ENGINEERING GEOLOGY

1. Introduction to geology and its relevance to civil engineering.

2. Earth structure
3. Mineralogy: composition, properties and nature of minerals.
4. Petrology: nature and types of rocks.
5. Structural geology: folds, faults and joints.
6. Weathering: types and factors affecting weathering.
7. Site investigations: objectives and methods of site investigations, ground investigation,
laboratory investigation, sample and sampling.
8. Quarrying: composition, methods of quarrying and safety precautions, surface and
underground excavation, rock reinforcing.
9. Engineering seismology: effects of earthquakes.
10. Geological maps: outcrops, strike lines, angles of dip, map interpretation, field mapping
and Laboratory work.

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INTRODUCTION TO GEOLOGY AND ITS RELEVANCE TO CIVIL ENGINEERING
Geology (in Greek, Geo means Earth, ology means study of or Science of) is a branch of science
dealing with the study of the Earth. Geology is the science study of the solid earth, that examines
the earth, its form and composition and the changes which it has undergone and is going. Geology
deals with many practical questions about our physical environment, what forces produce different
geological structures, understanding many processes that operate beneath and upon its surface.
Thus, geology might be called a derived science (or applied science) as its objective is the
explanation of the phenomena, structures in the globe in terms of the general laws recognized by
the chemists, physicists, biologists and mathematicians. So, it is closely related to pure sciences
(Chemistry, physics, biology and mathematics).

Branches of Geology:

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Relevance of geology to civil engineering:
The application of geological principles in engineering investigations has a great benefit for
engineering sciences and vice versa for geological sciences in case of well drilling. So, both are
closely related and are important in site investigations. The cooperation between geologists and
civil engineers resulted in introduction of "Soil Mechanics" science. Soil mechanics is the branch
of science that deals with the study of the physical properties of soil and the behavior of soil masses
subjected to various types of forces. Soils engineering is the application of the principles of soil
mechanics to practical problems. Geotechnical engineering is the subdiscipline of civil
engineering related to site investigation that involves natural materials found close to the surface
of the earth. It includes the application of the principles of soil mechanics and rock mechanics to
the design of foundations, retaining structures, and earth structures.
✓ Most civil engineering projects involve some excavation of soils and rocks, or involve
loading the Earth by building on it. In some cases, the excavated rocks may be used as
constructional material, and in others, rocks may form a major part of the finished product.
✓ The feasibility, the planning and design, the construction and costing, and the safety of a
project may depend critically on the geological conditions where the construction will take
place.
✓ In modest projects or in those involving the redevelopment of a limited site, the demands
on the geological knowledge of the engineer or the need for geological advice will be less,
but are never negligible. Site investigation by boring and by testing samples may be an
adequate preliminary to construction in such cases.
✓ The long term economics depends on the engineering safety of the manmade constructions.
Durability and maintenance free service of the dams, canals, structures like aqueduct etc.
is only possible if engineering safety of them is assured. As every structure is related to
rock beneath, proper geological investigations are of utmost importance.

Engineering geology importance:

1. Engineering geology provides a systematic knowledge of construction material, its
occurrence, composition, durability, and other properties. Examples of such construction
materials are building-stones, road materials, clays, limestone, and laterite.
2. The knowledge of the geological work of natural agencies such as water, wind, ice and
earthquake helps in planning and carrying out major civil engineering works. For
examples, the knowledge of erosion, transportation, and deposition helps greatly in solving
the expensive problems of river control, coastal and harbour work and soil conservation.
3. The knowledge about groundwater that occurs in the subsurface rocks and about its
quantity and depth of occurrence is required in connection with water supply irrigation,
excavation and may other civil engineering works.
4. The foundation problems of dams, bridges, and buildings are directly concerned with the
geology of the area where they are to be built. In these works, drilling is commonly
undertaken to explore the ground conditions. Geology helps greatly in interpreting the
drilling data.

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 5. In tunnelling, constructing roads, canals, and docks and in determining the stability of cuts
and slopes, the knowledge about the nature and structure of rocks is very necessary.
6. Before starting a major engineering project at a place a detailed geological report, which is
accompanied by geological maps and sections, is prepared. Such a report helps in planning
and constructing the project.
7. The stability of the civil engineering structures is considerably increased if the geological
features like faults, joints, folding, and solution channels etc. in the rock beds are properly
located and suitably treated.
8. In the study of soil mechanics, it is necessary to know how the soil materials are formed in
nature.
9. For a major engineering project, precise geological survey is carried out and results thus
obtained are used in solving engineering problems at hand. The cost of engineering works
will considerably be reduced if the geological survey of the area concerned is done before
hand.

Engineering Geologist Vs Civil Engineer:

The engineering geologist presents geological data and interpretations for use by the civil engineer.
The civil engineers have to deal mostly with soil and rocks, timbers, steel, and concrete. In a great
majority of civil engineering, projects and the designs, involve the soils and rocks almost directly.
Civil engineering is to construct the structure and facilities for transport, water supply,
hydropower, flood control, environmental protection, sewage and waste disposal, urban
development and more. In above fields, civil engineers construct and maintain waterways,
highways, railway, pipelines, dam and reservoirs and tunnels.

Role of the engineer in the systematic exploration of a site

The investigation on the suitability and characteristics of sites as they affect the design and
construction of civil engineering works and the security of neighbouring structures is laid out in
British Standard Code of Practice for site investigations (BS 5930:1981, formerly CP 2001). The
sections on geology and site exploration define the minimum that a professional engineer should
know.
The systematic exploration and investigation of a new site may involve five stages of procedure.
These stages are:
1. Preliminary investigation using published information and other existing data;
2. A detailed geological survey of the site, possibly with a photo-geology study;
3. Applied geophysical surveys to provide information about the subsurface geology;
4. Boring, drilling and excavation to provide confirmation of the previous results, and
quantitative detail, at critical points on the site; and
5. Testing of soils and rocks to assess their suitability, particularly their mechanical properties
(soil mechanics and rock mechanics); either in situ or from samples.

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In a major engineering project, each of these stages might be carried out and reported on by a
consultant specialized in geology, geophysics or engineering (with a detailed knowledge of soil or
rock mechanics). However, even where the services of a specialist consultant are employed, an
engineer will have overall supervision and responsibility for the project. The engineer must
therefore have enough understanding of geology to know how and when to use the expert
knowledge of consultants, and to be able to read their reports intelligently, judge their reliability,
and appreciate how the conditions described might affect the project. In some cases the engineer
can recognize common rock types and simple geological structures, and knows where he can
obtain geological information for his preliminary investigation. When reading reports, or studying
geological maps, he must have a complete understanding of the meaning of geological terms and
be able to grasp geological concepts and arguments.

Therefore, the civil engineers must therefore have enough understanding of geology for the
following reasons:
1. To know how and when to use the expert knowledge of consultants, and to be able to read
their reports intelligently, judge their reliability, and appreciate how the conditions
described might affect the project.
2. In some cases, the engineer can recognize common rock types and simple geological
structures, and knows where he can obtain geological information for his preliminary
investigation.
3. When reading reports, or studying geological maps, he must have a complete
understanding of the meaning of geological terms and be able to grasp geological concepts
and arguments.
4. Most civil engineering projects involve some excavation of soils and rocks, or involve
loading the earth by building on it.
5. In some cases, the excavated rocks may be used as constructional material, and in others,
rocks may form a major part of the finished product, such as a motorway cutting or the site
for a reservoir.
6. The feasibility, the planning and design, the construction and costing, and the safety of a
project may depend critically on the geological conditions where the construction will take
place.
7. In modest projects, or in those involving the redevelopment of a limited site, the demands
on the geological knowledge of the engineer or the need for geological advice will be less,
but are never negligible. Site investigation by boring and by testing samples may be an
adequate preliminary to construction in such cases.
8. Besides, the knowledge about the geological works of rivers and the occurrences of
underground water are required.
9. The exploration of a site to assess the feasibility of a project, to plan and design
appropriate foundations, and to draw up bills of quantity for excavation normally requires
that most of the following information be obtained:

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 a- What rocks and soils are present, including the sequence of strata, the nature and
thicknesses of superficial deposits and the presence of igneous intrusions;
b- How these rocks are distributed over, and under, the site (that is, their
structure);
c- The frequency and orientation of joints in the different bodies of rock and the
location of any faults;
d- The presence and extent of any weathering of the rocks, and particularly of any
soluble rocks such as limestone;
e- The groundwater conditions, including the position of the water table, and
whether the groundwater contains noxious material in solution, such as
sulphates, which may affect cement with which it comes in contact;
f- The presence of economic deposits which may have been extracted by mining or
quarrying, to leave concealed voids or disturbed ground; and
g- The suitability of local rocks and soils, especially those to be excavated, as
construction materials.
h- Special information such as the seismicity of the region or the pattern of sediment
movement in an estuary may also be required.

Much of this exploration, particularly the making of geological maps, is normally carried out in
large projects by a professional engineering geologist. In limited sites, the engineer may have to
collect his own geological data, and make elementary, but crucial, geological decisions on, for
example, whether or not a boring has reached bedrock, or has struck a boulder in the overlying till.

EARTH STRUCTURE
Earth Envelopes
The earth physical environment is traditionally divided into five major envelopes, these are:
i). Atmosphere: The outer gaseous envelope (Air envelope).
ii). Hydrosphere: The aqueous envelope (Water envelope).
iii). Lithosphere: The outer solid earth envelope up to 100 km (mainly earth crust and
uppermost of mantle).
iv). Biosphere: The livings envelope.
v). Interior of the Earth: Extending from lithosphere to center of the earth (mainly earth
mantle and core).

Earth Processes
A cursory look at a globe suggests that the fundamental features of the Earth are oceans and
continents, but this is only partly true. The outer layer of the Earth, the crust, is in fact composed
of thicker granitic continental crust, and thinner basaltic oceanic crust (covered by a thin layer
of sediment). The crust is generally less than 20 miles (km) thick. Beneath the crust is the
mantle, a layer composed of peridotite and related ultramafic rocks that extends half way to the

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core of the planet. The Earth’s surface is covered with solid rock, and at first glance the
continents and ocean basins seem immutable and unmoving.

Geologists and geophysicists see the outer layers of the Earth differently. The crust and
uppermost mantle are indeed seen as layers of solid rock, which they collectively call the
lithosphere. But beneath the solid lithosphere at a depth of 100 and 200 km (~ 62 and 124
miles) is a layer that is hot nearly to the point of melting, but not quite. This layer, called the
asthenosphere, is yielding and capable of flow (Figure 3).

The lithosphere is broken up into a series of what are called plates. A half dozen or so of the
plates are thousands of miles or kilometers across, while others are considerably smaller (Figure
4). The lithospheric plates slide laterally across the asthenosphere, and it this motion that causes
apparent continental drift, but the continents are best understood to be passively riding
piggyback on the lithosphere. It is at the boundaries between these plates that many of the most
important tectonic (Latin: “to build”) processes occur, including mountain-building, volcanism,
and earthquake activity. In a few short decades, plate tectonics has become the prevailing
theory in understanding the workings of planet Earth.

Figure 3: Interior layers of the Earth. Source: U.S. Geological Survey

Plate Boundaries
At boundaries, plates may either diverge (separate), converge (come together), or slide past each
other (transform boundary). The plate edges may consist of oceanic crust, continental crust, or
both (Figure 5).

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At divergent boundaries, extensional forces cause the plate edges to move apart, fracturing the
crust. The release of pressure in the underlying asthenosphere allows partial melting to take
place, and basaltic magma will rise into the fractures as intrusive dikes. The basalt dikes may
erupt on the seafloor, forming new oceanic crust. Divergent boundaries can be seen on maps of
the ocean floor as oceanic ridges and rift valleys.

When divergent boundaries occur on continents, the uplift and spreading will result in rift valleys
(the Rio Grande Valley in Colorado and New Mexico is an example) and sometimes basin and
range topography, such as is found in Nevada and western Utah. Eventually a new ocean basin
will form in between the newly separated continents. This is happening today in the Gulf of
California, as Baja California separates from mainland Mexico, moving northwest along the San
Andreas fault. Basalt flows on continents may form lava plateaus, like the Columbia Plateau in
Washington and Oregon, or the Deccan Traps in India.

Figure 4: The major plate boundaries. Source: U.S. Geological Survey

Convergent boundaries occur when plates come together, either from compressional forces, or
because cold dense oceanic crust is sinking into the mantle. When both plate margins are
composed of oceanic lithosphere, one will slide beneath the other, forming a trench and a
subduction zone. As the plate sinks into the mantle, it heats up, and water liberated in the

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subduction process lowers the melting point of the rocks above. Plutons of basaltic and andesitic
magma will rise through the crust and erupt onto the seafloor. A system of volcanic islands will
develop above the descending plate. Because they have a curving aspect, the system of volcanoes
is called an island arc. The Aleutian Islands of Alaska are an excellent example.

Continental crust is less dense than oceanic crust, so if one margin of a convergent boundary is
continental, the oceanic plate will sink beneath it. A trench will form, but the volcanic arc will be
found on land as a chain of andesitic stratovolcanoes called a magmatic arc. Deep in the crust,
plutons of granite and diorite will intrude and cool off slowly over time. The Cascades Range of
Washington and Oregon is an example of a magmatic arc. The Sierra Nevada of California is an
example of an ancient magmatic arc that has been uplifted and exposed by erosion.

If two continents converge, neither will be subducted. Instead, the margins of the plate will be
pushed upwards into a major mountain range. The Himalayan Range is forming today as the
Indian subcontinent is pushing into southern Asia.

A tectonostratigraphic terrane (or simply a terrane) is a fault-bound section of crust that has
been moved from its point of origin by divergence or transform fault motions. The islands of New
Zealand and the Baja Peninsula are present-day examples. Terranes may also collide with the edge
of another continent, forming large mountain ranges, although not on the scale of Himalayan
convergence. The mountain ranges of southern Alaska formed in this way. The oldest rocks of the
Colorado Plateau formed in large part as a result of terrane collisions.

Figure 5: Examples of plate boundaries. Source: U.S. Geological Survey

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At transform boundaries, plates slide past each other. The San Andreas fault of California is one
of the most familiar examples. Transforms are common features of the ocean floor, forming fault
zones between the offset edges of mid-ocean ridges.

Solid Earth Envelopes

The principal divisions of solid earth include the following as shown in the figure below:

Layers of the earth and its major discontinuities.

✓ Earth Crust: consists of continental and oceanic crust separated by Conrad discontinuity.
✓ Earth Mantle: subdivided into; upper mantle, transition and lower mantle. Earth mantle
is separated from earth crust by Moho Discontinuity.
✓ Earth Core: subdivided into outer core (liquid state) and inner core (solid state). Earth
core is separated from earth mantle by Gutenberg Discontinuity.

The internal structure of the earth is subdivided according to seismological information. When an
earthquake occurred, two main waves will be generated namely primary waves (P-wave) which
transfer in both liquid and solid media and shear waves (S-wave) which transfer in solid medium
only. P and S wave velocities will be varied with respect to change in density and elastic properties
that are resulted from temperature and pressure changes leading to chemical and mineralogical
variations. So, according to these facts the interior of the earth has been divided to the above-
mentioned envelopes. The boundary between these envelopes which indicates the changes in
properties is called discontinuity.

