each quantity
2
d x
The first term of the equation is m⋅
2
dt

L
The dimensions of this are M×
2
t

Each of the other terms must also have these dimensions.

dx M⋅ L L M⋅ L M
Hence c⋅ = so c× = and c=
dt 2 t 2 t
t t

M⋅ L M⋅ L M
k⋅ x = so k× L= and k=
2 2 2
t t t

M⋅ L
f =
2
t

kg slug kg slug kg⋅ m slug⋅ ft

Suitable units for c, k, and f are c: k: f:
s s 2 2 2 2
s s s s

Note that c is a damping (viscous) friction term, k is a spring constant, and f is a forcing function. These are more typically expressed
using F (force) rather than M (mass). From Newton's 2nd law:
2
L F⋅ t
F = M⋅ or M=
2 L
t
2 2
F⋅ t F⋅ t F⋅ t F
Using this in the dimensions and units for c, k, and f we find c= = k= = f =F
L⋅ t L 2 L
L⋅ t

N⋅ s lbf ⋅ s N lbf
c: k: f: N lbf
m ft m ft
 Problem 1.30

1.30 A parameter that is often used in describing pump

performance is the specific speed, NScu , given by

What are the units of specific speed? A particular pump has a

specific speed of 3000. What will be the specific speed in SI
units (angular velocity in rad/s)?

Given: specific speed in customary units

To find: Units, specific speed in SI units

 
Calculation: The specific speed N Scu is given by the following expression
1
N  rpm  Q  gpm   2
N Scu  3
 H  ft   4
Now, using data from tables (eg. Table G.2)
1 1  1 
N Scu  3000
 rpm  gpm  2 
2 rad 1 min 4  0.000946 m 1 min



3

 2  2
ft 
3   
60 s  60 s   0.0254 m 
 ft  4 1 rev 1 gal
 
1
rad  m3  2
 
s  s 
 6.09 3
m4

1
rad  m3  2
 
s  s 
Hence, the required specific speed is 6.09 3
.
4
m
 Problem 1.31 [Difficulty: 1]

1.39 A particular pump has an “engineering” equation form of the

performance characteristic equation given by H (m) = 0.46 − 9.57 × 10–7
[Q (L/min)]2, relating the head H and flow rate Q. What are the units of
the coefficients 0.46 and 9.57 × 10–7?

Given: “Engineering” equation for a pump.

Find: SI version.

Solution:

The dimensions of “0.46” are m.

The dimensions of “9.57 × 10−7” are m/(L/min)2.

 Problem 1.32 [Difficulty: 2]

1.40 Calculate the density of standard air in a laboratory from the

ideal gas equation of state. Estimate the experimental
uncertainty in the air density calculated for standard conditions
(1 atm and 15°C) if the uncertainty in measuring the barometer
height is ± 2.5 mm of mercury and the uncertainty in
measuring temperature is ±0.3°C.

Given: Air at standard conditions – p = 1 atm, T = 15°C.

Uncertainty in p is ± 2.5 mm Hg, in T is ± 0.3°C.

Find: Air density using ideal gas equation of state; Estimate of uncertainty in calculated value.

Solution:

p N kg ⋅ K 1
ρ = = 101.3 × 103 2 × ×
RT m 286.9 N ⋅ m 288 K

ρ = 1.23 kg/m3

The uncertainty in density is given by

1
 p ∂ρ 2  T ∂ρ 2  2
u p =  up  +  uT  
 ρ ∂p   ρ ∂T  

p ∂ρ 1 RT ± 2.5
= RT = = 1; up = = ± 0.329
ρ ∂p RT RT 760

T ∂ρ T p p ± 0.3
= ⋅− 2
= − = − 1; uT = = ± 0.104
ρ ∂T ρ RT ρ RT 273 + 15

Then

u ρ = u 2p + −uT
2
 2 = ± (0.329) 2 + (0.104) 2 ½
 ( )   

u ρ = ± 0.345 ο ο ( ± 4.24 ×10 −3

kg m3 )
 Problem 1.33 [Difficulty: 2]

Given: Air in hot air balloon

p = 759 ± 1 mm Hg T = 60 ± 1°C

Find: (a) Air density using ideal gas equation of state

(b) Estimate of uncertainty in calculated value

Solution: We will apply uncertainty concepts.

