Economic Geology, v. 110, Pp. 91-117: ©2015 Society of Economic Geologists, Inc

©2015 Society of Economic Geologists, Inc.
Economic Geology, v. 110, pp. 91–117
Control of Reactivated Proterozoic Basement Structures on

Sandstone-Hosted Pb-Zn Deposits along the Caledonian Front, Sweden:
Evidence from Airborne Magnetic Data, Structural Analysis, and Ore-Grade Modeling
Nicolas J. Saintilan,1,† Michael B. Stephens,2, 3 Erik Lundstam,4 and Lluís Fontboté1
1University of Geneva, Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences, Rue des Maraîchers 13, 1205 Genève, Switzerland
2Geological Survey of Sweden (SGU), Box 670, SE-751 28 Uppsala, Sweden
3Department of Civil, Environmental and Natural Resources Engineering, Division of Geosciences,
Luleå University of Technology, SE-971 87 Luleå, Sweden
4Boliden AB, SE-776 98 Garpenberg, Sweden
Abstract
Strata-bound, nonstratiform, epigenetic galena-sphalerite-cement mineralization in Ediacaran-Cambrian
sandstone, including the previously mined deposits at Laisvall and Vassbo, occurs along the eastern erosional
front of the Caledonian orogen in Sweden. The sandstone is part of an autochthonous siliciclastic sedimentary
sequence that rests unconformably on top of Proterozoic crystalline basement beneath the Caledonian thrust
nappes.
Linear anomalies have been identified in high-resolution airborne magnetic data that correspond to geologic
features in the Proterozoic basement. Furthermore, the Laisvall and Vassbo strata-bound Pb-Zn deposits are
both spatially associated with areas of change in the trend of the magnetic lineaments. Magnetic anomalies,
trending either N-S to NE-SW and WNW-ESE to NW-SE in the Laisvall area, and NNE-SSW to NNW-SSE
and NW-SE to W-E in the Vassbo area, were identified.
In the Laisvall area, some magnetic minima and edges along magnetic gradients can be correlated with faults
in the Proterozoic basement. The reactivation of these basement structures is expressed in the Ediacaran-Cam-
brian sedimentary cover rocks as newly formed faults with Phanerozoic displacement. Along individual faults
belonging to two sets (NE-SW to N-S and WNW-ESE to NW-SE), synsedimentary block movement has been
recognized. The highest Pb and Zn grades in Laisvall delineate orebodies and orebody trends that follow these
faults. Areas where the faults change strike contain some of the largest and richest orebodies.
In the Vassbo area, the orebody footprint reflects a folded dolerite dike in the underlying Proterozoic base-
ment. The dike, modeled on the basis of borehole data, is recognized by a magnetic maximum and an edge
along a magnetic gradient. No faults have been mapped at the ground surface as being related to the location of
dolerite dikes in the basement. However, it is considered that the basement dikes illustrate a structural control,
emplacement either producing a local fracture network or being driven by preexisting basement structures.
The main orebodies in both deposits display funnel-shape geometry, fault-rooted in Laisvall and located close
to the hinges of the folded dolerite dike in the basement at Vassbo. Metal distribution patterns are similar in
both deposits and are characterized by Pb-rich cores proximal to the basement-steered structures while Zn-rich
shells are distal from these structures. The funnel-shaped ore geometry is interpreted to reflect a fault-rooted
migration path and the metal precipitation mechanism.
In both deposits, the highest Pb and Zn grades occur at the top of sandstone paleoaquifers. Similar miner-
alization footprints, variation in grades, and paleoaquifer settings were recognized in several carbonate-hosted
Mississippi Valley-type (MVT) Zn-Pb deposits (e.g., San Vicente deposit, Peru; Topla-Mežica deposits, Slo-
venia). This geometry is suggestive of a sour gas trap that accumulated by density at the top of paleoaquifers.
This gas could have provided H2S by thermogenic sulfate reduction to the metal-bearing fluids and triggered
precipitation of Pb-Zn sulfides.
The combined evidence from the airborne magnetic data, the structural analysis and the geometry of the
orebodies, and metal distribution suggests that the basement faults reactivated during the Ediacaran-Cambrian
sedimentation, acted at a later time as feeders for the metal-bearing fluids to fertile horizons for mineralization,
and localized deformation during postsedimentary and postmineralization tectonics.
Introduction either rests unconformably on top of Proterozoic crystalline