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Earth Crust
The crust extends from earth surface to the mantle (Moho or M discontinuity). The crust is
subdivided into two parts as shown in the table below:

Table for earth structure and its discontinuities.

a) Outer – known as Sial (Silica-Alumina) or granitic layer.
b) Inner – known as Sima (Silica-Magnesia) or basaltic layer.
Sial or granitic layer is composed of less dense materials. It is rich in silica (SiO2) and alumina
(Al2O3) and has got similarity in composition of rock granite with an average density 2.7 gm/cm 3
and average thickness 25 km. Whereas, Sima or basaltic layer is made up of dense, dark colored
materials which is rich in magnesia (MgO) plus silica and it is similar to those which comes out
of the volcanoes with an average density 2.9 gm/cm3 average thickness 20 km.
The depth of the crust which includes basaltic as well as granitic layer is about 40 - 50 km in the
continental areas, whereas the depth of basaltic, which forms the floor of ocean under oceanic
areas, about 5 km due to the absence of the continental crust. The boundary between upper and
lower crust is called Conrad discontinuity.

Earth crust subdivisions.

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Engineers divide the crust into rocks and soils, whereas geologists often call "rock" to all
constituents of the earth crust. The mass of the crust is about 0.7% of earth mass with an average
density 2.8 gm/cm 3 with composition (up to 15 km) of 95% igneous rocks, 4 % shales, 0.75%
sandstones and 0.25 % limestones neglecting metamorphic rocks. The mineralogical composition
of the crust consists of more than 2000 minerals, but 99.9% of the crust consists mainly 20
minerals, mainly feldspar, silica, oxides, carbonate, phosphates, sulphides, chlorides. The
percentage of these minerals as follows: 60% feldspar, 12% quartz, 4.1% iron oxides and titanium,
3.8% mica, 2.6% olivine, 2.6% pyroxene, 1.4% muscovite and 3.5% other minerals.

Earth Mantle
It extends from Moho discontinuity to about 2900 km which is the boundary of mantle-core that
is identified by P-wave observations. The materials in mantle are about two or three times as dense
as those of earth surface. It is believed that its composition is similar to peridotite rock with high
density. The average density is about 4.5 gm/cm3. From seismic observations, it has been found
that a major change or discontinuity occurs at the boundary between mantle and outer core named
Gutenberg discontinuity.

Earth Core
It is located below Gutenberg discontinuity from depth 2900 km to earth center. It is subdivided
into two parts:
✓ Outer Core: It surrounds the inner core which is liquid, its composition is similar to that
of the inner core, mainly iron and nickel. It is of 2100 km in thickness and average density
10-15 gm/cm3.
✓ Inner Core: It is estimated to be of about 850 km in thickness. It is solid with the same
composition and contains very high-density materials with an average density 17 gm/cm3.

Variations of Physical Conditions with Depth

The earth materials are believed to be formed from the transformation of the original liquid
materials to solid state as the lower density rocks are in the upper part of the earth such as acidic
rock "granite" while rocks with higher densities are in the lower part as the basic rock "basalt".
Thus, the iron and heavy minerals proportion (such as nickel) increases with depth down to the
earth core which gives an explanation for the gradual increase in rock densities downward the
earth center.
i). The variations of some physical conditions (pressure, temperature, density and seismic
velocities) with depth from earth surface. It is observed that the pressure increases
gradually with increasing depth due to increasing rock column.
ii). While the temperature increases quickly with depth in the upper part (crust rocks) but with
gradual increase downward to the earth core reaching 5000◦C in core rocks.
iii). For density, it increases gradually with depth (with about 1gm/cm3 per 1000km depth), but
with abrupt increase abruptly at the core boundary due to the presence of iron and nickel
which are the main components of the core.

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 iv). Concerning seismic wave velocities, it is observed the increase in P and S-wave velocities
due to its transport from the continental (granitic) layer to the oceanic (basaltic) layer. In
the mantle, the increase becomes sharply reaching more than 8 km/sec for P-wave (and
more than 5km/sec for S-wave). In the core, P-wave velocity decreases in the outer core,
with the absence of S wave that confirms the liquidity state of the outer core. In the inner
core, P and S wave are present and increase with depth reaching more than 11.5 km/sec for
P wave velocity and about 3 km/sec for S-wave velocity.

MINERALOGY
Definition
Mineralogy is a subject of geology specializing in the scientific study of chemistry, crystal
structure, and physical (including optical) properties of minerals (e.g.: quartz, pyroxene,
amphibole, mica, chlorite, garnet).
A mineral is a naturally occurring homogeneous substance, inorganically formed solid with a
definite chemical composition, with a certain physical properties and crystalline structures.
(Naturally occurring means that the mineral was made by natural geologic processes over time.
Minerals cannot be made by humans! Inorganic means that it does not typically contain carbon.
There are a few exceptions such as calcium carbonate (limestone) Solid means that the minerals
are solid within normal temperatures on the Earth! (They can be melted or turned into a liquid if
heated up high enough!) Orderly crystalline structure means that the atoms are arranged in an
orderly and repetitive manner. There are a few exceptions to this. Definite chemical composition
means that the minerals are composed of elements that occur in a consistent ratio).
A rock, by comparison, is an aggregate of minerals and need not have a specific chemical
composition. Minerals range in composition from pure elements and simple salts to very complex
silicates with thousands of known forms.
Minerals are broadly grouped into:
✓ The rock forming minerals and
✓ Ore-forming minerals
In civil engineering, it is important to have knowledge of the important rock- forming types. The
ore-forming minerals are to be understood in detail by the mining, Metallurgical and Mineral
Engineering professionals.

Formation of minerals:
✓ Minerals are crystalline solid substances, meaning the atoms making up a mineral are
arranged in an ordered, three-dimensional, structure.
✓ The distances and angles between an individual atom and the neighbors it is bonded to are
constant.
✓ The process of mineral formation is known as crystallization. In order for a mineral to
crystallize, ions from the nearby environment must be brought together.
✓ A second process of mineral formation occurs during cooling of a melt.
✓ When crystallization of this type takes place in water, we call it freezing.

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 ✓ Through a very similar mechanism, molten rock-forming liquids, known as magmas and
lavas, cool and crystallize to form minerals and thus rocks.

Mineral Definition and Classification

To be classified as a true mineral, a substance must be a solid and have a crystalline structure. It
must also be a naturally occurring, homogeneous substance with a defined chemical composition.
‘’A mineral is an element or chemical compound that is normally crystalline and that has been
formed as a result of geological processes’’.

Mineralogy Identification
Minerals can be identified by its;
1. Color. 8. Crystal form.
2. Streak (strip). 9. Magnetism
3. Luster. 10. Tenacity.
4. Hardness. 11. Diaphaneity/Transparency.
5. Specific weight. 12. Striation.
6. Cleavage. 13. Chemical reaction
7. Fracture.

Colour
Minerals are colored because certain wave lengths of light are absorbed, and the color results from
a combination of those wave lengths that reach the eye. Some minerals show different colors along
different crystallographic axes. It may depend on the impurities present in light-coloured minerals,
and one mineral specimen may even show gradation of colour or different colours. For these
reasons, colour is usually a general rather than specific guide to which mineral is present.
Iridescence is a play of colours characteristic of certain minerals.

Streak
The streak of a mineral is the color of the powder left on a streak plate (piece of unglazed
porcelain) when the mineral is scraped across it. It is a diagnostic property of many ore minerals.
For example, the lead ore, galena, has a metallic grey colour but a black streak.

Luster
Luster refers to how light is reflected from the surface of a mineral. The two main types of luster
are metallic and non-metallic. Types of non-metallic luster; adamantine, vitreous, pearly, greasy,
silky, earthy.

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 Table 1: Descriptive terms for the luster of minerals.

Hardness
The hardness of a mineral is its “scratchability”, defined by an arbitrary scale of ten standard
minerals, arranged in Mohs’ scale of hardness, and numbered in degrees of increasing hardness
from 1 to 10. The hardest mineral known, diamond, was assigned the number 10.
Table 2: Mohs’ scale of hardness

Specific Gravity
Specific gravity is the "heaviness" of a mineral. It is defined as a number that expresses the ratio
of the weight of a mineral and the weight of an equal volume of water.
The specific gravity depends on:
✓ The kind of atoms that comprise the mineral.

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 ✓ How the atoms are packed together.
✓ Common rock-forming minerals (quartz, feldspar, calcite, etc.) have specific gravity near
2.7
It is important to know which minerals have comparable specific gravities:
a) Low specific gravity minerals include silicates, carbonates, sulphates and halides, with
specific gravities ranging between 2.2 and 4.0;
b) Medium specific gravity minerals include metallic ores such as sulphides and oxides, with
specific gravities between 4.5 and 7.5;
c) High specific gravity minerals include native metallic elements such as pure copper, gold
and silver; but these are rare minerals and are very unlikely to be encountered.

Cleavage
Cleavage is the ability of a mineral to break along preferred planes. Minerals tend to break along
certain planes where atomic bonds are weak. Some minerals, such as quartz and garnet, possess
no cleavages, whereas others may have one (micas), two (pyroxenes and amphiboles), three
(galena) or four (fluorite). When a cleavage is poorly developed it is called a parting.

Fracture
A surface formed by breaking the mineral along a direction which is not a cleavage is called a
fracture and is usually more irregular than a cleavage plane. A fracture may also occur, for
example, in a specimen which is either an aggregate of tiny crystals or glassy (that is, non-
crystalline). A curved, rippled fracture is termed conchoidal (shell-like).

Crystal forms/habit
The development of an individual crystal, or an aggregate of crystals, to produce a particular
external shape depends on the temperature and pressure during their formation. One such
environment may give long needle-like crystals and another may give short platy crystals, both
with the same symmetry. Since the mode of formation of a mineral is sometimes a clue to what it
is, this shape or crystal habit is of use in the identification of some minerals. The study of this
regularity of form, and of the internal structure of the mineral to which it is related, is called
crystallography.
A study of the regularity of crystal forms, including the values of interfacial angles, shows that all
crystals possess certain elements of symmetry. These elements include:
1. A centre of symmetry, which a crystal possesses when all its faces occur in parallel pairs
on opposite sides of the crystal. A cube, for example, possesses a centre of symmetry but
a tetrahedron does not.
2. An axis of symmetry, which is a line through a crystal such that a complete rotation of
360° about it produces more than one identical view. There are four types of axis of
symmetry: a diad axis, when the same view is seen twice (every 180°); a triad axis, when

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 the same view is seen three times (every 120°); a tetrad axis (four times—every 90°), and
finally a hexad axis (six times—every 60°).
3. A plane of symmetry, which divides the crystal into halves, each of which is a mirror
image of the other without rotation.

Tenacity
Tenacity is a measure of how the mineral deforms when it is crushed or bent.
Table 3: Descriptive terms for the tenacity of minerals.

Diaphaneity/Transparency
Transparency is a measure of how clearly an object can be seen through a crystal. The different
degrees of transparency are given in Table below.
Table 4: Degrees of transparency.

Chemical reaction
When a drop of cold 10% dilute hydrochloric acid is put on certain minerals, a reaction takes place.
In calcite (CaCO3), bubbles of carbon dioxide make the acid froth, and in some sulphide ores,
hydrogen sulphide is produced.

Classification of Minerals
Minerals are classified on their chemistry, particularly on the anionic element or polyanionic group
of elements that occur in the mineral. An anion is a negatively charge atom, and a polyanion is a
strongly bound group of atoms consisting of a cation plus several anions (typically oxygen) that

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has a net negative charge. For example carbonate, (CO3) 2-, silicate, (SiO4)4- are common poly
anions. This classification has been successful because minerals rarely contain more than one
anion or polyanion, whereas they typically contain several different cations.
1. Native elements.
The first group of minerals is the native elements, and as pure elements, these minerals contain no
anion or polyanion. Native elements such as gold (Au), silver (Ag), copper (Cu), and platinum (Pt)
are metals, graphite is a semi-metal, and diamond (C) is an insulator.

2. Sulfides.
The sulfides contain sulfur (S) as the major "anion". Although sulfides should not be considered
ionic, the sulfide minerals rarely contain oxygen, so these minerals form a chemically distinct
group. Examples are pyrite (FeS2), sphalerite (ZnS), and galena (PbS). Minerals containing the
elements As, Se, and Te as "anions" are also included in this group.

3. Halides.
The halides contain the halogen elements (F, Cl, Br, and I) as the dominant anion. These minerals
are ionically bonded and typically contain cations of alkali and alkaline earth ele ments (Na, K,
and Ca). Familiar examples are halite (NaCl) (rock salt) and fluorite (CaF2).

4. Oxides.
The oxide minerals contain various cations (not associated with a polyanion) and oxygen.
Examples are hematite (Fe2O3) and magnetite (Fe3O4).

5. Hydroxides.
These minerals contain the polyanion OH- as the dominant anionic species. Examples include
brucite (Mg(OH)2) and gibbsite (Al(OH)3).

6. Carbonates.
The carbonates contain CO32- as the dominant polyanion in which C4+ is surrounded by three O2-
anions in a planar triangular arrangement. A familiar example is calcite (CaCO3). Because NO3-
shares this geometry, the nitrate minerals such as soda niter (nitratite) (NaNO3) are included in this
group.

7. Sulfates.
These minerals contain SO42- as the major polyanion in which S6+ is surrounded by four oxygen
atoms in a tetrahedron. Note that this group is distinct from sulfides which contain no O. A familiar
example is gypsum (CaSO4 2H2O).

8. Phosphates.
The phosphates contain tetrahedral PO43- groups as the dominant polyanion. A common example
is apatite (Ca5(PO4)3(OH)) a principal component of bones and teeth. The other trivalent

18
tetrahedral polyanions, arsenate AsO43-, and vanadate VO43- are structurally and chemically
similar and are included in this group.

9. Borates.
The borates contain triangular BO33- or tetrahedral BO45-, and commonly both coordinations may
occur in the same mineral. A common example is borax, (Na2BIII2BIV2O5(OH)4 8H2O).

10. Silicates.
This group of minerals contains SiO44- as the dominant polyanion. In these minerals the Si4+ cation
is always surrounded by 4 oxygens in the form of a tetrahedron. Because Si and O are the most
abundant elements in the Earth, this is the largest group of minerals and is divided into subgroups
based on the degree of polymerization of the SiO4 tetrahedra.
a) Orthosilicates.
These minerals contain isolated SiO44- polyanionic groups in which the oxygens of the polyanion
are bound to one Si atom only, i.e., they are not polymerized. Examples are forsterite (Mg-olivine,
Mg2SiO4), and pyrope (Mg-garnet, Mg3Al2Si3O12).
b) Sorosilcates.
These minerals contain double silicate tetrahedra in which one of the oxygens is shared with an
adjacent tetrahedron, so that the polyanion has formula (Si2O7)6-. An example is epidote
(Ca2Al2FeO(OH)SiO4 Si2O7), a mineral common in metamorphic rocks.
c) Cyclosilicates.
These minerals contain typically six-membered rings of silicate tetrahedra with formula.
(Si6O17)10-. An example is tourmaline.

d) Chain silicates.
These minerals contain SiO4 polyhedra that are polymerized in one direction to form chains. They
may be single chains, so that of the four oxygen coordinating the Si atom, two are shared with
adjacent tetrahedra to form an infinite chain with formula (SiO3)2-. The single chain silicates
include the pyroxene and pyroxenoid minerals which are common constituents of igneous rocks.
Or they may form double chains with formula (Si4O11)8-, as in the amphibole minerals, which are
common in metamorphic rocks.
e) Sheet silicates.
These minerals contain SiO 4 polyhedra that are polymerized in two dimensions to form sheets
with formula (Si4O10)4-. Common examples are the micas in which the cleavage reflects the sheet
structure of the mineral.
f) Framework silicates.
These minerals contain SiO4 polyhedra that are polymerized in three dimensions to form a
framework with formula (SiO2) 0. Common examples are quartz (SiO2) and the feldspars
(NaAlSi3O8) which are the most abundant minerals in the Earth's crust. In the feldspars Al3+ may
substitute for Si4+ in the tetrahedra, and the resulting charge imbalance is compensated by an alkali
cation (Na or K) in interstices in the framework.