p
Governing Equations: ρ= (Ideal gas equation of state)
R⋅ T
1
⎡⎛ x ∂R ⎞
2
⎤2 (Propagation of Uncertainties)
u R = ± ⎢⎜⎜ 1
u x1 ⎟⎟ + L⎥
⎢⎣⎝ R ∂x1 ⎠ ⎥⎦

3 N kg⋅ K 1 kg kg
We can express density as: ρ = 101⋅ 10 × × × = 1.06 ρ = 1.06
2 287⋅ N ⋅ m 333⋅ K 3 3
m m m

1
⎡⎛ p ∂ρ ⎞ 2 ⎛ T ∂ρ ⎞ 2 ⎤ 2
u ρ = ± ⎢⎜⎜ u p ⎟⎟ + ⎜⎜ uT ⎟⎟ ⎥
⎢⎣⎝ ρ ∂p ⎠ ⎝ ρ ∂T ⎠ ⎥⎦
So the uncertainty in the density is:

p ∂ρ 1 1
Solving each term separately: = RT =1 up = = 0.1318%
⋅
ρ ∂p RT 759

1
T ∂ρ T ⎛ − p ⎞ p uT = = 0.3003%
⋅
= ⎜ ⎟=− = −1 333
ρ ∂T ρ ⎝ RT 2 ⎠ RT

[
u ρ = ± (u p ) + (− uT ) ] [ ]
1 1
= ± (0.1318% ) + (− 0.3003% )
Therefore: 2 2 2 2 2 2

⎛ kg ⎞
u ρ = ±0.328% ⎜ ± 3.47 × 10 −3 3 ⎟
⎝ m ⎠
 Problem 1.34 [Difficulty:2]

1.42 The mass of the standard American golf ball is 45.9 ± 0.3 g
and its mean diameter is 43 ± 0.25 mm. Determine the
density and specific gravity of the American golf ball.
Estimate the uncertainties in the calculated values.

m = 45.4 ± 0.3 g (20 to 1)

Given: Standard American golf ball:
D = 43 ± 0.25 mm (20 to 1)

Find: Density and specific gravity; Estimate uncertainties in calculated values.

Solution: Density is mass per unit volume, so

m m 3 m 6 m
ρ= = = 3
=
V 4
π R3 4π ( D 2) π D3
3
6 1 10−3 kg (103 mm)3
ρ= × 45.4 g × × × = 1090 kg/m3
π (43)3 mm3 1g 1 m3

ρ kg m3
and SG = = 1090 × = 1.09
ρH O
2
m3 1000
1
 m ∂ρ 
2
 D ∂ρ  
2 2

The uncertainty in density is given by uρ =  um  +  uD  

 ρ ∂m   ρ ∂D  
m ∂ρ m1 ∀ 0.3
= = = 1; um = ± = ± 0.661%
ρ ∂m ρ∀ ∀ 45.4
D ∂ρ D  6m  6 m 0.25
= ⋅  −3 4 
=−3 4
= − 3; uD = ± = ± 0.581%
ρ ∂D ρ  πD  π ρD 43

Thus
1 1
uρ = ± um2 + ( − 3uD ) 2  2 = ± (0.661%) 2 + ( − 3 × 0.581%) 2  2 kg
uρ = ± 1.86% = ± 20.2
uSG = uρ = ± 1.89% = ± 0.0211 m3

ρ = 1090 ± 20.2 kg/m3 (20 to 1)

Finally,
SG = 1.09 ± 0.0211 (20 to 1)
 Problem 1.35

1.35 A can of pet food has the following internal dimensions:

105 mm height and 75 mm diameter (each ± 1 mm at odds of
20 to 1). The label lists the mass of the contents as 398 g.
Evaluate the magnitude and estimated uncertainty of the
density of the pet food if the mass value is accurate to ± 1 g at
the same odds.