Strata-bound and nonstratiform Pb-Zn sulfide mineral- basement (Fennoscandian Shield) beneath the Caledonian
izations, including the previously mined deposits at Laisvall thrust nappes or is part of the lowermost allochthonous units
and Vassbo, occur along the eastern front of the Caledonian of the Caledonian orogen (Christofferson et al., 1979; Will-
orogen in Sweden and Norway over a distance of more than dén, 1980; Gee et al., 1985).
1,000 km (Zachrisson, 1980; Stephens, 1986). Mineralization The Laisvall Pb-Zn deposit, situated in the northern part of
is hosted by Ediacaran-Cambrian sandstone. The sandstone Sweden (Figs. 1A), was operated by Boliden AB as an under-
forms part of a siliciclastic sedimentary sequence, which ground mine until 2001. Mineralization was discovered in 1939
and mining operations started in 1941 (Grip, 1954). During 60
† Corresponding author: e-mail, [email protected] years of mining operations, 64.3 million metric tons (Mt) of ore
Submitted: November 21, 2013
0361-0128/15/4277/91-27 91 Accepted: April 8, 2014
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by Society of Economic Geologists, Cesar Ricardo Vargas
92 SAINTILAN ET AL.
70ºN
A
15ºE
20ºE
10ºE
70ºN
Sedimentary cover rocks & Oslo

Rift (Neoproterozoic-Palaeogene)2
Caledonian orogen (0.5 - 0.4 Ga)1
including windows with uncertain
Fin
la
tectonostratigraphic status
nd
Arctic
Circle
Sedimentary cover, volcanic and
intrusive rocks (1.7 - 0.9 Ga)2
65ºN
Laisvall Sveconorwegian orogen
65ºN (1.1 - 0.9 Ga)1
Norwegian Blekinge-Bornholm orogen
Sea FIG (1.5 -1.4 Ga)1
UR
E1
B Svecokarelian orogen
(2.0- 1.8 Ga)1
Vassbo
Baltic Sea
ay
rw 0 100 200
60ºN
No kilometres
60ºN
Oslo
Stockholm
North
Sea
20ºE
10ºE
15ºE
W Norway Sweden E
0 0
Baltica basement
0 50 100 150 km
Middle and Upper Allochthons Lower Allochthon and Autochthon

Köli Nappe Complex (outboard terranes) Baltoscandian sedimentary cover
Seve Nappe Complex (schist, paragneiss, (allochthonous & autochthonous)
Baltica basement (allochthonous &
amphibolite)
autochthonous)
Särv Nappe (feldspathic metasandstone, dolerite)
Mylonitic granite, augen orthogneiss, feldspathic metasandstone B
Fig. 1. A. Major tectonic units in Norway and Sweden: 1 = age of orogenic activity, 2 = age of rock formation (modified
after Gee et al., 2008, and after the acquisition of data from the Geological Survey of Sweden´s bedrock map database of
Sweden at the scale 1:1,000,000). B. Cross section through the central part of the Caledonian orogen in Scandinavia, showing
the tectonostratigraphic framework of this orogen (modified after Gee et al., 2010).