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The Rock Forming Minerals
There are thousands of different kinds of minerals, but over 95% of the earth's crust is igneous
rock, and the igneous rocks usually contain no more than a few minerals and most of these are part
of just four groups or families: these are called the igneous rock-forming minerals. The light-
colored minerals are silica-rich and less dense. They are called the felsic minerals. The darker
mafic minerals contain iron and magnesium, are denser, and only melt at high temperatures. The
rock forming minerals are readily identified by observing certain basic physical properties.

Feldspar: The most common mineral family, the feldspars come in a variety of colors, including
pink, white or gray. The most distinctive property is the tendency of the mineral to split or cleave
in two directions. One variety, plagioclase feldspar may exhibit very fine lines, called striations,
on some surfaces. These look like record grooves. The pink variety of feldspar is called
orthoclase or potassium feldspar. All the feldspars can scratch glass. Chemically, the feldspars
are aluminum silicates with varying amounts of calcium, sodium and potassium.

Quartz: Quartz is easily distinguished by great hardness (scratches glass), clear or light color
(many shades are possible: milky, pinkish, purple, smoky, etc.), and unlike the feldspars, it does
not have cleavage. Instead it fractures into smooth rounded surfaces much like glass does
(conchoidal fracture). When crystals are present, they have a distinctive hexagonal shape.
Quartz is a simple silicate composed only of silicon and oxygen.

Mica: A mineral familiar to most people, mica's most distinctive property is the tendency to
cleave into very thin sheets. The dark variety is known as biotite, while the lighter clear variety
is muscovite. The micas are softer than glass. Both micas are complex silicates with varying
amounts of aluminum, potassium and iron.

Ferromagnesian Minerals: These minerals contain iron and magnesium in their chemical
structure and are characterized by relative hardness, dark color (except for the bright green of
olivine), and greater density. Amphibole (hornblende) is black and has a poorly developed
cleavage. Pyroxene (augite) is usually greenish-black, also with cleavage. Olivine has no
cleavage, occurs in granular masses, and has a bright apple-green glassy appearance. It is a main
constituent of the Earth’s mantle, the very thick layer underlying the thin continental or oceanic
crust. It is also known to many as the gemstone peridot.

Sedimentary Rock Forming Minerals

Sedimentary rocks make up only a small percentage of the crust, but sediments and sedimentary
rocks cover most of the planet’s surfaces and sea floor. Sedimentary rocks may contain some of
the igneous rock-forming minerals (especially quartz), but the process of weathering tends to
break the minerals down into new forms.

20
Clay: Around 70% of all sediments are composed of the clay minerals. The clays are the product
of the weathering of feldspars and other igneous rock-forming minerals. They are generally
characterized by an even fracture, an earthy (or dull) luster, and a distinctive odor (like moist
soil) when wet. The clays are used in ceramics and building materials (adobe and bricks, for
instance). Bentonite clay is a form that often develops from the weathering of volcanic ash, and
is exposed widely in several formations on the Colorado Plateau, where it presents engineering
problems because of the tendency of the clay to absorb water and swell.

Quartz is a very stable mineral at the earth's surface, but it will be much changed by sedimentary
processes. Although it is often seen as small glassy grains of sand, in other cases, it occurs in a
microcrystalline form called chert or agate. Microcrystalline quartz is found in many colors and
forms, but can be distinguished by its extreme hardness (the only common sedimentary mineral
that is harder than glass). Chert was often used by Native Americans to construct arrowheads and
spear points.

Calcite and dolomite are both carbonate minerals. Calcite is often the cement that binds
sedimentary rocks together and at times makes up the entire rock (limestone). The most
interesting property of calcite is the reaction of calcite when hydrochloric acid is dropped on it. It
fizzes in a reaction called effervescence. Dolomite is similar to calcite in many ways but is less
reactive to acid and is slightly harder. The carbonate minerals often develop in warm shallow seas
by both organic processes and by chemical precipitation. Dolomite is often secondary, developing
when the already formed limestone reacts with magnesium rich groundwater.

Halite and gypsum are called evaporite minerals, because they precipitate as water evaporates in
coastal bays or desert dry lakes. Halite is none other than common table salt, and has cubic
cleavage. Gypsum has platy cleavage, and is softer than a fingernail. It is used in a variety of
ways, most commonly as drywall and plaster of Paris.

Hematite (reddish brown) and Limonite (yellowish brown) are oxides of iron (in the most basic
sense they are forms of rust). A small amount of either mineral is sufficient to stain other rocks
bright red, brown or yellow. Many of the spectacularly colorful exposures of sedimentary rock in
Grand Canyon, Zion and Bryce Canyon result from the presence of these iron oxide minerals.

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PETROLOGY
Definition
The study of rocks in all their aspects including their mineralogies, textures, structures (systematic
description of rocks in hand specimen and thin sections); origin and their relationships to other
rocks.

The Geological Cycle: Rock formation

Although we may consider rocks as "solid" and "permanent", in reality they are constantly
changing and transforming over geologic time. Volcanic (igneous) rocks at the earth's surface are
weathered, and the particles resulting from that weathering are carried by streams into oceans,
where they form sedimentary rocks such as sandstone and shale. Those sedimentary rocks, in turn,
may be subducted (move downwards) into the mantle, where they are melted into magma, once
again to rise towards the earth's surface to crystallize as igneous rocks.

22
Essentially all rocks are made of the remains of some kind of pre-existing rock. This recognition
that the crust of the Earth is a vast recycling system was one of the fundamental discoveries that
made geology a science two hundred years ago. The rock cycle summarizes the processes involved
in the formation of rocks and the modification of pre-existing rocks and is a good summary of
Physical Geology. First proposed by James Hutton (Father of Geology) in the late 1700s.

Rock Identification
Rocks are identified mostly by its texture; mineral composition; field relationships; color;
hardness; specific weight; crystal form; magnetism. Apparently, some techniques used in
identifying minerals can also be used to classify the rock type.
Rock Properties for Engineering
Rock are significant for two major reasons in engineering:
✓ As building materials for constructions;
✓ As foundations on which the constructions are setting;
For the consideration of rocks as construction material the engineers concern about:
i). Density to some extent (for calculating the weight, load to the foundation, etc.);
ii). Strength;
iii). Durability;
For the consideration of rocks as the construction foundation the geological engineers concern
about the rock’s:
i). Density;
ii). Strength;
iii). Compressibility.

Types of rocks:
Rocks are divided according to their origin into 3 groups viz., IGNEOUS, SEDIMENTARY and
METAMORPHIC.

Igneous rocks develop as molten magma cools and crystallizes, either deep underground (plutonic
or intrusive igneous) or at the Earth’s surface (volcanic or extrusive). Plutonic rocks can be
identified by their coarsely crystalline appearance, since crystals can grow large enough to see
during the long cooling process deep in the crust. Volcanic rocks most often have a very fine
crystalline structure because of rapid cooling, so that visible crystals are rare or absent (they are
visible in a microscope however, with the exception of volcanic glass). The igneous rocks are
categorized by the mineral content (felsic, mafic, or intermediate), which means overall color is a
good guide to identifying them. Obsidian and pumice are composed of volcanic glass and therefore
do not have minerals.

Sedimentary rocks form as a result of weathering and erosion at the surface of the Earth. Exposed
rocks of all kinds are broken down by erosive processes into smaller bits and pieces, and many are
changed chemically by way of interaction with water, acids, and gases in the atmosphere,

23
especially carbon dioxide and oxygen. The eroded sediments are deposited in a variety of
environments on land (terrestrial), at sea (marine), or at the complex boundary between the two,
such as beaches or river deltas (transitional). Clastic (or detrital) sedimentary rocks are
composed of fragments of previously existing rocks and are classified by the size of the grains
(coarse, medium or fine). Chemical sedimentary rocks are the products of chemical reactions such
as when seawater evaporates (rock salt is a common example) and are classified on the basis of
mineral content. Biogenic sedimentary rocks form as the result of organic processes, such as the
growth of a coral reef (forming limestone), or the accumulation of undecayed plant material in a
swamp (forming coal and peat). They are also classified on the basis of composition.

Metamorphic rocks form when previously existing rocks are buried deeper in the crust,
subjecting them to extreme heat and pressure. The heat may be provided simply by deep burial, or
by the presence of nearby igneous intrusions. By definition, melting doesn’t take place (otherwise
the rocks would be igneous), but minerals are changed by the reactions with hot chemical solutions
into new and different minerals. Intense pressure results in layering or lineations in the rock
referred to as foliation. Metamorphic rocks are subdivided on the basis of whether they are foliated
or not.

Engineering Considerations of Igneous Rocks

1) Fine-grained igneous rocks cannot be used as aggregates in Portland cement due to volume
expansion caused by the Alkali-silica reaction. Solutions include:
a. Can be used in low alkali cement;
b. Non-reactive aggregates go with the high alkali cement;
c. Add pozzolans, coal-ashes, etc. in the aggregate-cement mixture to minimize the
reaction.
2) Coarse-grained igneous rocks (e.g., granite, syenite, etc.) are not for aggregates for
constructions because its low abrasion resistance; but fine-grained igneous rocks (e.g.,
basalt) are good for aggregates (e.g., basalt as paving aggregates goes with asphalt.
3) Sitingof foundations needs to avoid weathered rocks (e.g., dams, bridge piers, etc.);
4) Igneous rocks are good for dimension stone (tombstone etc.) because their resistance to
weathering but need avoid fractures.

Engineering Considerations of Sedimentary Rocks

1) The sedimentary rocks also have the Alkali-silica reaction problem when used as
aggregates with Portland cement. The sedimentary rocks with this problem are chert and
graywacke.
2) Fine-grained sedimentary rocks like limestone and dolomite are the best for being used as
aggregates; siltstone, shale, conglomerate, and quartz sandstone are not acceptable;
3) Stream and terrace gravel contains weak pieces, they are not good for aggregates in
concrete. Weathered chert, shale, and siltstone can cause pop-outs at the concrete surface
after freeze-thaw cycles;

24
 4) Coarse-grained limestone is not good for aggregates by reducing particle size;
5) Sinkhole problem in carbonate terrains due to the high dissolvability of limestone and
dolomite.

Engineering Considerations of Metamorphic Rocks

1) The metamorphic rocks also have the Alkali-silica reaction problem when used as
aggregates with Portland cement. The metamorphic rocks with this problem are argillite,
phyllite, impure quartzite, and granite gneiss;
2) Coarse-grained gneiss can be abraded severely when used as aggregates;
3) For metamorphic rocks, the stability of rock mass greatly affected by the foliation
orientation;
4) Marble as a metamorphic rock from carbonate sedimentary rocks can cause similar
problems, e.g., leakage of reservoirs, sink hole collapse, solution cavities, and channels.

Importance of petrology
1. A meaningful sampling of the approaches and philosophy behind petrologic studies for
stability of civil engineering constructions;
2. An appreciation for the diversity, complexity and geological significance of the rocks that
comprise the earth for long durable constructions;
3. A basis for understanding the importance of petrology in the civil engineering
constructions and
4. To provide an opportunity to further development for particular construction.

Among the igneous and metamorphic rocks; Granites; Quartzites; Gneisses and Basalts are
suitable for construction of a dam. Pure sandstones have good compressive strength but presence
of inter layers of shales decrease its strength. Limestones usually contains cavities in them.
Adequate treatment in terms of grout – filling of the cavities is to be taken in such cases.

Schists, Phyllites, Shales, Siltstones and clay stones are relatively incompetent and need proper
attention. Clay, if present is totally excavated since clay is incompetent as it swells on saturation
with water. Contacts of igneous intrusive (dyke) and the host rocks often are fractured and jointed
and hence such site is studied with proper care.

Texture: Texture is size, shape and arrangement of mineral grains in a rock. Texture of rock can
either of coarse-crystalline or it can be glassy or amorphous. The texture of the rock is governed
by the cooling time of the magma. Crystallization is governed by slow cooling; however, glassy
texture or amorphous form is the result of rapid cooling. Other factors that influence texture are
magmatic viscosity (low viscosity magma/lava will produce coarse crystalline texture while high
viscosity magma/lava produces finely crystalline rocks) and relative rate of crystal growth.

25
Extrusive\Volcanic Textures
GLASSY TEXTURE (Figure a): A glassy texture occurs when a magma is cooled suddenly
before any chemical bonds have had a chance to form. At the high temperatures associated with
magmas, ions are in constant motion and cannot form bonds. During normal cooling processes
ions begin to bond together as the temperature decreases and mineral structures are allowed to
grow. A magma may be cooled so quickly that ions become instantaneously frozen before they
have had a chance to bond. Under these conditions a glassy texture will result. Glassy textures are
commonly produced when magma is extruded into sea water or suddenly blasted out of a volcanic
vent. Rocks with a glassy texture may look like glass as in the case of obsidian or they may have
a dull surface which is riddled with small holes or vesicles. When bubbles of gas erupt from the
semi- solid surface of a hardening rock, minute craters are left behind called vesicles. Vesicles are
characteristic of scoria and pumice. Pumice is so filled with air holes that it can float in water.
Scoria is characterized by larger, less numerous vesicles than pumice because it is the product of
a more mafic lava which contained less trapped gas. It also has a higher specific gravity than
pumice and is therefore "heavier". Tuffs and welded tuffs are produced when pyroclastic ash is
blasted out of a volcanic vent and fused into rock upon settling back to Earth. Welded tuffs got
their name because of their characteristic layering caused by compression-induced flattening of
semi-molten components.
APHANITIC TEXTURE (Figure b): Magmas which are extruded from volcanoes as lava flows,
cool rapidly at the Earth's surface, yet more slowly than if they had been violently exploded into
the atmosphere or injected into ocean waters. These lavas cool slowly enough for microscopic
minerals to form but too quickly for these minerals to grow large enough to be seen with the naked
eye or even with a 10X hand lens. The surface of the rock will be smooth and uniform in color
(normally gray, pink or black). The minerals only become visible if thin transparent slices of rock

26
(called thin-sections) are examined under a microscope (you may see some of these during a lab
lecture). Rhyolite, andesite and basalt are the basic rock types characterized by aphanitic texture.

Intrusive/Plutonic Textures
PHANERITIC TEXTURE (Figure c): Intrusively cooled rocks contain mineral grains which are
visible to the naked eye and appear as an interlocking mass of roughly equidimensional crystals.
The characteristic appearance of a granite tombstone is typical of a phaneritic texture. The overall
color of the rock is variable and will depend on the association of minerals present. The individual
types of minerals which compose the rock can be identified easily with a 10X hand lens. Granite,
diorite and gabbro are rocks with a phaneritic texture which correspond, respectively, to magmas
of felsic, intermediate and mafic compositions.
PEGMATITIC TEXTURE (Figure D): Pegmatites contain large interlocking crystals and result
from very slow cooling. They are usually of felsic composition (e.g granite pegmatite). Because
magmas cool over an infinite variety of speeds, rocks will exist which are intermediate between
the phaneritic and pegmatitic texture. Use your thumb as a guide to distinguish the two. In a true
pegmatite, all of the crystals will be about the size of your thumb or larger.