Given: Height of pet food can (H) = 105  1 mm  20 to 1

Diameter of pet food can (D) = 75  1 mm  20 to 1
Mass of the content (m) = 398  1 g  20 to 1

To find: Magnitude and estimated uncertainty of pet food density

Calculation: Density is
m m 4m
   or     m, D, H 
  R H  D2 H
2

From uncertainty analysis:

1
 m  2  D  2  H   
2 2

u p    um    uD    uH   ...... (1)
  m    D    H  
m  m 4 1 1 4
 
 m   D H   D 2 H
2

As,
4m

 D2 H
Therefore,
m 
1
 m
D  D 4m 1 4m
  2    2 
 D  D H3
  D2 H
Therefore,
D 
 2
 D
H  H 4m 1 4m
  1   1
 H  D H 2 2
  D2 H
Therefore,
H 
 1
 H
From the given data,
 1
The uncertainty of mass  um  =  0.251%
398
1
The uncertainty of diameter  uD  =  1.36%
75
1
The uncertainty of Height  uH  =  0.952%
105

Substitute corresponding values in equation (1) and calculate estimated uncertainty of pet food
density  ue 
1

ue   1 0.251   2 1.36    1 0.952   2

2 2 2
 
1
   0.063001  7.3984  0.906304 2
 2.89%

Now, calculate magnitude and estimated uncertainty of pet food density as follow:
  m3
  D 2 H   75  mm 2  105 mm  9
2

4 4 10 mm3
 4.64 104 m3
m 398 g kg
  4

 4.64 10 m 1000 g
3

 858 kg/m3

Hence, the magnitude and estimated uncertainty os food pet density is

  858  24.8 kg/m3  20 to 1 .
 Problem 1.36

1.36 A inner cylinder of radius 0.2 m rotates concentrically

inside a rigid cylinder of radius 0.202 m, the height of both the
cylinders are 0.4 m. It is known that a momentum of 2(N x m)
is required to manage an angular velocity of 32.6 revolution
per second. Calculate the liquid viscosity used between the
cylinder.

Given: Radius of inner cylinder  0.2 m ,

Radius of fixed cylinder  0.202 m
Height of both cylinders 'h '  0.4 m
Angular velocity  32.6 revolution per second,
Momentum  2 N  m

To find: Liquid viscosity used between the cylinders

Calculation:
The velocity at the inner cylinders surface is given by the following expression
Vi  r (1)

Substitute corresponding values in the above equation

Vi   0.2 m  32.6 rad/s 

The velocity at the right cylinder surface is zero. So the velocity gradient is assumed to be linear.

Hemce,

dU 0.2  0
  100 s 1
dr 0.202  0.2

The used momentum is given by the following below expression:

dU
M  2 r  h  ri 
dr

Solve for the viscosity "  "

M

dU
2 r12  h
dr
Substitute corresponding values in the above expression

2

2   0.2   0.4 100 
2

 0.1989 N  s/m 2

Hence, the liquid viscosity used between the cylinder is 0.1989 N  s/m2 .
 Problem 1.37

1.37 The mass of the standard British golf ball is 52.1 ± 3 g and
its mean diameter is 43.1 ± 0.3 mm. Determine the density and
specific gravity of the British golf ball. Estimate the
uncertainties in the calculated values.

Given: Standard British golf ball

To find: Density and specific gravity; Estimate of uncertainties in calculated values

Calculation: Density is mass per unit volume, so

m m 3 m 6m
  = × =
 4 πR 3 4π  D  3
πD3
3  
2
6 1 Kg
   0.0521 Kg× m3 = 1243 3
  0.0431
3
m
and
 Kg m3
SG   1243 × = 1.243
H O2
m3 1000 Kg

The uncertainty in density is given by

1
 m  2
  D   
2 2

     m    D  
  m    D  
m  m 1  0.3
  1; m     0.576%
 m    52.1
D  0.3
; D     0.670%
 D 43.1
Thus,
1

     m 2   D  
2 2
 
1

  0.576   0.670  
2 2 2

 
 0.4
 Problem 1.38 [Difficulty: 3]

Given: Soda can with estimated dimensions D = 66.0 ± 0.5 mm, H = 110 ± 0.5 mm. Soda has SG = 1.055

Find: Volume of soda in the can (based on measured mass of full and empty can); Estimate average
depth to which the can is filled and the uncertainty in the estimate.

