Geotechnical engineering, also known as 

geotechnics, is the branch of civil

engineering concerned with the engineering behavior of earth materials. It uses the principles of soil
mechanics and rock mechanics for the solution of its respective engineering problems. It also relies
on knowledge of geology, hydrology, geophysics, and other related sciences.
In addition to civil engineering, geotechnical engineering also has applications
in military, mining, petroleum, coastal engineering, and offshore construction. The fields of
geotechnical engineering and engineering geology have knowledge areas that overlap, however,
while geotechnical engineering is a specialty of civil engineering, engineering geology is a specialty
of geology: They share the same principles of soil mechanics and rock mechanics, but differ in the
application.
Humans have historically used soil as a material for flood control, irrigation purposes, burial sites,
building foundations, and as construction material for buildings. First activities were linked to
irrigation and flood control, as demonstrated by traces of dykes, dams, and canals dating back to at
least 2000 BCE that were found in ancient Egypt, ancient Mesopotamia and the Fertile Crescent, as
well as around the early settlements of Mohenjo Daro and Harappa in the Indus valley. As the cities
expanded, structures were erected supported by formalized foundations; Ancient Greeks notably
constructed pad footings and strip-and-raft foundations. Until the 18th century, however, no
theoretical basis for soil design had been developed and the discipline was more of an art than a
science, relying on past experience. Das, Braja (2006). Principles of Geotechnical Engineering.
Thomson Learning.

Humans have historically used soil as a material for flood control, irrigation purposes, burial sites,
building foundations, and as construction material for buildings. First activities were linked to
irrigation and flood control, as demonstrated by traces of dykes, dams, and canals dating back to at
least 2000 BCE that were found in ancient Egypt, ancient Mesopotamia and the Fertile Crescent, as
well as around the early settlements of Mohenjo Daro and Harappa in the Indus valley. As the cities
expanded, structures were erected supported by formalized foundations; Ancient Greeks notably
constructed pad footings and strip-and-raft foundations. Until the 18th century, however, no
theoretical basis for soil design had been developed and the discipline was more of an art than a
science, relying on past experience. Das, Braja (2006). Principles of Geotechnical Engineering.
Thomson Learning. Budhu, Muni (2007). Soil Mechanics and Foundations. John Wiley & Sons,
Inc. ISBN 978-0-471-43117-6.

The tasks of a geotechnical engineer comprise the investigation of subsurface conditions and
materials; the determination of the relevant physical, mechanical, and chemical properties of these
materials; the design of earthworks and retaining structures (including dams, embankments, sanitary
landfills, deposits of hazardous waste), tunnels, and structure foundations; the monitoring of site
conditions, earthwork, and foundation construction; the evaluation of the stability of natural
slopes and man-made soil deposits; the assessment of the risks posed by site conditions; and the
prediction, prevention, and mitigation of damage caused by natural hazards (such
as avalanches, mud flows, landslides, rockslides, sinkholes, and volcanic eruptions). erzaghi, K.,
Peck, R.B. and Mesri, G. (1996), Soil Mechanics in Engineering Practice 3rd Ed., John Wiley & Sons,
Inc. ISBN 0-471-08658-4 Holtz, R. and Kovacs, W. (1981), An Introduction to Geotechnical Engineering,
Prentice-Hall, Inc. ISBN 0-13-484394-0

Geotechnical engineers and engineering geologists perform geotechnical investigations to obtain

information on the physical properties of soil and rock underlying (and sometimes adjacent to) a site
to design earthworks and foundations for proposed structures, and for the repair of distress to
earthworks and structures caused by subsurface conditions. A geotechnical investigation will include
surface exploration and subsurface exploration of a site. Sometimes, geophysical methods are used
to obtain data about sites. Subsurface exploration usually involves in-situ testing (two common
examples of in-situ tests are the standard penetration test and cone penetration test). In addition site
investigation will often include subsurface sampling and laboratory testing of the soil samples
retrieved. The digging of test pits and trenching (particularly for locating faults and slide planes) may
also be used to learn about soil conditions at depth. Large diameter borings are rarely used due to
safety concerns and expense but are sometimes used to allow a geologist or engineer to be lowered
into the borehole for direct visual and manual examination of the soil and rock stratigraphy.

A variety of soil samplers exists to meet the needs of different engineering projects. The standard
penetration test (SPT), which uses a thick-walled split spoon sampler, is the most common way to
collect disturbed samples. Piston samplers, employing a thin-walled tube, are most commonly used
for the collection of less disturbed samples. More advanced methods, such as the Sherbrooke block
sampler, are superior, but even more expensive. Coring frozen ground provides high-quality
undisturbed samples from any ground conditions, such as fill, sand, moraine and rock fracture
zones. "Geofrost Coring". GEOFROST. Retrieved 20 November 2020

Atterberg limits tests, water content measurements, and grain size analysis, for example, may be
performed on disturbed samples obtained from thick-walled soil samplers. Properties such as shear
strength, stiffness hydraulic conductivity, and coefficient of consolidation may be significantly altered
by sample disturbance. To measure these properties in the laboratory, high-quality sampling is
required. Common tests to measure the strength and stiffness include the triaxial shear and
unconfined compression test.