Combination Textures
PORPHYRITIC TEXTURES: The porphyritic texture is produced by a change in the cooling
speed of the magma. In porphyritic rocks, the cooling process consists of an initial slow phase
during which the largest crystals are formed and a later, more rapid phase which results in smaller
crystal growth. The resulting rock will contain large crystals from the early cooling phase
surrounded by smaller crystals which can be either visible or microscopic in size. The larger
crystals produced during the slow cooling phase of the magma are called phenocrysts and the
smaller mass of crystals surrounding these is called the groundmass. (Figure e). The porphyritic
texture is perhaps one of the most difficult to recognize because the surface appearance of these
rocks is so variable. This is largely the result of the formation of these rocks. The texture occurs
when a magma that has begun to cool intrusively is suddenly extruded onto the Earth's surface
through a volcanic eruption. The phenocrysts from the early slow cooling phase become
surrounded by a groundmass of microscopic crystals. The slow cooling phase can produce
phenocrysts of any size from barely visible to as large as your thumb. The key is that these
phenocrysts, no matter what size, are surrounded by the smooth aphanitic rock texture which has
no visible crystals. The porphyritic texture can be compared to islands in a smooth sea or chocolate
chips in a cookie. Typical rocks with this texture include rhyolite porphyry, andesite porphyry
and basalt porphyry.

27
STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY
Structural Geology is study of change in rock structure (Deformation) due internal/external forces
such as stress and strain. These forces applied due to tectonic activities of earth.
Rocks respond in different ways to stress. They may fracture and shift, forming faults, or they may
bend, forming folds. The types of faults and folds found in an area are clues to the forces that have
acted on a landscape, whether compression, extension, or shearing. Erosion of structures can
produce an additional feature called an unconformity.
✓ Strike and dip refer to the orientation or attitude of a geological feature.
✓ The strike line of a bed, fault, or other planar feature, is a line representing the intersection
of that feature with a horizontal plane.
✓ The dip gives the steepest angle of descent of a tilted bed or feature relative to a horizontal
plane, and is given by the number (0°-90°) as well as a letter (N,S,E,W) with rough
direction in which the bed is dipping.
✓ The dip direction is the azimuth of the direction the dip as projected to the horizontal (like
the trend of a linear feature in trend and plunge measurements), which is 90° off the strike
angle.

Tectonic forces and rock behavior

Rocks behavior during tectonic force is easily understand by Stress–strain curves and it depends
upon the temperature of the Rock, direction of force, timing and the speed of the forces applied on
it.

28
Tectonic collision deforms crustal rocks producing geologic structures.
✓ Folds
✓ Faults
✓ Joints and Fractures

29
Faults
Faults may be described as fractures along which relative displacement of adjacent blocks has
taken place. The relative displacement caused during faulting may be horizontal, vertical and
inclined.
Some faults are only a few inches long, and the total displacement is measured in fractions of an
inch while there are faults that are hundreds of miles long. The strike and dip of a fault are
measured in the same way as they are for bedding planes. The magnitude of faulting obviously
depends on the intensity and the nature of shearing stress (various tectonic forces) involved.
Occurrence of faulting is often accompanied by earthquakes and it is an indication of subsurface
instability of the region concerned.
Parts of a fault
Fault plane, foot wall, hanging wall, slip, hade, heave and throw which are important parts of a
fault
Fault Plane: This is the plane along which the adjacent blocks were relatively displaced. Like,
bedding plane (or axial plane) the fault plane can be expressed by strike and dip. Its intersection
with the horizontal plane gives the strike direction. The direction along which the fault plane has
the maximum slope is its true dip direction. The amount of inclination of fault plane with reference
to the horizontal plane along the true dip direction is called its true dip amount. Hade is the angle
between the inclined fault plane and a vertical plane. Dip + Hade = 900
Foot wall and Hanging wall: When the fault plane is inclined, then the faulted block which lies
below the fault plane is called the foot wall and the other block which rests above the fault plane
is called the hanging wall.
Slip: The displacement that occurs during faulting is called the slip. This may be along strike
direction (i.e. Strike slip) or along dip direction (i.e. Dip slip) or along both (Strike and Dip slip).
Eg: The fault is an inclined plane that strikes N-S at dips 35° East and has a Hade of 55o East.
Heave: The horizontal displacement of the blocks is called as heave. Heave can be seen only in
vertical faults.
Throw: The vertical displacement of the blocks is called as Throw. Throw can be seen only in
vertical faults.
Types of faults
✓ Normal fault – Hanging wall (top surface) moves down relative to the footwall (bottom
surface), caused by tension (extension)

30
✓ Reverse fault – Hanging wall moves up relative to the footwall, caused by compression
(shortening). Reverse faults have dips greater than 45o and thrust faults have dips less than 45o.

✓ Strike-Slip fault – Movement along the fault is horizontal, parallel to the strike of the fault
plane. If, standing on one side of the fault, the block on the other side is displaced to the right,
the fault is termed right-lateral. If the block on the other side is displaced to the left, the fault
is termed left lateral.

31
Strike slip faults are caused by shearing motion. The tectonic stresses caused by plate motions
build up over time and eventually cause breaks in the crust of the Earth along which the rocks
sporadically grind past one another. When this happens, earthquakes occur.
The outer part of the Earth is relatively cold. So when it is stressed it tends to break, particularly if
pushed quickly. These breaks, across which slip has occurred, are called faults. The most obvious
manifestations of active faulting are earthquakes.
The faulting patterns can have enormous economic importance.
Faults can;
✓ control the movement of groundwater,
✓ Exert a strong influence on the distribution of mineralization and the subsurface accumulations
of hydrocarbons.
✓ Have a major influence on the shaping of the landscape.
Movement on faults, with earthquakes, shatters rocks. In some places these new materials are
economically important as ready-made aggregate. In other places they can be a problem for engineers,
making hillsides unstable.

Folds
Rock layers that have been subjected to stress under conditions of high hydrostatic pressure may bend
rather than fracture. A fold in which the center (axis) is pushed upward is called an anticline. When
the axis is pushed downward, the fold is a syncline. Folds may be further defined as symmetrical,
asymmetrical, or plunging.

32
Parts of a fold
In nature, folds found in rocks and vary in terms of their length and breadth. However, the bends
noticed in rocks are called as folds. Following are the parts of a fold.

The inflection points are points of zero curvature, where the sense of curvature changes from a
convex to a concave line. They usually are aligned on either limb of a fold;
Crest & Trough: The curved portions of the fold at the top and bottom are called crest and trough
respectively. The curved portions are smoothly bent or sharp or angular.
Limbs / Flanks: These are the sides of a fold. There are two limbs for every fold and one limb
common to the adjacent fold.
Axial Plane: This is the imaginary plane which divides the fold into two equal halves. Depending
upon the nature of the fold, the axial plane may be vertical, horizontal or inclined.
Wave Length: The distance between the successive crests or troughs is called wavelength.
Hinge: The hinge of a fold is the line of maximum curvature in a folded bed.

33
Axis: The intersection between the axial plane and the crest or trough of the fold. (that means the
axis is a line parallel to the hinges).
A structural dome may develop when a pluton of magma or salt pushes upwards in such a way
that layers slope away from a center. A structural basin has formed if the layers slope towards
the center. A step-like fold called a monocline may form when a fault breaks rocks at depth but
simply bends the overlying layers.
Importance of folds in civil engineering point of view:
Folding of rocks takes place by different ways of stress acted upon it. Most of the folds are due to
tectonic causes and a few folds are due to non-tectonic causes such as landslides etc.
✓ Due to weathering and erosion, the Anticlines will change over to Valleys while the
Synclines change over to Hills. This feature is called as Paradoxical phenomenon is
popularly expressed as ANTICLINAL VALLEY & SYNCLINAL HILL.
✓ Folds as a result, the affected rocks get deformed, distorted or disturbed. This results in the
occurrence of great strain in rocks which may cause bulging, caving etc.. Because of
folding, the affected rocks possess fractures of different types in different parts of folds ie
limbs, crest, trough and becomes weak. Such type of locations especially for construction
of dams, reservoirs, tunneling, etc. leads to collapse the civil structures. For eg: At the dam
site, the beds of limb shall be dip in the upstream direction to hold the accumulated water
as a load.

Unconformities
No single spot in the world exposes a continuous record of the Earth's history. Erosion has stripped
away vast quantities of sediments, and in a series of layers, gaps of many years may be present
between those layers. Such buried erosion surfaces are called unconformities.
A nonconformity is an erosion surface on igneous or metamorphic rocks that has been covered
by sedimentary layers. Since these kinds of rocks form deep in the crust, the fact that they have
been exposed suggests that a vast amount of uplift and erosion has taken place. A profound
nonconformity is found in the depths of the Grand Canyon where Proterozoic metamorphic rocks
are capped by the Cambrian Tapeats Sandstone.
An angular unconformity occurs when sedimentary layers form and then are tilted and eroded.
The tilted layers are then covered by horizontal sediments. Again, the Grand Canyon provides an
outstanding example of an angular unconformity where Late Proterozoic sediments of the Grand
Canyon Supergroup are covered by Cambrian rocks.
A disconformity happens when horizontal sediments are eroded without tilting. They are covered
by other horizontal sediments. Since all the layers are horizontal, it is sometimes difficult to discern
a disconformity. River or tidal channels, soil horizons, and the fossil record will often help to
identify an erosion surface. Disconformities are common across the Colorado Plateau country,
although they are rarely obvious. There are at least 14 in the Grand Canyon Paleozoic sequence
alone.

34
Joints
✓ They are fractures with no offset.
✓ Joints normally have a regular spacing related to either the mechanical properties of the
individual rock or the thickness of the layer involved.
✓ Joints generally occur as sets, with each set consisting of joints sub-parallel to each other.
✓ Joints form in solid, hard rock that is stretched such that its brittle strength is exceeded (the
point at which it breaks).
✓ When this happens the rock fractures in a plane parallel to the maximum principal stress
and perpendicular to the minimum principal stress (the direction in which the rock is being
stretched). This leads to the development of a single sub-parallel joint set. Continued
deformation may lead to development of one or more additional joint sets.
Various types of joints
1. Columnar Joints which may occur due to Tensional forces (pull apart) eg Basalts.
2. Shear Joints develop where shearing forces prevail (due to stress)
3. Longitudinal / Transverse Joints: These joints are sometimes described whether they are
parallel to or across some large scale features such as mountain ranges.
4. Sheet Joints: A set of joints may develop which are more or less parallel to the surface of
the ground. Eg: sandstones; cuddapah slabs, flaggy limestones.
5. Shrinkage Joints: as a result of cooling, by tensional forces, these joints develop in the
rocks.
Importance of joints in civil engineering
✓ Joints cause the leakage of water in case of reservoir. Joints may pose groundwater
problems in tunneling. The orientation of joints is very significant in engineering projects.
Large joint dipping in the construction site cause a landslide. Quarry operations obviously
greatly influenced by the joints.
✓ Jointed rocks allow the movement of fluids and may act as AQUIFERS. Bore wells drilled
in civil construction areas for water supply will be more productive in highly jointed rocks
than in less jointed rocks.

Importance of structural geology in modern development

✓ The study of structural geology has been of prime importance in Economic Geology,
Petroleum Geology and Mining Geology.
✓ Folded and faulted rock strata commonly form traps for the accumulation and
concentration of fluids (Petroleum and natural gas). Faulted and structurally complex areas
are notable as permeable zones for hydrothermal fluids and the resulting concentration
areas for base and precious metal ore deposits. Deposits of gold, silver, copper, lead, zinc
and other metals, are commonly located in structurally complex areas.
✓ Structural geology is a critical part of Engineering Geology, which is concerned with the
physical and mechanical properties of natural rocks. Structural fabrics and defects such as
faults, folds, foliations and joints are internal weaknesses of rocks which may affect the

35
 stability of human engineered structures such as dams, road cuts, open pits mines and
tunnels for various purpose.
✓ Geotechnical risk, including earthquakes can only be investigated by inspecting a
combination of structural geology and geomorphology. In addition areas of
Karst landscapes which are underlain by underground caverns and potential sinkholes or
collapse features are of importance for these scientists. In addition, areas of steep slopes
are potential collapse or landslide hazards.
✓ Environmental Geologist and hydrogeologist need to understand structural geology
because structures are sites of ground water flow and penetration, which may affect, for
instance, seepage of toxic substances from waste dumps, or seepage of salty water into
aquifers.
✓ Plate Tectonics is a theory developed during the 1960s which describes the movement of
continents by way of the separation and collision of crustal plates. It is in a sense structural
geology on a planet scale, and is used throughout structural geology as a framework to
analyze and understand global, regional, and local scale features.

Weathering
Definition
Weathering is a general term and applied to the combine action of all processes causing rocks
disintegration physically and decomposition chemically. (Or) It is the process of weakening rock
and producing a rock waste or soil cover. Weathering occurs when rocks and minerals comes in
contact with the atmosphere, organic life and suicidal water. Essential feature of weathering is that
it affects rocks in-situ (in place) and no transportation of material is involved
Factors responsible for the weakening of rock are:
✓ A part of rainfall always snips into the soil on the covered rocks and looses the rock particle
by dissolving it.
✓ Frost action also takes place in the for-spaces of rocks and causes disintegration and
splitting of rocks into fragments.
✓ Chemical reactions are also taking place in rocks internally and causing rock-loosening.
✓ Slow geological process of construction and destruction is going on the surface of earth for
millions of years because earth is old enough and has been completely leveled by
weathering and erosion.
Factors affecting rock weathering.
Rock weathering is greatly affected by the following parameters
1. Rock structure and composition
Rock structure includes joints, beding planes, folds, fractures, and faults. Rocks containing these
structures will be easily subjected to weathering.
2. Rock composition:
There are certain elements which are included in rock composition. Some rocks will weather
quickly and some slowly e.g. acidic rocks weather more quickly than basic ones.

36
 3. Climate:
It includes the meteorological elements effect on rocks such as moisture, temperature, and wind
and air pressure. Climate determines whether physical or chemical weathering will be more active
and speedy.
4. Topography and vegetation
Topography directly effects weathering by exposing rocks to the temperature or sun and wind. The
elevated areas will be affected more and low level areas will be affected less.
5. Vegetation
Surface covered by the vegetation are protected from weathering but bare surfaces are weathered
to great extent. Thin root plants protects weathering while thick root plants accelerates weathering.

Types of weathering
There are two types of weathering:
✓ Physical weathering
✓ Chemical weathering
✓ Biological weathering
Physical weathering
In the mechanical disintegration and breaking of the rocks to form particles of smaller size. In
physical weathering, the composition of the weathered products remains unchanged. Following
are the different agents of physical weathering:
a) Frost action
b) Thermal Expansion
c) Wetting & Drying
d) Organisms
e) Hydraulic action
a. Frost Action
Frost action or commonly called freeze/thaw cycles occur when water within the pore structure or
cracks freezes to ice. It has been estimated when water freezes it expands between 8 to 11 percent,
with a force of 2,000 pounds per square inch to 150 tons per square foot. This increase of internal
pressure combined with repeated freeze/thaw cycles produces micro-fissures, cracks, flaking and
spalling.
b. Thermal Expansion:
Different minerals expand and contract at different rates; this is known as the coefficient of heat
expansion and contraction. It is known that the temperature of stone can vary between 30 and 50
percent higher than the average air temperature. Some of the darker minerals, absorb heat more
readily, and also give it up more quickly than some of the lighter ones. The daily and seasonal
heating and cooling of stone can cause stresses and micro-fractures in and along mineral grains.
Water in the pores makes thermal stressing more effective. This can eventually produce surface
flaking. Marble is particularly affected by this.
c. Wetting & Drying:

37
Coefficients of expansion and contraction are also involved in volume change. Stone expands
when it absorbs water and shrinks as it dries. This expanding and contracting produces internal
stresses at the grain boundaries. When the stone heats up a "baking effect" occurs, which will
eventually lead to surface flaking. Marble is affected by this "baking effect."
d. Organisms:
Plants and insects like earthworms, ants, termites and snakes play an important role in physical
weathering because they convert rock into soil to get their food. Plants also grow in joints and
cracks of the rocks and push them further apart. Similarly, man also breaks rocks by making roads,
constructing dams and reservoirs by drawing tunnels and mines etc. Living organisms may
contribute to mechanical weathering (as well as chemical weathering, see 'biological' weathering
below). Lichens and mosses grow on essentially bare rock surfaces and create a more humid
chemical microenvironment. The attachment of these organisms to the rock surface enhances
physical as well as chemical breakdown of the surface micro layer of the rock. On a larger scale
seedlings sprouting in a crevice and plant roots exert physical pressure as well as providing a
pathway for water and chemical infiltration. Burrowing animals and insects disturb the soil layer
adjacent to the bedrock surface thus further increasing water and acid infiltration and exposure to
oxidation processes. Tiny root hairs seek out small cracks and pits in rock. Once the root hairs find
a place they grow and expand. The expansion causes great pressure and cracks the rock.
e. Hydraulic action
This is when water (generally from powerful waves) rushes into cracks in the rockface rapidly.
This traps a layer of air at the bottom of the crack, compressing it and weakening the rock. When
the wave retreats, the trapped air is suddenly released with explosive force. The explosive release
of highly pressurized air cracks away fragments at the rockface and widens the crack itself.