SANDSTONE-HOSTED Pb-Zn DEPOSITS, CALEDONIAN FRONT, SWEDEN 93
at 0.6% Zn, 4.0% Pb, and 9.0 g/t Ag were extracted (Willdén, during the latest Cambrian through to the Devonian that
2004). The Vassbo Pb-Zn deposit, located in the central part involved convergence of two plates containing continental
of the country (Figs. 1A), was discovered in 1948. The mine lithosphere referred to as Baltica and Laurentia. This conver-
opened in 1960 and produced 5 Mt of ore at 5.5% Pb until it gence culminated with the collision of these two continents
closed down in 1982 (Årebäck, pers. commun., 2010). during subduction of the margin of Baltica beneath Laurentia.
The current study focuses on the structural and broader Several allochthonous thrust nappes, comprising rift-related,
tectonic controls on the spatial occurrence of the Laisvall and platformal and foreland basinal sequences derived from Bal-
Vassbo strata-bound Pb-Zn deposits, which are hosted in the tica, oceanic arc-related sequences and exotic continental ter-
autochthonous sandstone. The aims of the work are to evalu- ranes, were thrust eastward onto Precambrian rocks of the
ate a possible correlation between magnetic lineaments and Fennoscandian Shield (Fig. 1A, B; Gee, 1975; Roberts and
structures in the Ediacaran-Cambrian silicilastic cover rocks Gee, 1985; Stephens, 1988; Gee et al., 2010).
and to assess whether preexisting structures in the Protero- Gee (1975) and Roberts and Gee (1985) established a
zoic basement could not only have governed sedimentation systematic nomenclature for the tectonostratigraphy in the
in the Ediacaran-Cambrian but also could have been utilized Scandinavian Caledonides involving sheets of thrust nappes
later as conduits for the mineralizing fluids. in ascending order, referred to as the Lower, Middle, Upper,
Different opinions currently exist concerning the role of and Uppermost allochthons (Fig. 1B). The Lower alloch-
basement structures beneath these deposits in the context thon rests above a sole thrust on top of the thin veneer of
of their genesis (Christofferson et al., 1979; Rickard et al., Ediacaran-Cambrian locally through to Lower Ordovician
1979; Bjørlykke and Sangster, 1981; Romer 1992). Christof- autochthonous sedimentary rocks that were deposited on
ferson et al. (1979), Rickard et al. (1979), and Willdén (1980) the platformal margin to Baltica (Figs. 1, 2). The Middle and
suggested that the localization of the ore was controlled by Upper Cambrian Alum Shale Formation (Fig. 2) is partly
permeability variations in the sandstone, and the location and strongly deformed and provided the main decollement over-
deposition of the sandstone in turn by the paleotopography lain by allochthonous thrust sheets throughout the orogen in
of the Proterozoic basement. These authors considered the Scandinavia (Gee, 1975; Roberts and Gee, 1985; Stephens,
basement beneath the deposits to be essentially impermeable. 1988; Gee et al., 2010). The Laisvall and Vassbo deposits are
In contrast, Romer (1992) suggested that the distribution of hosted in sandstone that constitutes part of the Ediacaran-
sandstone-hosted Pb-Zn deposits was controlled by basement Cambrian autochthonous siliciclastic rock sequence (Figs. 1,
structures reactivated during some stage of the Caledonian 2).
orogeny. This reactivation made the basement permeable and At Laisvall, the autochthonous stratigraphy is well devel-
susceptible to large-scale fluid migration. oped and preserved underneath the main decollement in
To achieve the aims of this study, airborne magnetic data as the Alum Shale Formation and the overlying allochthonous
well as borehole data, mine map information, and other legacy thrust sheets (Figs. 2, 3A, D). The Paleoproterozoic basement
data from both Laisvall and Vassbo have been used in order is composed of granite which formed at 1.8 Ga. The basement
to generate integrated geometric models for lithologic units is overlain by the Ediacaran-Cambrian Laisberg Formation
and ore grades in three-dimensional space for both deposits. (35−40 m thick; Nielsen and Schovsbo, 2011) passing upward
Interpretation of the airborne magnetic data and structural into the Grammajukku and Middle Cambrian Alum Shale
analysis, in combination with the lithologic and ore-grade Formations (Ljungner, 1950; Rickard et al., 1979; Willdén,
modeling in three-dimensional space at the Laisvall and 1980). The Laisberg Formation represents a transgressive,
Vassbo deposits, strongly suggest that preexisting basement sandstone-dominated sequence (Willdén, 1980; Nielsen and
structures controlled the location of these deposits and also Schovsbo, 2011).
the location of single orebodies within the deposits. Further- Mineralization occurs as disseminated mottles and bands of
more, the Pb and Zn grade distribution outline funnel-shape, galena and/or sphalerite that constitute interstitial epigenetic
fault-rooted orebodies in sandstone paleoaquifers. Grade cement (Christofferson et al., 1979; Rickard et al., 1979; Will-
distribution maps highlight the existence in the autochtho- dén, 1980) in the porous sandstone paleoaquifers. Calcite,
nous sandstone of several main feeder faults, caused by the quartz, K-feldspar, fluorite, and barite occur as accessory to
reactivation of preexisting basement structures. Similarly to locally dominant cement phases. In places, apatite is found
the findings at the Navan Irish-type Zn-Pb deposit (Anderson intergrown with sphalerite while organic compounds are
et al., 1998; Blakeman et al., 2002; Davidheiser-Kroll et al., intergrown with sphalerite or barite (Saintilan et al., 2014).
2013), this study provides a particularly clear case where the Scarce steeply dipping galena-sphalerite-calcite veinlets cut
existence of multiple feeder zones along several major faults through the sulfide-cemented sandstone. Mineralization is
controls Zn, Pb, and Zn/Pb grade distribution. hosted in two distinct sandstone paleoaquifers; the Lower
The present study is part of a broader project aiming to and Upper Sandstones (Fig. 2, Rickard et al., 1979; Willdén,
reevaluate the role of the crystalline basement, the migration 1980) of the Laisberg Formation. In the Lower Sandstone,
flow path, the driving force, the precipitation mechanism, and the orebody is between 12 and 27 m thick, locally thinning
the age of sandstone-hosted Pb-Zn mineralization in a struc- to 4 m, with Pb grades between 0.1 and 10%. Zn grades are
turally constrained geologic framework. generally below 1%. In the Upper Sandstone, the orebody is
6 to 8 m thick in average, locally up to 11 m thick. Pb grades
Geologic Setting are between 1 and 4%, locally up to 12%, while Zn grades
The tectonostratigraphic architecture of the Caledonian are between 1 and 5%. The Zn/Pb ratio is about 8/1 in the
orogen in Scandinavia resulted from a series of tectonic events Upper Sandstone. The Grammajukku Formation, which caps