Surface exploration can include geologic mapping, geophysical methods, and photogrammetry; or it

can be as simple as an engineer walking around to observe the physical conditions at the site.
Geologic mapping and interpretation of geomorphology are typically completed in consultation with
a geologist or engineering geologist.
Geophysical exploration is also sometimes used. Geophysical techniques used for subsurface
exploration include measurement of seismic waves (pressure, shear, and Rayleigh waves), surface-
wave methods and/or downhole methods, and electromagnetic surveys (magnetometer, resistivity,
and ground-penetrating radar).

Application[edit]
1. DESIGN OF BRIDGES: Foundation type and Depth Recommendation
2. DESIGN OF TUNNEL: RMR and Q value calculation
3. STRUCTURAL DESIGN OF BUILDINGS: Bring out the safe bearing load
4. DESIGN OF RETAINING STRUCTURES: Recommendation of Ground improvement
technique
Foundations
A building's foundation transmits loads from buildings and other structures to the earth. Geotechnical
engineers design foundations based on the load characteristics of the structure and the properties of
the soils and/or bedrock at the site. In general, geotechnical engineers:
 1. Estimate the magnitude and location of the loads to be supported.
2. Develop an investigation plan to explore the subsurface.
3. Determine necessary soil parameters through field and lab testing (e.g., consolidation
test, triaxial shear test, vane shear test, standard penetration test).
4. Design the foundation in the safest and most economical manner.
5. The primary considerations for foundation support are bearing capacity, settlement, and
ground movement beneath the foundations. Bearing capacity is the ability of the site soils to
support the loads imposed by buildings or structures. Settlement occurs under all
foundations in all soil conditions, though lightly loaded structures or rock sites may
experience negligible settlements. For heavier structures or softer sites, both overall
settlement relative to unbuilt areas or neighboring buildings, and differential settlement under
a single structure can be concerns. Of particular concern is a settlement which occurs over
time, as immediate settlement can usually be compensated for during construction. Ground
movement beneath a structure's foundations can occur due to shrinkage or swell of
expansive soils due to climatic changes, frost expansion of soil, melting of permafrost, slope
instability, or other causes.[citation needed] All these factors must be considered during the design of
foundations.
6. In areas of shallow bedrock, most foundations may bear directly on bedrock; in other areas,
the soil may provide sufficient strength for the support of structures. In areas of deeper
bedrock with soft overlying soils, deep foundations are used to support structures directly on
the bedrock; in areas where bedrock is not economically available, stiff "bearing layers" are
used to support deep foundations instead.

In geotechnical engineering, during the construction of earth structures (dams and tunnels, for
example) the observational method is a continuous, managed and integrated process of design,
construction control, monitoring and review enabling appropriate, previously-defined modifications to
be incorporated during (or after) construction. All these aspects must be demonstrably robust. The
objective is to achieve greater overall economy, without compromising safety. Nicholson, D, Tse, C
and Penny, C. (1999). The Observational Method in ground engineering – principles and
applications. Report 185, CIRIA, London.

The observational method was proposed by Karl Terzaghi and discussed in a paper by Ralph B.
Peck (1969) in an effort to reduce the costs during construction incurred by designing earth
structures based on the most-unfavorable assumptions (in other words, geological conditions, soil
engineering properties and so on). Instead, the design is based on the most-probable conditions
rather than the most-unfavorable. Gaps in the available information are filled by observations:
geotechnical-instrumentation measurements (for example, inclinometers and piezometers) and
geotechnical site investigation (for example, borehole drilling and a CPT). These observations aid in
assessing the behavior of the structure during construction, which can then be modified in
accordance with the findings. The method may be described as "learn-as-you-go". Peck, R.B (1969).
Advantages and limitations of the observational method in applied soil mechanics, Geotechnique, 19, No.
1, pp. 171-187.

The observational method may be described as follows:

 Exploration sufficient to establish the general nature, pattern and properties of the deposits
(not necessarily in detail)
 Assessment of the most probable conditions, and the most unfavorable conceivable
deviations from these conditions. Geology plays a major role.
 Creating the design, based on a working hypothesis of behavior anticipated under the most-
probable conditions
 Selection of quantities to be observed as construction proceeds, and calculation of their
anticipated values based on the working hypothesis
 Calculation of values of the same quantities under the most unfavorable conditions
compatible with the available data concerning subsurface conditions
 Selection (in advance) of a course of action or design modification for every foreseeable
significant deviation of the observational findings from those predicted based on the working
hypothesis
 Measurement of quantities to be observed and evaluation of actual conditions
 Design modification in accordance with actual conditions

The observational method is suitable for construction which has already begun when an unexpected
development occurs, or when a failure or accident threatens or has already occurred. [23] The method
is not suitable for projects whose design cannot be altered during construction.
The most serious blunder in applying the observational method is failing to select (in advance) an
appropriate course of action for all foreseeable deviations (disclosed by observation) from those
assumed in the design. The engineer must devise solutions to all problems which could arise under
the least-favorable conditions. If he or she cannot solve these hypothetical problems (even if the
probability of their occurrence is very low), he or she must revert to a design based on the least-
favorable conditions. Peck, R.B (1969). Advantages and limitations of the observational method in
applied soil mechanics, Geotechnique, 19, No. 1, pp. 171-187.