Chemical weathering
Chemical weathering involves the change in the composition of rocks, often leading to a 'break
down' in its form. This is done through a combination of water and various chemicals to create an
acid which directly breaks down the material. This type of weathering happens over a period of
time. Chemical weathering may alter a rock's chemical make up by changing the minerals in the
rock or it adds some new minerals. Following are the different agents of Chemical weathering:
a) Hydrolysis
b) Oxidation
c) Reduction
d) Hydration
e) carbonation
f) solution

a. Hydrolysis
Hydrolysis is the weathering reaction that occurs when the two surfaces of water and compound
meet. It involves the reaction between mineral ions and the ions of water (OH- and H+), and results
in the decomposition of the rock surface by forming new compounds, and by increasing the pH of

38
the solution involved through the release of the hydroxide ions. Hydrolysis is especially effective
in the weathering of common silicate and alumino-silicate minerals because of their electrically
charged crystal surfaces.
b. Oxidation
Oxidation is the reaction that occurs between compounds and oxygen. The net result of this
reaction is the removal of one or more electrons from a compound, which causes the structure to
be less rigid and increasingly unstable. The most common oxides are those of iron and aluminum,
and their respective red and yellow staining of soils is quite common in tropical regions which
have high temperatures and precipitation.
c. Reduction
Reduction is simply the reverse of oxidation, and is thus caused by the addition of one or more
electrons producing a more stable compound.
d. Hydration
Hydration involves the rigid attachment of H+ and OH- ions to a reacted compound. In many
situations the H and OH ions become a structural part of the crystal lattice of the mineral. Hydration
also allows for the acceleration of other decomposition reactions by expanding the crystal lattice
offering more surface area for reaction.
e. Carbonation
Carbonation is the reaction of carbonate and bicarbonate ions with minerals. The formation of
carbonates usually takes place as a result of other chemical processes. Carbonation is especially
active when the reaction environment is abundant with carbon dioxide. The formation of carbonic
acid, a product of carbon dioxide and water, is important in the solution of carbonates and the
decomposition of mineral surfaces because of its acidic nature.
f. Solution
Water and the ions it carries as it moves through and around rocks and minerals can further the
weathering process. Geomorphologists call this phenomena solution. The effects of dissolved
carbon dioxide and hydrogen ions in water have already been mentioned, but solution also entails
the effects of a number of other dissolved compounds on a mineral or rock surface. Molecules can
mix in solution to form a great variety of basic and acidic decompositional compounds. The extent,
however, of rock being subjected to solution is determined primarily by climatic conditions.
Solution tends to be most effective in areas that have humid and hot climates.

The most important factor affecting the entire above mentioned chemical weathering processes is
climate. Climatic conditions control the rate of weathering that takes place by regulating the
catalysts of moisture and temperature. Experimentation has discovered that tropical weathering
rates, where temperature and moisture are at their maximum, are three and a half times higher than
rates in temperate environments.
Biological Weathering
Biological weathering involves the disintegration of rock and mineral due to the chemical and/or
physical agents of an organism. The types of organisms that can cause weathering range from
bacteria to plants to animals.

39
Biological weathering involves processes that can be either chemical or physical in character.
Some of the more important processes are:
Simple breaking of particles, by the consumption of soils particles by animals. Particles can also
fracture because of animal burrowing or by the pressure put forth by growing roots.
Movement and mixing of materials. Many large soil organisms cause the movement of soil
particles. This movement can introduce the materials to different weathering processes found at
distinct locations in the soil profile.
Simple chemical processes like solution can be enhanced by the carbon dioxide produced by
respiration. Carbon dioxide mixing with water forms carbonic acid.
The complex chemical effects that occur as a result of chelation. Chelation is a biological process
where organisms produce organic substances, known as chelates that have the ability to decompose
minerals and rocks by the removal of metallic cations.
Organisms can influence the moisture regime in soils and therefore enhance weathering. Shade
from aerial leaves and stems, the presence of roots masses, and humus all act to increase the
availability of water in the soil profile. Water is a necessary component in several physical and
chemical weathering processes.
Organisms can influence the pH of the soil solution. Respiration from plant roots releases carbon
dioxide. If the carbon dioxide mixes with water carbonic acid is formed which lowers soil pH.
Cation exchange reactions by which plants absorb nutrients from the soil can also cause pH
changes. The absorption processes often involves the exchange of basic cations for hydrogen ions.
Generally, the higher the concentration of hydrogen ions the more acidic a soil becomes.

Products of Weathering
The major products of weathering are a blanket of loose, decayed rock debris, known as regolith,
and rock bodies modified into spherical shapes.
a) Regolith
Weathering results in the production of fragments of shattered rock overlying the bedrock. This
material has been broken down by both chemical and physical weathering processes. This material
is collectively known as regolith.
b) Soil
One of the most important products of weathering is the formation of soil. This is the
unconsolidated material forming the earth's surface layer. The formation of soil is a very slow
process and rates may be as slow as 1cm per 200 years. The rate of soil formation does of course
vary according to many of the controls on the rates of weathering - for example, climate
(temperature and amount of precipitation) and the geology (i.e. nature of the rock and its
susceptibility or resistance to weathering. Soils begin to form with the accumulation of weathered
debris (regolith) and the addition of decayed organic matter (dead plants and animals). Minerals
from weathered rock and humus (decomposed organic matter) forms soils particles. Over time the
soil takes on distinctive characteristics - for example the distinct layers shown in the podsol
(opposite).

40
 c) Scree
Angular fragments of weathered rock found at the base of slopes are known as scree. These
accumulation of scree result from frost-shattering of exposed rock on valley sides / cliff faces. This
loose material than moves downslope due to gravity, collecting at the foot of the slope, creating a
scree slope. These slopes typically have a gradient of 30-40o. The largest material tends to be at
the base of the scree slope, due to its increased momentum under gravity - which results in some
degree of particle sorting. Lack of vegetation on scree slopes may suggest they are still actively
forming.

41
 SITE INVESTIGATION
Introduction

Site investigation is the study of local and physical conditions of a site so that, solutions, for the
anticipated problems can be found in time.

This investigation may be surface or subsurface investigations. Whether, surface or subsurface, it

is also categorized as: Linear; Aerial or Volumetric. The problem anticipated may be due to the
geology and topography of the area, climate conditions, availability of services (i.e. Labor, water
electricity, etc) and construction materials e.g. aggregates, sand etc

Most structures will require subsurface investigation because they are normally constructed
according to the requirements of specific design and for specified construction materials.

Obviously, the particulars of an investigation will vary from one site to another but in most
cases; the following objectives should be achieved.

1. To acquire geological and geotechnical data, sufficient for the geology of the site to be
described with an accuracy that can be relied upon by the design and construction
engineers.
2. To determine the suitability of the site for the construction method and economic
considerations.
3. To determined the variation in the character of the soil/ rocks within a given volume and
time
4. To determine the response of the foundation soil/ rock to certain imposed condition of
stress/ strain, e.g. by in-situ testing.

TYPES OF SITE INVESTIGATION

Site investigation may be carried out, using the following ways:

i. Linear investigation
ii. Aerial investigation
iii. Volumetric investigation

Each of these classes is briefly explained here below.

i. Linear Investigation

This is investigation where the required data is obtained below the ground level (subsurface)
along a line e.g. by bore-holes or trial pits.

42
 ii. Aerial Investigation

This is the surface investigation which is carried out through mapping and terrain evaluation. Air
photographing and geological mapping are the techniques most commonly used in this method.
The information may be used to achieve the objective of site investigation suitability.

iii. Volumetric Investigation

Here, the three-dimensional characters of the area geology are determined i.e. a given ratio of the
volume involved in the design is obtained for testing. Also in-situ tests are carried out.

The volume of the ground involved is an important factor and should be related to both the
geological framework and the size of the proposed structure.

SITE INVESTIGATION PHASES

Good site investigation for any structure will usually have three phases. These phases are:

1. Reconnaissance/ Feasibility (Desk Study)

The feasibility investigation includes the following: site location; time limit for investigation;
data collection through office and field; analysis of the data collected to make a conclusion
whether the project is feasible or not. This data should include geologic information for basing
reasonable cost estimates e.g. nature and availability of the construction materials.

In order to contain the information, stated above, research will be carried out though records,
maps and other literature relevant to the geology of the area. Also information may be obtained
from libraries, government archives and relevant organizations. (E.g. mines and geological
offices)

A short visit to the site is often desirable to confirm observations and predictions already made.
This may offer a chance to interview the local residents who may provide useful information. It
is also possible to identify area where engineering difficulties may exist and areas where
particular emphasize could be stressed.

In this stage, it is essential to compile a good report, indicating the geological and geotechnical
data, the addresses of contracts and references to literature, etc.

2. Preliminary (Field Exploration)

This is the site exploration which involves detailed investigating and provides information
necessary for project design and construction planning. Its results are incorporated into the final
design and construction stage. Consequently, it influences the building and final cost of
constructing the structure.

43
This stage aims to fulfill the following:

a) Determining and interpreting surfaces and subsurface conditions that influence design
and construction
b) Ground investigations i.e. Trial pits, bore-holes, augering etc
c) Collected samples may be taken for further testing in relevant industries

3. Final Phase/ Implementation

This is the implementation stage i.e. structure construction.

NOTE: It is a misconception to conclude that, once the construction starts, the work of the
geologists end

Investigations should continue, even during construction, because geological conditions

encountered during the construction may differ from what was expected.

Therefore, continued investigations for changing the project design (if the need to do so arises)
and avoiding major problems in structure performance is necessary.

METHODS OF SITE INVESTIGATIONS

Site investigations can be carried out in laboratory or in-situ and in most cases in both.

Laboratory investigations, which involves various laboratory tests on sample from the proposed
site, is normally carried out when:

i. The suitability of a material, i.e. rock or soil for a particular use must be assessed e.g.
in road construction.
ii. The material composition is not clear and has to be evaluated.

In-situ investigations will involve field tests such as borehole drilling, geological mapping, stress
measurements, deformability tests etc.

The choice of either laboratory or in-situ method is dependent on many factors e.g. information
required for design, type of site material, location and topography, availability of equipment,
services (labor), costs of tests etc.

44
 SAMPLES AND SAMPLING

Samples and sampling involves sample selection, sample collection and sample storage. Each of
these is briefly explained here below.

1. Sample Selection

Care must be taken while sampling soil and rocks to ensure that the sample is the true
representative of the particular material to be investigated and that its disturbance during
sampling will not adversely affect the results of the tests to be performed upon it. However, the
selection of sampling techniques depends on the quality of the sample which is required and the
character of the ground; particularly the extent to which it will be disturbed by the sampling
process.

2. Sample Collection

Rock samples to be tested in laboratories normally have dimensions which prevent them from
containing major surfaces of weakness e.g. joints. There are four main techniques of obtaining
samples.

These are as listed below:

a) From the drill tool or excavating equipments

b) From a tube or spelt tube sampler with a sharp cutting edge at its lower end
c) Rotary sampling i.e. samples are obtained from a tube with a cutter at its lower end,
which is rotated into the ground
d) Block sampling i.e. samples from trial pits e.g. in highly fissured over consolidated
clay soils

3. Samples Storage

Necessary precautions should be observed when handling and storing samples, particularly those
of soils and soft rocks. Samples of hard rocks are less delicate but still require reasonably careful
handling.

Adequate containers should be provided that will protect the samples from any further
disturbance after collection i.e. at least two large durable labels giving the location and depth
from where the samples were taken, their date of collection and serial numbers should be written
from every sample. One label is placed inside the containers and the other attached to the outside
of it. A list of the serial numbers of the samples should be recorded in the site daily.

45
 SITE INVESTIGATIONS FOR FOUNDATIONS

1. Objectives
a) Is the site stable?
b) Bearing capacity and settlement for each stratum
c) Type of foundation - spread footings or piles
d) Basement design - earth and water pressures
e) Sulphate attack on buried concrete
f) Construction - excavation procedure and ground water problems

2. Depth of Investigation
a) Approximately twice width of loaded area if soil profile unknown
b) To prove base of soft strata
c) At least 3.0m longer than maximum pile length (18.0 - 24.0m for small diameter bored or
driven and 36.0m for large diameter bored).
d) Trial pits or borings to base of any fills; if trial pits are not possible, some of the
boreholes should be for continuous 100mm diameter sampling.

3. Information Required from Preliminary Site Inspection

a) Topography and probable ground water conditions
b) Geology and subsoil conditions
c) Any signs of natural instability (e.g. landslides)
d) Previous uses of site, in particular, excavations, fills and old buried foundations
e) Possibility of natural underground cavities, e.g. solution cavities or swallow holes
f) Possibility of man-made underground cavities e.g. mining, drainage adits etc.
g) Age and character of any fill in site; is it still settling under its own weight? is it likely to
be an environmental hazard if disturbed, (e.g. obnoxious chemicals)?
h) Existing buildings; types of foundations used; is there any sign of distress, (e.g.
settlement cracks)?

4. Information Required from Ground Investigation

a) Subsoil profile
b) Soil classification
c) Standard penetration tests in granular soils
d) Undisturbed samples (100mm diameter) in clays for laboratory testing to determine quick
undrained shear strength and consolidation properties
e) Sulphate analysis on soil and/or ground water
f) Ground water table (standpipe needed)
g) Insitu permeability tests, if dewatering is to be considered
h) Fills - description, classification, strength, compressibility, and chemical analysis

46
 QUARRYING
Introduction

Quarrying is normally carried out for borrow materials e.g. gravels (murram), crushed rocks
(aggregates etc). Usually borrow excavations is used when extra materials are required for
structural purposes or when the site materials are not suitable as construction materials.

Once a suitable quarry material has been identified, the first step is to construct access road and
identify the boundaries of the quarry area. Quarrying is a large scale operation that requires
careful planning for mass production. The required material is excavated using the common
excavation methods and machines.

For loose materials, the common machines are dozers (of various sizes), shovels (loaders),
scrapers and lorries. Rock excavation is usually done by rock blasting.

Safety Precautions

Safety is a prime factor in excavations and all, excavations must be protected. Protection of a
quarry means taking steps to ensure that the side walls do not cave in necessitating costly work
in removing the fallen in materials, besides other damages. The amount of protection required
depends on the type of material being excavated, the depth of excavation, level of the water
table, etc.

Rock Excavation

The ease with which rock and soil may be excavated and the stability of the hole that is thereby
created will be influenced by the strength of the rock.

The common methods used for quarrying are scrapping, ripping, digging and blasting as
explained here below:

Scrapping, Ripping and Digging

These are the common methods used for removing soft and weak rocks e.g. silt, shale, weathered
rock (soil), etc.