Solution: Measurements on a can of coke give

m f = 386.5 ± 0.50 g, m e = 17.5 ± 0.50 g ∴ m = m f − m e = 369 ± u m g

1
⎡⎛ m ∂m 2
⎞ ⎛ me ∂m ⎞ ⎤
2 2

u m = ⎢⎜ ⎟ +⎜ ⎟ ⎥
f
um u
⎢⎜⎝ m ∂m f f ⎟ ⎜ m ∂m e ⎟
⎠ ⎥⎦
m

⎣ ⎠ ⎝ e

0.5 g 0.50
u mf =± = ±0.00129, u me = ± = 0.0286
386.5 g 17.5
1
⎡⎛ 386.5 2
⎞ ⎛ 17.5 ⎞ ⎤2
2

u m = ± ⎢⎜ ×1× 0.00129 ⎟ + ⎜ ×1× 0.0286 ⎟ ⎥ = ±0.0019

⎣⎢⎝ 369 ⎠ ⎝ 369 ⎠ ⎦⎥

Density is mass per unit volume and SG = ρ/ρΗ2Ο so

m m m3 1 kg
∀= = = 369 g × × × = 350 × 10 −6 m 3
ρ ρH 2 O SG 1000 kg 1055
. 1000 g

The reference value ρH2O is assumed to be precise. Since SG is specified to three places beyond the decimal point,
assume uSG = ± 0.001. Then
1
⎡⎛ m ∂v ⎞ 2 ⎛ SG ∂v ⎞ ⎤2
2

u v = ⎢⎜ um ⎟ + ⎜ u SG ⎟ ⎥
⎢⎣⎝ v ∂m ⎠ ⎝ v ∂SG ⎠ ⎥⎦

[ ]
1
u v = ± (1× 0.0019 ) + (− 1× 0.001) = ±0.0021 = ±0.21%
2 2 2

πD 2
4∀ 4 350 ×10 −6 m 3 10 3 mm
∀= L or L= = × × = 102 mm
4 πD 2 π 0.066 2 m 2 m
 1
⎡⎛ ∀ ∂L ⎞ 2 ⎛ D ∂L ⎞ 2 ⎤ 2
u L = ⎢⎜ u∀ ⎟ + ⎜ uD ⎟ ⎥
⎢⎣⎝ L ∂∀ ⎠ ⎝ L ∂D ⎠ ⎥⎦
∀ ∂L 4 πD 2
= =1
L ∂∀ πD 2 4
D ∂L D 4∀ 4∀ 0.5
= ⋅ −2 3 = −2 2 = −2; u D = ± = ±0.0076
L ∂D L πD πD L 66

[ ]
1
u L = ± (1× 0.0021) + (− 2 × 0.0076 ) = ±0.0153 = ±1.53%
2 2 2

Notes:

1. Printing on the can states the content as 355 ml. This suggests that the implied accuracy of the SG value may be
over stated.
2. Results suggest that over seven percent of the can height is void of soda.
 Problem 1.39 [Difficulty: 4]

Given: Dimensions of soda can: D = 66 mm, H = 110 mm

Find: Measurement precision needed to allow volume to be estimated with an

uncertainty of ± 0.5 percent or less. H
Solution: Use the methods of Appendix F:

Computing equations: D
πD H2
∀=
4
1

⎡⎛ H ∂∀ ⎞2 ⎛ D ∂∀ ⎞2 ⎤ 2
u ∀ = ± ⎢⎜ uH ⎟ + ⎜ uD ⎟ ⎥
⎣⎢⎝ ∀ ∂H ⎠ ⎝ ∀ ∂D ⎠ ⎥⎦

Since ∀ = π D2 H ∂∀
= π D4 and ∂∀
= π DH
2 . Letting u D = ± D and u H = ± H , and substituting,
δx δx
2

4 , then ∂H ∂D

1 1
⎡⎛ 4H π D 2 δ x ⎞2 ⎛ 4D π DH δ x ⎞ 2 ⎤ 2 ⎡⎛ δ x ⎞ 2 ⎛ 2δ x ⎞ 2 ⎤ 2
u ∀ = ± ⎢⎜ ⎟ +⎜ ⎟ ⎥ = ± ⎢⎜ ⎟ + ⎜ ⎟ ⎥
⎢⎣⎝ π D H 4 H ⎠ ⎝ π D H 2 D ⎠ ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣⎝ H ⎠ ⎝ D ⎠ ⎦⎥
2 2

⎛ δ x ⎞ ⎛ 2δ x ⎞
2 2
⎡⎛ 1 ⎞ 2 ⎛ 2 ⎞ 2 ⎤
=⎜ ⎟ +⎜ ⎟ = (δ x) ⎢⎜ ⎟ + ⎜ ⎟ ⎥
2 2
Solving, u∀
⎝H⎠ ⎝ D ⎠ ⎣⎢⎝ H ⎠ ⎝ D ⎠ ⎦⎥
u∀ 0.005
δx=± 1 =± 1 = ±0.158 mm
⎡⎣( H1 ) 2 + ( D2 ) 2 ⎤⎦ 2 ⎡
( ) +( ) ⎤2
2 2
1 2
⎣⎢ 110 mm 66 mm
⎦⎥

Check:

δx
0.158 mm
uH = ± =± = ±1.44 × 10−3
H 110 mm
δx 0.158 mm
uD = ± =± = ±2.39 × 10−3
D 66 mm
u ∀ = ±[(u H ) 2 + (2u D ) 2 ] 2 = ±[(0.00144) 2 + (0.00478) 2 ] 2 = ±0.00499
1 1

If δx represents half the least count, a minimum resolution of about 2 δx ≈ 0.32 mm is needed.
 Problem 1.40 [Difficulty: 3]

1.50 An enthusiast magazine publishes data from its road tests on the lateral
acceleration capability of cars. The measurements are made using a 46 m
diameter skid pad. Assume the vehicle path deviates from the circle by
±0.6 m and that the vehicle speed is read from a fifth-wheel speed-
measuring system to ±0.8 km/h. Estimate the experimental uncertainty in a
reported lateral acceleration of 0.7 g. How would you improve the
experimental procedure to reduce the uncertainty?

Given: Lateral acceleration, a = 0.70 g, measured on 46 m diameter skid pad; Uncertainties in path
deviation 0.6 m, vehicle speed 0.8 km/hr.

Find: Estimate uncertainty in lateral acceleration; How could experimental procedure be improved?

Solution: Lateral acceleration is given by a = V 2 /R.

12
From Appendix F, u a = ± (2u v ) 2 + (u R ) 2 

m
From the given data, V 2 = aR; V = aR = 0.70 × 9.81 × 23 m = 12.6 m s
s2

δV km s 103 m hr
Then uν = ± = ±0.8 × × × = ±0.0176
V hr 12.6 m 1 km 3600s

δR 1
and uR = ± = ±0.6 m × = ±0.0261
R 23 m

1/2
u a = ± (2 × 0.0176) 2 + (0.0261) 2  = ± 0.0438
so
u a = ± 4.38%

Experimental procedure could be improved by using a larger circle, assuming the absolute errors in measurement are
constant.

For

D = 120 m; R = 60 m
m
V 2 = aR; V = aR = 0.70 × 9.81 × 60 m = 20.3m s = 73 km hr
s2
0.8 km hr 0.6 m
uV = ± = ± 0.0109; uR = ± = ± 0.0100
73km hr 60 m
ua = ± (2 × 0.0109) 2 + 0.01002  = ± 0.0240 = ± 2.4%
 Problem 1.41 [Difficulty: 4]

1.51 The height of a building may be estimated by measuring the horizontal

distance to a point on the ground and the angle from this point to the top
of the building. Assuming these measurements are L = 30 ± 0.15 m and θ
= 30 ± 0.2°, estimate the height H of the building and the uncertainty in
the estimate. For the same building height and measurement uncertainties,
use Excel’s Solver to determine the angle (and the corresponding distance
from the building) at which measurements should be made to minimize
the uncertainty in estimated height. Evaluate and plot the optimum
measurement angle as a function of building height for 15 ≤ H ≤ 300 m.

Given: Data on length and angle measurements.

Find: Height; Angle for minimum uncertainty in height; Plot.

Solution:

The data is: L = 30 m δL = 0.15 m θ = 30 ⋅ deg δθ = 0.2 ⋅ deg

δL δθ
Uncertainties: uL = u L = 0.5 ⋅ % u = u = 0.667 ⋅ %
L θ θ θ

The height is: H = L·tan(θ) H = 17.3 m with uncertainty

2 2
L ∂  θ ∂ 
uH =  ⋅ H ⋅ uL  +  ⋅ H ⋅ uθ 
 H ∂L   H ∂θ 

∂ ∂
Hence with H = tan(θ) H = L ⋅ (1 + tan(θ) 2 )
∂L ∂θ

2 2
L  L⋅θ 
uH =  ⋅ tan(θ) ⋅ u L  +  ⋅ (1 + tan(θ) 2 ) ⋅ u θ 
H   H 

Evaluating u H = 0.950% and δ H = uH ⋅ H δ H = 0.164 m

The height is then H = 17.3 m +/- δ H = 0.164 m

To plot u H versus θ for a given H we need to replace L, u L and u θ with functions of θ. Doing this and simplifying