NOTE: Care should be taken in selecting equipment for this kind of excavation because the
rocks may contain soft bands interbedded with hard strata i.e. make proper investigation first
before starting to do work.

47
Rock Blasting

Rock blasting is required in order to loosen or decrease the rock sizes to manageable blocks. It is
strictly a specialist’s job i.e. usually carried out by a licensed officer.

However, it is important that, the basic principles be understood by those involved with the
construction job. Rock blasting includes drilling the holes that would house explosives and
clearing away the broken rock fragments.

For smooth blasting, which will not adversely affect the environment i.e. vibrations, noise or
loosen rocks not required for blasting, blast holes are drilled sufficiently close to each other.

Holes can be drilled vertically, horizontally or at an angle, depending on circumstances. When

holes’ drilling is complete, they should be cleaned with a jet of compressed air and then closed
with wooden pegs, ready to receive explosives.

The structure of a rock has a profound influence upon the efficiency of blasting as bedding,
jointing, cleavage and other discontinuities reflect the shock waves radiating from a blast and
cause the rock to fail in tension. The strength of rock also influences the efficiency of blasting.
Considerable difficulties are presented by fragmental rocks containing hard and soft material.

Explosives

Explosives commonly used are capable of rapid and violent decomposition, resulting into a large
volume of gas. The explosives may be dynamites (liquid) or blasting powder. Dynamite is
basically composed of liquid nitroglycerine as sensitizer, saw dust as the liquid absorber, sodium
nitrate and a small amount of anti-acid material e.g. zinc oxide or calcium carbonate.

For practical use, dynamites are rolled into cartridges covered with wax-impregnated manila
paper. The cartridges sizes range from 25mm to 100mm in diameter and 200mm to 600mm in
length.

Cartridge
200mm – 600mm

25mm – 100mm

48
To produce an explosion, dynamites may be ignited (fired) by using a safety fuse connected
directly to the cartridge. A safety fuse consists of black powder, protected by a flexible fabric
tube.

For safety, the following points should be noted when blasting is being undertaken:

1. No smoking should be allowed when explosives are being handled.

2. Before firing, all the area should be cleared by appropriate methods.
3. The area with loaded holes should be marked clearly with appropriate signs e.g. red flags
NOTE: The bulking of the loosened material is usually more than 30% for rocks and this should
be taken into account when planning the clearance of the excavated materials.

Rock Failure

The stability of rocks is an important consideration in excavations and the rock block that has
been blasted is weakened i.e. its stability is affected and should be handled with care. However,
it is only when the signs of failure are known that precautions can be taken, but note that, rock
failure has no warning.

Rock failure may occur in three ways which may operate separately or in combination i.e. by
rock fall, shear failure and rock flow. These are briefly explained below:

i. Rock Fall
Rock fall occurs when loose rock develops on the face of a slope, with the slope angle being
greater than the angle of repose of the loose material or when the loose material lacks support.

Slope angle. This angle of slope

will affect the rock fall

The rock blocks fall or roll to the bottom of the slope. This loosened rock blocks may be due to
the reduced shear strength of the rock mass during the rock excavation.

49
 ii. Shear Failure (Rotational failure)
Shear failure occurs by rotation of a mass of rock on a circular arc. Also sliding may occur along
a geological plane of weakness e.g. a joint.

This block falls by rotation or sliding,

depending on the slope angle.

iii. Rock Flow (Creep)

Rock flow or creep occurs in hard rock masses i.e. a rock block breaks and rests on another one,
thus putting additional weight on the adjacent rock whose strength (shear) is exceeded, leading to
failure.
This block falls and lands on another
one which also fails and continues to
the bottom i.e. rock flow

NOTE: Rock failure may lead to fatal accidents and the following steps should be taken into
consideration in order to minimize the rock failure:

1. Avoid overcharging explosives during rock blasting.

2. Avoid toe material excavation.
3. Avoid dumping waste material at the top of the excavations or excavated slopes.
4. Ensure proper drainage around the excavated area.
5. Flatter slopes are preferable to steep ones if the site conditions allow.
6. Use rock reinforcing for deep cuts e.g. by covering with wire-mesh, using pressure
grouting (to the joints) or rock belts.

50
Rock Reinforcing

Normally, when constructing in rocks, the design requirements will be dominated by the insitu
mechanical properties of the rock mass. Rock reinforcements will make it possible to construct
tunnels, make deep cuts in roads or quarries, and construct dams etc. where without the use of
such techniques, it may not be possible or safe.

Rock reinforcement means the designed use of the rock bolts, wire mesh, stressed cables,
pressure grouting etc. in order to strengthen the rock around an excavation.

Rock reinforcement preserves all the natural competency of the rock and just adds the required
increment of strength to minimize failure.

The most popular rock reinforcement method is the use of rock bolts. These may be grouted or
un-grouted along their length. They are tensioned in such a way that they give the rock a degree
of tensile strength. They must provide a firm anchorage for the bolt if grouting is not used. This
is as shown in the sketch below:
Top or Surface
Support i.e. metal
or strong timber
Cracks or Joints

Rock bolts

Bottom of the excavation

A combination of rock bolting and grouting may be used where there is a danger of rock failure
during pressure grouting.

Pressure grouting is a technique of injecting a fluid grout (e.g. cement solution) into the rocks so
that all air or water in the joints (or cracks) will be filled with this product and thus providing
added strength.

The pressure may be over 7,000 KN/m2, but this should be tested first (using hydraulic fracture
test) so that the rock is not fractured further.

51
Grouting may be necessary below dams, around and ahead of tunneling in order to reduce
leakages.

52
 Earthquakes: Folds and Faults
Explain how earthquakes result from forces inside Earth.

 Plate tectonics cause many of the physical features that we see on earth today like volcanoes and
earthquakes, but also other geologic features like faults. A geologic fault is a fracture in the earth‟s
crust causing loss of cohesion and accompanied by displacement along the fracture.
 At the Earth‟s surface, rock will break (brittle behavior) when put under large amounts of stress.
Deep within the earth, however, rocks flow plastically (ductile behavior). The force, or stress,
exerted on the rock may cause a change in shape or volume of the rock, called strain.

 Because rocks can “flow” when they are deep within the earth, they are considered ductile.
They pass the point of ductile behavior closer to the earth‟s surface, where the rocks behave more
brittle. When rocks pass from this ductile state to a brittle state, the rocks may break along a
surface called a fault. The sudden release of stored strain energy causes an earthquake.

 For example, a dried tree branch is an example of brittle deformation. If you begin to bend a
branch, it will only bend to a certain limit, or its elastic limit. Once it passes the elastic limit, it will
break in a brittle fashion.

Tree branch reaching

Tree branch bending it‟s elastic limit and
Tree branch
53 elastically breaking along a
surface
 What is an earthquake?
 Earthquakes occur within the
Earth‟s crust along faults that
suddenly release large amounts
of energy that have built up over
long periods of time.
 The shaking during an
earthquake is caused by seismic
waves. Seismic waves are
generated when rock within the
crust breaks, producing a
tremendous amount of energy.
The energy released moves out
in all directions as waves, much
like ripples radiating outward
when you drop a pebble in a
pond.
 The Earth‟s crust near tectonic Earthquake locations around the world and their
plate edges are forced to bend, correlation to plate boundaries. Plate boundaries are
compress, and stretch due to the outlined by red circles, which indicate past
internal forces within the earth, earthquake epicenters. Credit: McGraw Hill/Glencoe, 1st ed., pg.
causing earthquakes. 143. 54

 Nearly all earthquakes occur at plate boundaries.

 Seismic Waves
Explain how scientists use seismic waves—primary, secondary, and surface waves—and Earth’s magnetic fields to determine the internal
structure of Earth

 Seismic waves are generated by the release of energy during an earthquake. They travel
through the earth like waves travel through water.
 The location within the Earth where the rock actually breaks is called the focus of the
earthquake. Most foci are located within 65 km of the Earth‟s surface; however, some have
been recorded at depths of 700 km. The location on the Earth‟s surface directly above the focus
is called the epicenter.
 The study of seismic waves and earthquakes is called seismology, which is a branch of
geophysics.

Two types of seismic waves are generated at the earthquake focus:

1. Body waves spread outward from the focus in all directions.

2. Surface waves spread outward from the epicenter to the Earth‟s surface, similar to
ripples on a pond. These waves can move rock particles in a rolling motion that very few
structures can withstand. These waves move slower than body waves.
55
 Seismic Waves, continued
There are two types of Body Waves:
1. Primary Wave (P wave): Compressional wave
(travels in the same direction the waves move).
Example: A slinky.
* Very fast (4-7 km/second)
* Can pass through a fluid (gas or liquid)
* Arrives at recording station first

2. Secondary Wave (S wave): Transverse wave (travels

perpendicular to the wave movement). Example:
Shaking a rope.
• Slower moving (2-5 km/second)
• Caused by a shearing motion
• Cannot pass through a fluid (gas or liquid)
56
 Seismic Waves, continued
 Surfaces waves are produced when earthquake energy reaches the Earth‟s surface. Surface
waves moves rock particles in a rolling and swaying motion, so that the earth moves in different
directions.
 These are the slowest moving waves, but are the most destructive for structures on earth.

Diagram representing the damaging back-and-forth motion

57
of a surface wave. (Credit: McGraw Hill/Glencoe, 1st ed., pg. 163)
 Mapping the earth: Seismic waves
 The deepest well ever drilled was 12 kilometers in Russia. The Earth‟s radius is 6,370 km, so
drilling can barely “scratch the surface.”
 A branch of geology called seismology lets us obtain information about the interior of the Earth
without directly observing it. Seismologists apply principles and laws of physics to study the
internal structure of the earth.
 Geophysics includes the study of seismic waves and the Earth‟s magnetic and gravity fields and
heat flow. Because we cannot directly observe the Earth's interior, geophysical methods allow us to
investigate the interior of the Earth by making measurements at the surface. Without studying
these things, we would know nothing of the Earth‟s internal structure.
 Keeping in mind that seismic waves have similar properties to other types of waves (e.g. light
waves), the wave properties of reflection and refraction are useful for learning about the Earth‟s
interior. Results of early studies showed that the internal structure of the Earth consists of distinct
layers:

1. Seismic reflection: Seismic waves bounce (reflect) off rock boundaries of different rock type,
and their travel times are recorded on a seismogram. The seismogram records the time it took
for the waves to travel to the boundary, reflect off of it and return to the surface. Seismologists
can measure the time this takes and calculate the depth to the boundary.
Seismograph
Station
Seismic waves reflect off of a rock
boundary in the earth and return to a Layer A
58
seismograph station on the surface. Reflecting
Layer B Boundary
2. Seismic refraction: Waves change velocity and direction (refract) when they enter a medium of
different density than the one they just passed through.

Low-velocity layer: Seismic wave travels slow.

Layer A
Example: Granite

High-velocity layer: Seismic wave travels fast.

Layer B
Example: Gabbro

Research from seismic reflection and refraction has led to many important discoveries such as:
1. There are three main layers of the Earth: The crust, mantle, and core.
2. The continental crust is thicker than oceanic crust and seismic waves travel slower in the
continental crust meaning that they are made up of different kinds of rock (granite/basalt).
3. There is a distinct boundary between the crust and the mantle called the Mohorovicic
discontinuity, or, simply, the Moho. At this boundary, seismic waves are refracted.
4. There is a layer within the mantle up to 70 km thick beneath the ocean and up to 250 km thick
beneath the continents where waves travel slower than in more shallow layers. This layer is
called the low-velocity zone, and scientists have concluded that this zone is at least partially
liquid. In plate-tectonic theory, it is called the asthenosphere, which is the semi-molten region
of the earths‟ interior just below the earth‟s rigid
59 crust that allows for tectonic plate movement.

5. P-waves can pass through the outer core but S-waves cannot. The outer core is a molten liquid.
 In the early 1900‟s scientists discovered that parts of the Earth‟s surface did not receive direct
earthquake waves.
 Scientists found that direct P-waves “disappear” from seismograms in a region between 104 and
140 degrees away from an epicenter. The seismic waves are bent, or refracted, upon encountering
the core-mantle boundary, casting a shadow called the P-wave shadow zone.
 Direct S-waves are not recorded in the entire region more than 104 degrees away from an
epicenter, and this is referred to as the S-wave shadow zone. The S-wave shadow zone, together
with the knowledge that liquids do not transmit S-waves, is evidence that the outer core is liquid
(or behaves as liquid).

 S-waves cannot travel through liquids because they are

shear waves, which attempt to change the shape of what
they pass through. Simply put, a liquid “doesn‟t care”
what shape it‟s in—for example, you can empty a bottle
of water into an empty box, and it will change shape with
the shape of container. Liquids cannot support shear
stresses, so shearing has no effect on them. Therefore, a
liquid will not propagate shears waves.

A cross-sectional figure of the layers of the earth with P-

and S-wave propagation. McGraw Hill/Glencoe, 1st ed.,60
pg. 172
 Seismic Waves: Mapping the earth
 Both P- and S-waves slow down when they reach the asthenosphere. Because of this, scientists
know that the asthenosphere is partially liquid.
 The asthenosphere (Greek: weak) is the uppermost part of the mantle, which is partially
molten. Lithospheric, or tectonic, plates are able to “slide” in different directions on top of the
asthenosphere. Because seismic waves travel slowly here, it is also called the “low velocity” zone.
 The boundary between the crust and the mantle is distinguished by jump in seismic wave
velocity. This feature is known as the Mohorovicic Discontinuity.

 Changes in velocity (km/s) of P- and

S-waves allow seismologists to identify
Mohorivicic
Discontinuity the locations of boundaries within the
earth such as the Mohorovicic boundary
Low near the earth‟s surface and the
Velocity
Zone
boundary between the mantle and outer
core.
MOLTEN

61
Modified after McGraw Hill/Glencoe, 1st ed., pg. 173
 Seismic Waves: Epicenter location
Infer an earthquake’s epicenter from seismographic data.
 Although S-waves, P-waves and surface waves all start out at the same time, they travel at
different speeds. The speed of a traveling seismic wave can be used to determine the location of an
earthquake epicenter.
 A seismograph records the arrival time and the magnitude of horizontal and vertical
movements caused by an earthquake. The arrival time between different seismic waves is used to
calculate the travel time and the distance from the epicenter.
 The difference in arrival time between primary waves and secondary waves is used to calculate
the distance from the seismograph station to the epicenter.
 It is crucial that seismic waves are recorded by three different seismograph stations in order to
estimate the location of the epicenter (see next slide.)

R1
This example shows seismic waves Station
arriving at different times at two A

1st
2nd
seismograph stations. Station B is

3rd
farther away from Station A so the
waves take longer to reach Station
B. Primary waves arrive first, R2
followed by secondary waves, and
then surface waves. Credit: Modified Station
after Plummer/McGeary, 7th ed., pg.

2nd
1st
62 B

3rd
 Seismic Waves: Epicenter location
 Earthquake scientists, or seismologists, can locate the epicenter of an earthquake as long as
the vibrations are felt at three different seismograph stations.
1. Locate at least 3 stations on a map that recorded the seismic waves
2. Calculate the time difference between arrival of P-waves and arrival of S-waves from a
seismogram. The time difference is proportional to the distance from the epicenter.
Because the direction to the epicenter is unknown, the distance defines a circle around the
receiving station. The radius of each circle equals that station‟s distance from the
earthquake epicenter.
3. The epicenter is where the circles intersect.

Epicenter location using three stations.

McGraw Hill/ Glencoe, 1st ed., pg 170

Earthquake nomenclature based on

proximity to the epicenter:
- Local event: Epicenter of felt
earthquake < 100km away
- Regional event: Epicenter of felt
earthquake is 100 to 1400 km away
- Teleseismic event: Epicenter of felt 63
earthquake > than 1400 km away
 Mapping the earth: Magnetic anomalies
Explain how scientists use seismic waves—primary, secondary, and surface waves—and Earth’s magnetic fields to determine the internal
structure of Earth

 The Earth‟s magnetic field is used along with seismic waves to help understand the interior of
the Earth. The geomagnetic field surrounds the Earth in a south to north direction and has been
studied for many years due to its importance in navigation.
 The current hypothesis for the origin of geomagnetic field is that it is created by electrical
currents generated within the liquid outer core. The heat of the outer core (5000-6000° C) drives
convection of the molten material. The convection of a metallic liquid creates electric currents,
which, in turn, creates a magnetic field. This is a dynamo model, where mechanical energy of
convection generates an electrical energy and a magnetic field.
 Magnetism has two important components: intensity and direction. Most rocks differ in their
magnetism, depending upon their content of iron-bearing minerals, i.e. magnetic susceptibility.
For example, a body of magnetite or gabbro is strongly magnetic, and their magnetic signature
makes them stand out from other rocks. Additionally, when rocks form, they acquire the direction
(polarity) of the magnetic field existing at that time.
 Magnetic anomalies are deviations from the normal magnetic direction (i.e. today‟s), or they are
exceptionally large differences (positive or negative) in magnetic intensity relative to average
values of surrounding rocks. Anomalies occur all over the earth and are sometimes indicative of
different rock types under the earth‟s surface.
 Magnetic intensity anomalies can be measured by magnetometers, which are often towed
behind ships or flown over land surfaces to aid in64mapping deposits in the earth.
 Earthquake classification scales
 Earthquakes can be very destructive at the Earth‟s surface. The magnitude of an earthquake is a
measure of how destructive it is. Basically the magnitude corresponds to how much energy is
released.
 The Richter Scale is used to express earthquake magnitude on the basis of the height (amplitude)
of the largest line (seismic wave, P or S) on a seismogram. The Richter scale was originally
developed for earthquakes in Southern California. The utility of this scale was its ability to account
for decreased wave amplitude with increased distance from the epicenter. Richter‟s scale is also a
logarithmic scale.
 Today, a standard magnitude scale is used, Seismic Moment, which more accurately represents
the energy released in an earthquake, especially large magnitude events.
 The majority of earthquakes are minor and have magnitudes of 3-4.9 on the Richter scale. These
can be felt, but cause little or no damage, and there are about 55,000 of these earthquakes each year.
 Thousands of earthquakes are recorded every day with magnitudes < 3.0 but are almost never
felt.
 The Mercalli scale is different from the Richter scale because it measures the intensity of how
people and structures are affected by the seismic event. In essence, it measures damage. It is much
more subjective and uses numbers ranging from 1 (no damage) to 12 (total destruction).
65
The Richter Scale
Frequency of
Richter Magnitudes Description Earthquake Effects
Occurrence

Less than 2.0 Micro Micro-earthquakes, not felt. About 8,000 per day

2.0-2.9 Minor Generally not felt, but recorded. About 1,000 per day

3.0-3.9 Minor Often felt, but rarely causes damage. 49,000 per year (est.)

4.0-4.9 Light Noticeable shaking of indoor items, rattling noises. Significant damage unlikely. 6,200 per year (est.)

Can cause major damage to poorly constructed buildings over small regions. At most
5.0-5.9 Moderate slight damage to well-designed buildings. 800 per year

6.0-6.9 Strong Can be destructive in areas up to about 100 miles across in populated areas. 120 per year

7.0-7.9 Major Can cause serious damage over larger areas. 18 per year

8.0-8.9 Great Can cause serious damage in areas several hundred miles across. 1 per year

9.0-9.9 Great Devastating in areas several thousand miles across. 1 per 20 years

10.0+ Great Never recorded; see below for equivalent seismic energy yield. Extremely rare (Unknown)

Complications of the Richter scale include:

1. The Richter scale originally only applied to shallow-focus earthquakes in southern California
so now must be modified.
2. Magnitudes calculated from seismograms above
66 7 tend to be inaccurate.
The Mercalli scale of earthquake intensity
I. Not felt except by a very few under especially favorable conditions.
II. Felt only by a few persons at rest, especially on upper floors of buildings. Delicately suspended
objects may swing.
III. Felt quite noticeably by persons indoors, especially on upper floors of buildings. Many people do
not recognize it as an earthquake. Standing motor cars may rock slightly. Vibration similar to the
passing of a truck. Duration estimated.
IV. Felt indoors by many, outdoors by few during the day. At night, some awakened. Dishes,
windows, doors disturbed; walls make cracking sound. Sensation like heavy truck striking
building. Standing motor cars rocked noticeably.
V. Felt by nearly everyone; many awakened. some dishes, windows broken. Unstable objects
overturned. Pendulum clocks may stop.
VI. Felt by all, many frightened. Some heavy furniture moved; a few instances of fallen plaster.
Damage slight.
VII. Damage negligible in buildings of good design and construction; slight to moderate in well-built
ordinary structures; considerable damage in poorly built or badly designed structures; some
chimneys broken.
VIII. Damage slight in specially designed structures; considerable damage in ordinary substantial
buildings with partial collapse. Damage great in poorly built structures. Fall of chmineys, factory
stacks, columns, monuments, walls. Heavy furniture overturned.
IX. Damage considerable in specially designed structures; well-designed frame structures thrown out
of plumb. Damage great in substantial buildings, with partial collapse. Buildings shifted off
foundations.
X. Some well-built wooden structures destroyed; most masonry and frame structures destroyed with
foundations. Rail bent.
XI. Few, if any (masonry) structures remain standing. Bridges destroyed. Rails bent greatly.
67
XII. Damage total. Lines of sight and level are distorted. Objects thrown into the air.
 The Big Ones: Earthquakes from around the world
 Charleston Earthquake: The Charleston Earthquake struck this eastern South Carolina city on August 31,
1886. East Coast earthquakes are felt over a much larger area than earthquakes occurring on the West Coast,
because the eastern half of the country is mainly composed of older rock that has not been fractured and
cracked by frequent earthquake activity in the recent geologic past. Rock that is highly fractured and
crushed absorbs more seismic energy than rock that is less fractured. The Charleston earthquake, with an
estimated magnitude of about 7.0, was felt as far away as Chicago, more than 1,300 km to the northwest,
whereas the 7.1-magnitude Loma Prieta earthquakes was felt no farther than Los Angeles, about 500 km
south. Approximately 60 people were killed as a result of this historic earthquake.
 New Madrid Earthquake: Three quakes over 8.0 occurred from Dec 16, 1811 to February 7, 1812. This was an
unusual place for an earthquake, and seemed to represent a weak point in the North American tectonic plate.
Survivors reported that they saw the ground rolling in waves. Scientists estimate that the possibility of
another earthquake at the New Madrid fault zone in the next 50 years is higher than 90 percent. The most
widely felt earthquakes ever to strike the United States were centered near the town of New Madrid,
Missouri, in 1811 and 1812. Three earthquakes, felt as far away as Washington D.C., were each estimated to
be above 8.0 in magnitude.
 San Francisco Earthquake (April 18, 1906, 5:12am): Occurred
along the San Andreas Fault. The total population at the time
was 400,000, the death toll was 3,000 and 225,000 were left
homeless. 28,000 buildings were destroyed and damages were
estimated at $400 million from the earthquake plus fire, but only
$80 million from the earthquake alone. Horizontal displacement
was 15 feet with a visible scar 280 miles long. Fires caused by
broken gas lines raged for 3 days until buildings were destroyed
to create a firebreak. The vast percentage of damage was68 done
by fires.
Damage to Stanford University. Source USGS:
http://earthquake.usgs.gov/regional/nca/1906/18april/casualties.php
 The Loma Prieta Earthquake (5:04pm
October 17, 1989) occurred along the San
Andreas Fault Zone with the epicenter located
in the Santa Cruz Mountains, 70 miles south
of the San Franciso earthquake. It registered
6.9 on the Richter Scale with a final death toll
of 63 people and damages of $6 billion.
Resulting fires were hard to manage due to
broken water lines. The total tremor time
lasted approximately 15 seconds.
Photo left: Cypress Freeway collapsed- 42 people killed at this
section. Right: Bay bridge section collapse.
Source:http://www.olympus.net/personal/gofamily/quake/famo
us/prieta.html

 The Good Friday Earthquake (March 27, 1964 at 5:36pm): At 9.2 on the Richter Scale, this was
the largest earthquake to occur in the U.S. in recorded history. The death toll was only 115 due to
the scarcity of people in this area. Damages were approximately $300 million. A 30 mile x 125 mile
block of land was raised 40 ft, and a similar block dropped 3-6 feet. The tremor, which lasted 3
minutes, created a tsunami that drowned 100 people in Alaska, Oregon and California. Landslides
destroyed parts of Anchorage, 90 miles away.

Lisbon, Portugal: November 1, 1755. 9:40 am on All Souls Day. The quake triggered a tsunami
with a wave 50-ft high, which crashed through the city. Buildings collapsed of killing many people,
and waves swept thousands more away. Fires ran unchecked for 3 days, completing the
destruction of the capitol. Over 60,000 people69died in the city alone and thousands more in
surrounding areas.
 Quake-resistant Structures

 While it is not possible to accurately predict earthquakes, measures can be taken to reduce the devastation by
constructing earthquake-resistant structures. Earthquakes have the ability to level entire office buildings and
homes, destroy bridges and overpasses, roads, and break underground water lines. In some cases, building
practices are not up to code, and in the event of an earthquake, the loss of life is catastrophic.
 In earthquake-prone areas, buildings are now being constructed with moorings filled with alternating layers
of rubber and steel. These are called base isolators. The rubber acts as an “earthquake absorber.” Buildings
with these types of moorings are designed to withstand a magnitude 8.3 earthquake.
 In attempts to reduce damage to structures, engineers try to
1. Increase the natural period of the structure through “base isolation.”
2. Install “energy dissipating devices” to dampen the system.

Cited from http://www.architectjaved.com/equake_resistant.html

 Simple reinforcement methods used by engineers include using large bolts to

secure buildings to their foundations, as well as providing supporting walls, or
shear walls, made of reinforced concrete. This can help to reduce the rocking
effect of a building during and after a seismic event.
 Shear walls at the center of the building (around an elevator shaft) can form a
shear core.
 Employing cross-braces, where walls are built with diagonal steel beams, adds
extra support.

(http://www.worldbook.com/wb/Students?content_spotlight/earthquakes/damage_reducing)
70

World Book illustration by Dan Swanson, Van

Garde Imagery
 Earthquakes: Tsunamis
Explain how natural processes (including weathering, erosion, deposition, landslides, volcanic eruptions, earthquakes, and floods) affect
Earth’s oceans and land in constructive and destructive ways.

 An underwater earthquake with a magnitude of 8 or higher on the Richter scale can

affect the earth‟s oceans by causing a tsunami. Less commonly, tsunamis are also
caused by submarine landslides or volcanic explosions.
 Tsunamis are sometimes called seismic sea waves. They can destroy everything in
the coastal zone, but they occur as small unnoticeable waves out at sea.
 This is because the earthquake generates a rolling wave out in the open water;
however, as the waves approach shore, they start to “feel” the bottom of the sea floor.
The waves slow down near the bottom, causing a huge wave to build up on top as the
top is still moving at its original speed. This is the same as the way regular waves form
in the surf zone. The tsunami, however, can be a one-hundred foot high wall of water
moving at 450 miles per hour.

Sketch showing the generation of a

Tsunami from an underwater
earthquake. Credit: McGraw Hill/Glencoe, 1st ed.,
pg. 178

71
Dislocation of seafloor
Standard 5-3.1

The Great Sumatra-Andaman Earthquake/Tsunami

 Since 1945, more people have been killed by tsunamis than earthquakes. A tsunami event that occurred
recently and received global news coverage was the catastrophic tsunami that was generated in the Indian Ocean
on December 26, 2004. The epicenter of the earthquake that triggered the series of tsunami‟s was located off the
west coast of Sumatra, Indonesia. More than 225,000 people in 11 countries were killed. The waves were up to
100 feet high.
 The earthquake was the 2nd largest ever recorded on a seismograph at ~9.2 on the Richter scale and it cause the
entire planet to vibrate up to 1 centimeter, causing smaller earthquakes in other parts of the world.
 The tsunami took anywhere from 15 minutes to 7 hours to reach the various coastlines that were devastated.
In the minutes preceding the tsunami wave, the sea withdrew from the shores by nearly 2 miles, attracting people
to the beach with fatal consequences.
 Tsunami warning systems are now in place in the Indian Ocean; however, it is only in the aftermath of such a
horrific catastrophe.

Total destruction- Band Aceh

72

Photos USGS: http://walrus.wr.usgs.gov/tsunami/sumatra05/photos.html

 Earthquakes: Seiches
 A seiche is a large wave occurring in an enclosed body of water such as a lake and is sometimes
referred to as a „slosh.‟ Small rhythmic waves are always present on larger lakes. In French, the
word means “to sway back and forth.” You have probably created seiche-like phenomena in your
own bath.
 The wave has a very long wavelength. If you are in a boat in the middle of a lake, you would
not notice the seiche wave, much like a tsunami wave in the deep ocean. Also the speed of the
wave depends on the depth of the water.
 Seiches can be caused by meterological phenomena and the effects are similar to a storm surge
with extreme wave heights that oscillate from one side of the lake to the other for extended periods
of time.
 In 1959, a 7.3 magnitude earthquake occurred in Montana.
As a result of faulting near Hebgen Lake, the bedrock beneath
the lake was permanently warped, causing the lake floor to
drop and generate a seiche. Maximum subsidence was 6.7
meters in Hebgen Lake Basin. About 130 square kilometers
subsided more than 3 meters, and about 500 square
kilometers subsided more than 0.3 meters.
Photo; USGS- Damaged and collapsed buildings at the Blarneystone Ranch, near Hebgen Lake,
Montana, caused by the August 18, 1959, earthquake. (Photograph by I.J. Witkind.)

 Consequently, in Yellowstone National Park, new

73 geysers erupted, and massive slumping
caused large cracks in the ground, which emitted steam, and many hot springs became muddy.
 Earthquakes: Turbidity Current
 Turbidity currents are huge masses of sediment-laden water that flow down the continental
slope (usually in a submarine canyon) due to gravity and density differences between the ocean
water and the more dense sediment-laden water. They are sometimes referred to as density
currents and are usually triggered by underwater earthquakes, although strong surface storms and
floods from sediment-rich rivers can also trigger a current.
 Recent evidence for these catastrophic events comes from broken submarine cables on the ocean
floor. The fact that large cables can be snapped by a turbidity current is a good indication of their
size, speed, and energy.
 Example: After the 1929 earthquake in the Grand Banks region occurred, a string of underwater
telephone cables on the Atlantic sea floor began breaking and continued to break up to 13 hours
after the initial earthquake. The last cable to snap was 700 km from the epicenter. It has been
estimated that the currents were traveling at 15-60 km/hr.
 Sediment deposited by turbidity currents are called turbidites and are geologically unique and
recognizable by their layering (graded bedding and Bouma Sequences).

To see the formation of a Image Courtesy United

States Geological Survey;
turbidity current in a Image source: Earth
Science World Image Bank
laboratory flume, follow http://www.earthsciencewor

this link: ld.org/images

74

Example of graded bedding/ Bouma Sequences

 Liquefaction of an Earthen Dam:
A South Carolina case study
 Liquefaction is a common phenomenon and is
defined as the point where a water-saturated soil
turns from a solid into a liquid due to loss of
cohesion. Whenever a loose material like soil or
sand is saturated with water and then undergoes
some external pressure or vibration, it loses its
“strength” and begins to liquefy because all of the
water that was trapped in the pores between the
material is released almost instantly.
Niigata earthquake, from the Earthquake Engineering
Research Center Library, University of California at Berkeley

 Liquefaction may occur several minutes after an earthquake. It can cause buildings to sink,
underground tanks to float to the surface, and dams to collapse as once-solid sediment flows like
water.