2 2
 δL   δθ 
u H (θ) =  tan(θ) ⋅  +  ⋅ (1 + tan(θ)2 ) 
 H   tan(θ) 
Given data:
H = 17.3 m
δL = 0.15 m
δθ = 0.2 deg

For this building height, we are to vary θ (and therefore L ) to minimize the uncertainty uH.

Plotting uH vs θ

θ (deg) uH Uncertainty in Height (H = 17.3 m) vs θ

12%
5 4.02%
10 2.05% 10%
15 1.42% 8%
20 1.13%
uH

25 1.00% 6%
30 0.95% 4%
35 0.96%
2%
40 1.02%
45 1.11% 0%
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
50 1.25%
θ (deg)
55 1.44%
60 1.70%
65 2.07%
70 2.62%
75 3.52%
80 5.32%
85 10.69%

Optimizing using Solver

θ (deg) uH
31.4 0.947%

To find the optimum θ as a function of building height H we need a more complex Solver

Optimum Angle vs Building Height

H (m) θ (deg) uH
50
15 29.9 0.992%
23 34.3 0.877% 40
31 37.1 0.818%
θ (deg)

39 39.0 0.784% 30
53 41.3 0.747% 20
60 42.0 0.737%
76 43.0 0.724% 10
90 43.5 0.717%
0
122 44.1 0.709% 0 30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240 270 300
152 44.4 0.705%
H (m)
182 44.6 0.703%
212 44.7 0.702%
242 44.8 0.701%
272 44.8 0.700%
305 44.9 0.700%

Use Solver to vary ALL θ’s to minimize the total uH !

Total uH ’s: 11.3%
 Problem 1.42 [Difficulty: 5]

1.53 A syringe pump is to dispense liquid at a flow rate of 100

mL/min. The design for the piston drive is such that the
uncertainty of the piston speed is 0.0025 cm/min, and the
cylinder bore diameter has a maximum uncertainty of
0.00125 cm. Plot the uncertainty in the flow rate as a
function of cylinder bore. Find the combination of piston
speed and bore that minimizes the uncertainty in the flow
rate.

Given: Syringe pump to deliver 100 mL/min.

cm
δV = 0.0025 δD = 0.00125 cm
min

Find: (a) Plot uncertainty in flow rate as a function of bore.

(b) Find combination of piston speed and bore resulting in minimum uncertainty in flow rate.
Solution: We will apply uncertainty concepts.
π 2
Governing Equations: Q= ⋅D ⋅V (Flow rate in syringe pump)
4
1
 x ∂R 
2
2
uR = ±  1 u x1  + ⋅⋅⋅ (Propagation of uncertainties)
 R ∂x1  
4Q
Now solving for the piston speed in terms of the bore: V(D) =
π ⋅ D2
1 1
 D ∂Q  2  V ∂Q 2  2  D 2Q  2  V Q  2  2
So the uncertainty in the flow rate is: uQ = ±  uD  +  uV   = ±  uD  +  uV  
 Q ∂D   Q ∂V    Q D   Q V  
1
δD δV ∂uQ
uQ = ± (2uD ) 2 + (uV ) 2  2 where uD = uv = The uncertainty is minimized when =0
D V ∂D
1
 32  δD ⋅ Q 2  6
Substituting expressions in terms of bore we get: D opt =  2 ⋅  
 π  δV  
Substituting all known values yields D opt = 4.48 cm
cm
Plugging this into the expression for the piston speed yields Vopt = 6.34 and the uncertainty is u opt = 0.0683
min

Graphs of the piston speed and the uncertainty in the flow rate as a function of the bore are shown on the following
page.
 25

0.3
20

Uncertainty in Flow rate (%)

Piston Speed (cm/min)

15
0.2

10

0.1
5
Piston Speed
Uncertainty
0 0
0 2.5 5 7.5 10 12.5
Bore (cm)