 When you are walking along the beach and your feet sink into the wet sand with every step that
you take, you are actually liquefying the sand that you are stepping on. Because the sand is
saturated and you are exerting pressure on the sand, you are effectively pushing the pore water
trapped in the spaces of the sand out (i.e. raising pore-water pressure), thereby causing it to “flow”
around your foot. 75
 Dams, especially earthen dams, pose a significant risk of failing via liquefaction, flooding
everything for miles downstream with a slurry of water and sediment.
 While concrete dams will fail through cracking under intense, local seismic activity, earthen
dams, can fail from a relatively small tremor occurring a hundred miles away.
 Any saturated soil can liquefy, causing landslides and soils underneath buildings to liquefy.

76
 ENGINEERING SEISMOLOGY
(Effects of Earthquakes)

Earthquakes are natural forces driven by the evolutionary processes on the earth. They tend to be
concentrated in particular zones on the earth’s surface which coincide with the boundaries of the
tectonic plates into which the earth’s crust is divided.

Most of the active earthquake centers at present day are located along two belts at the earth’s
surface. One belt extends around the coastal regions of the pacific, from the East Indies, through
the Philippines, Japan and down the western coasts of North and South America. The other one
runs from Europe through the Eastern Mediterranean to the Himalayas and East Indies where it
joins the other one. Many other smaller shocks occur in the fault zones on the continents e.g. Rift
Valley system of East Africa and North Africa.

How the Earthquakes are Caused

Most earthquakes whenever they occur, originate at depths less than 60km from the earth’s
surface. The zones in which most of the world’s earthquakes occur are very narrow, suggesting
that most recorded earthquakes results from the movement of the plates where they impinge on
one another.

As these plates move relative to each other along the plate boundaries, they tend not to slide
smoothly but become interlocked. This interlocking causes deformations to occur in the crustal
rocks on either side of the plate boundaries, resulting into built up of stresses. When these rocks
are stressed beyond their elastic limit, they fracture and the two sides move past each other,
releasing the built up energy by elastic rebound.

As the rocks deform on either side of the plate boundaries, they release the stored energy in a
few seconds, partly as heat and partly as shock waves. These waves are what are termed as
earthquakes. The waves radiate outwards from the rapture in all directions through the earth’s
crust and through the mantle below the crust.

Force
Fault

Force

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 Measurement of Earthquakes

Earthquakes are measured by two different factors i.e. Magnitude which is the measure of the
energy released, and Intensity, which is the measure of the effects of an earthquake to people
and structures. These factors are briefly explained here below:

1. Magnitude

The amount of seismic energy (i.e. waves) released in an earthquake determines its
magnitude which is measured by a seismograph known as ‘Richter Scale’ (seismograph
is an instrument which records the strength and the distance away from an earthquake).
‘M’ is used as the symbol for this measure. For example, the smallest felt shock
. Damaging shocks have or more. Any earthquake with
is considered as a major disaster.

This measurement is made from records of earthquakes shock waves in various

seismograph stations.

2. Intensity

The intensity of an earthquake can be estimated from the effects felt or seen by an
observer. Such observations are collected and used to determine the centre of disturbance.
They are graded according to the scale of intensity known as ‘Mercalli Scale’. The
observed intensity at points in the area can be marked on a map to draw isoseismal lines
i.e. lines of equal intensity.

This scale grades the earthquake intensity from the smallest which can be detected by
instruments only to severe damage e.g. ground warping, vibrations which can throw
objects upwards, etc.

Earthquakes Induced Processes and Effects

Earthquakes range from slight tremors which do little damage to severe shocks which can cause
landslides, high winds which can overthrow buildings, volcanic eruptions, break service lines
e.g. water mains, electricity, etc.

There are four recognized types of earthquake induced processes and their effects. These
processes are:

a) Surface Rupture

This is the actual displacement and cracking of the grounds surface along a fault trace.
Rupture may happen rapidly during an earthquake or it may not occur at all. However,
cumulative effects of this long term displacement could be a serious problem to structures i.e.

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 cracks which may not be noticed during or after earthquakes but becomes a weak point for
future negative events.

b) Ground Shaking

This is the actual trembling or jerking motion produced by an earthquake. It causes wide
spread damage and is one of the most difficult effects to quantify and predict.

The degree of damage varies with the wave length and duration of shaking, the nature of
underlying materials and the character of structure. For example, for the same magnitude, the
effects of ground shaking could be several times greater at sites with thick, water saturated
soils than at those on competent (contact) rock.

c) Ground Failure

Ground acceleration or vibration from an earthquake centre produces landslides, ground

cracking and differentia settlements or subsidence.

d) Tsunamis (Ocean Waves)

Tsunami is a Japanese term for large ocean waves generated by earthquakes occurring in
oceans. Although this may not have much effect on continents, they could do great damage
to coastal structures if not properly protected.

Mitigating Earthquake Effects

Although it is not possible to stop earthquakes from happening, the following steps could be used
to mitigate (reduce) earthquake effects:

1. Avoid areas subject to earthquakes.

2. Engineering design: there are two principal ways of mitigating potentially damaging
earthquake effects:
a) By hazard zonation or marking areas of potential hazards e.g. surface rupture. Also
ground motion can be zoned on the basis of past records e.g. landslides etc.
b) The records of past earthquakes can be used to estimate the expected effective peak
ground acceleration or vibrations.

Although there is little that design can do to prevent damage from earthquakes, engineering
design and correct choice and use of construction materials can be another means of mitigating
earthquake induced effects.

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 Table 1: Past Disasters

Year Country Magnitude (M) Deaths

1939
1 (Dec) Turkey 7.9 33,000
(Jan) China 8.3 28,000
2 1960 (Feb) Morocco 5.7 12,000
1976
3 (Feb) Guatemala 7.5 22,778
(July) China 8.2 240,000
4 1978 (Sep) Iran 7.7 25,000
5 1988 (Dec) Armenia 6.9 25,000
6 1990 (June) Iran 7.7 50,000
7 1993 (Sep) India 6.0 10,000
8 1995 (Jan) Japan 7.2 6,000
9 1998 (May) Afghanistan 6.9 5,000
10 1999 (Aug) Turkey 7.4 17,000
11 2003 (Dec) Iran 6.5 41,000
12 2005 (Oct) Pakistan 7.6 35,000

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 Table 2: The magnitude and intensity are graded as shown here below.

Magnitude Intensity
Effects
M - scale I -scale
1- Felt by instruments only
1
2- Can be seen but not felt e.g. suspended objects swinging
3- Can be felt by indoor people (slight shaking)
4- Felt by nearly everyone
5- Some glass windows may break
6- Felt by everyone. May be scaring and force some people to run for
shelter
7- Shaking is frightening. Can cause damage to poorly constructed
structures
8- Shaking is severe and does much damage to structures
9- Cause considerable damage to structures
10 - Shaking is disastrous
Over 7
11 - Very disastrous
12 - Total failure

Relation between Duration of Earthquake Ground and the Magnitude

i. Introduction
The duration of the earthquake ground motion gives considerable effects on the response
of structure, as its number of cycles has influence greatly to the elastic and plastic
response of the structure1).

Therefore, the maximum acceleration and the duration of the earthquake are the most
important items, when we make the artificial earthquake ground motion to be applied to
the analyses of various structures.

Professor Jennings2) proposed a method to make the simulated ground motion which has
the envelope of acceleration with duration and various amplitudes, depending on the
value of the magnitude of the earthquake.

For the practical design purposes, we have to have the investigations based on the past
strong motion earthquake.

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 ii. Duration of earthquake ground motion
2.1. In this paper, we calculated the duration based on the following items:
a. The principal portion mainly composed of S wave would participate in the
destruction of the structure, then we consider this portion
b. The criterion of the duration is assumed to be total time from the start of the record
to the time when the amplitude of the wave becomes to about one-tenth of the peak
acceleration.

2.2 Earthquake records used in the investigation

Earthquake records used in this paper are those observed on the ground in horizontal
directions. These are taken from “Strong-Motion Earthquake Records in Japan”
published by the National Research Centre for Disaster Prevention, covering January
1968 to December 1973.

In the earthquake, when many records are taken in different places, two accelerations
which are the maximum and the second one are taken in the investigation. And, as for the
accelerations recorded in one site, the larger one in two horizontal components was
adopted.

The number of earthquake records considered in this paper is 109 waves observed in 71
earthquakes.

iii. RESULTS OF INVESTIGATION

Fig. 1 shows the relation between duration and the magnitude plotted for all records

Fig. 1 Relation between Duration and Magnitude

After applying “method of least square” and modifying the results by some engineering
judgment, we obtained the following relation (see Fig. 1)

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 1

Where t: duration of earthquake

M: magnitude of the earthquake

iv. Comparison of the above formula to other past investigations

Fig. 2 Comparison of the Empirical Formula to Other Investigations

Fig. 2 shows the relations between duration and the magnitude presented by many engineering
seismology3), 4), 5)

There can be seen no conspicuous difference between the formulas presented by many authors,
although each has its own criteria.

v. Conclusion
The authors purpose the following formula which represents then relation between duration and
the magnitude.

From the formula, when M is 7, t is 25 seconds and M is 8, t is 50 seconds.

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 GEOLOGICAL MAPS
Many engineering projects e.g. tunneling, water supply, dam construction, sources of
construction materials e.g. quarries, etc. are usually preceded by geological investigation, the
reports which should be read and understood by (engineers) civil engineers. This report is
presented in form of geological maps (Fig. 6) attached.

Normally geological maps record a distribution of features on the ground as if they had been
observed from above. Some of the features to be shown may be concealed e.g. by a cover of
vegetation. However, a distinction is made on geological maps between the features which are
clearly seen and those which are covered or inferred. This is indicated by a solid line ghjrufjkkff
and broken line - - - - - respectively. Maps which show the distribution of various rocks and soils
that occur close to the surface of the ground are most useful for civil engineering. There are four
types of these maps and are known as drift editions because it is believed that the materials
shown have another origin.

When no drift or transportation is indicated, the maps are then known as solid edition because
they show the position of solid geology or intact rock.

Each of the four types of drift maps is briefly explained here below.

i. Maps of Resources or Surfacial Maps

These maps show the distribution of particular minerals, rocks, soils, etc. i.e. they show character
and distribution of the various types of surface materials e.g. stream gravels, clay soils, etc.

These maps are particularly useful when searching for construction materials (quarries), drainage
roads location, etc. However, other types of maps (detailed) and field tests should be included to
supplement the information obtained from the surficial maps e.g. maps of subsurface geology
may be used.

ii. Isochore or Outcrops Maps

Isochore or outcrops maps record the vertical thickness of geological structures. The maps are
readily produced using data obtained from vertical bore-holes which have fully penetrated the
units being studied. They may show vertical thickness of a geological structure i.e. mineral
deposit or zone of weak rocks.

Outcrops maps are useful in locating rocks which can be used as construction materials e.g.
crushed aggregate (2 in Fig.1).

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 iii. Aerial or Geotechnical Maps
The purpose of these maps is to present the geology of the area in terms that will help in the
selection of construction technique of ground treatment and in the prediction of the interaction
between an engineering structure and the ground. They show the observed distribution of
geologic units or formations and also the inferred distribution beneath the soil and the vegetation
cover. They are useful to engineers involved in underground excavation (3 in Fig. 6).

iv. Structural or Contour Maps

These maps show the record of the shapes of structural surfaces such as faults, folds etc. They
are part of geotechnical maps but they include structural symbols, superimposed on the pattern or
colours representing the geological structures. These maps are normally used when it is
necessary to know the position of definite structural surface below ground level.

MAP INTERPRETATION

Geological maps are usually interpreted in two stages:

a) Identification of the relative ages of the rocks

b) Ascertaining their structural relationship.

1. Relative Ages
The relative ages of a stratum is given by the stratigraphic columns for the area which would
show whether stratum “X” is older or younger than stratum “Y”.

This information is normally printed in the margin of the map to a uniform vertical scale. The
oldest strata are always at the base of the column as shown here below:
2m
Aluminium
10 m
Clay
40 m
Limestone
60 m
Sandstone
90 m
Conglomerate
120 m
Stratigraphic column e.g. as found in borehole showing youngest (top) to the oldest (bottom).

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 2. Structural Relationship
The structure of rocks of an area may be deduced from the shape and width of outcrops,
boundaries, dip of strata and faults.

As concerns the shape of the outcrop, it is believed that many geological surfaces are inclined.
Observations of this kind have to have the conclusion that, once the dip directions are known, it
is possible to suggest geological structures that will account for their formation.

Faults are surfaces or zones about which some displacement has occurred and outcrops on either
side of a fault are usually shifted relative to one another. Each fault has two characteristics which
should, if possible, be determined i.e. its dip and its down throw side.

When the movement of a fault displaces strata, rocks of one age are brought adjacent to those
which are older or younger.

FIELD MAPPING

Field mapping is the physical collection of data direct from the proposed site. The normal
equipment for field mapping includes the following;

1. A topographical map of the area.

2. Clinometer (used for measuring shapes of surfaces) –sketch-clip.
3. Compass (for measuring slope directions) -strike.
4. Hammers (for pegging).
5. Plain papers and soft pencils.

In engineering geology, the field mapping, the field mapping includes the determination of:

a) Angle of dip
b) Strike
c) Stratum (layer) thickness.

MEASUREMENT OF ANGLES OF DIP AND STRIP

Angle of dip is the angle of inclination which a horizontal line drawn on the stratum in the dip
(max. slope) direction makes with the surfaces dips in any other direction are known as average
dips

NOTE: The direction of a dip is recorded as a compass bearing e.g. surface of a rock mass
dipping (sloping) 60° to the N-W would be recorded as a dip of 60° at 315°.

The strike of a surface is the direction of a horizontal line drawn at 90° to the direction of the
angle of dip.

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 Clinometer
Base plate

Rock outcrop

Fig2: Strike and Dip Measurement

Strike line

Rock outcrop
Angle
of dip
Dip

Fig.3: Angle of Dip.

The following steps are taken to find out the true dip and strike direction:-

Let p, q and r be the three given points on a stratum is the highest and R the lowest-see the figure
below:
S

P
Q

V N

Strike direction M R

Fig.4: Measurement of True Dip

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Steps:

1. Join P and Q (use a convenient scale-distance P-Q assumed).

2. From P, draw PS perpendicular to PQ and equal in height to P above R.
3. At Q, erect a perpendicular QT to represent height of Q above R.
4. Join ST and produce it to meet PQ at V.
This point V is the point on the stratum at same level as R and VR is the direction of the
strike (Horizontal line).
5. Draw PM perpendicular to VR and set off PN equal to PM along PV.
The angle SNP ( ) is the angle of true dip and PM is the dip direction.

Thickness of a Stratum

This term is interpreted differently depending on the person undertaking the interpretation. It is
therefore important that the differences for its correct application are noted. For example, if the
beds are vertical or horizontal, the thickness can be taken directly from the map in hand.
However, for inclined beds, correct beds, correct interpretation should be ensured.

t
W

Fig.5: Stratum Thickness

TV = vertical thickness e.g. for borehole drilling.

TW = horizontal thickness e.g. for tunnel construction
RV = stratigraphic thickness i.e. correct thickness of the layer of the layer or bed.

NOTE: Geological maps are shown in Fig. 6

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1 2

Fig. 6: Geological Maps

Key Title
1 General map (Geological map)
2 Isochore or outcrops map
3 Geotechnical or Aerial map

89