94 SAINTILAN ET AL.
Phosphorite conglomerate (0.1m)

Middle Alum Shale Formation (black pyritic
Cambrian Middle
shale) Alum Shale Formation
Cambrian
Vassbo Formation
Quartz sandstone-ore horizon
Proterozoic Lower Cambrian

(5-15 m)
Calcareous sandstone (5-15 m)

Grammajukku Formation (shale and
siltstone, ~40 m) Shale (1-6 m)
Lower Cambrian
conglomerate
Mesoproterozoic sandstone and
Paleoproterozoic quartz porphyry
Upper Sandstone-ore
horizon (6-8 m)
Middle Sandstone Stratigraphy at Vassbo
(6-8 m)
Laisberg Formation
Lower Sandstone-ore
horizon (~25 m) phosphorite conglomerate so-called “Assjatj Member” (0.5 m)
?
Pebble shale (~12 m)
Ediacaran
Proterozoic
Feldspathic sandstone and

conglomerate,~10 m)
Ediacaran
Paleoproterozoic granitic
Pre-
basement
Stratigraphy at Laisvall
Fig. 2. Stratigraphic columns in the autochthonous sedimentary cover sequences at Laisvall (modified after Rickard et
al., 1979; Willdén, 1980; Nielsen and Schovsbo, 2011) and Vassbo (modified after Christofferson et al., 1979; Nielsen and
Schovsbo, 2011). Nielsen and Schovsbo (2011) proposed that the Cambrian stratigraphy at Vassbo is coeval with deposition
of the Grammajukku Formation in the Laisvall area.
the Upper Sandstone, comprises various shale and siltstone the Vassbo Formation. Some mineralization also occurs in the
with subordinate sandstone intercalations (Fig. 2). The Alum underlying calcareous sandstone. Mineralization has the same
Shale Formation is composed of black pyritic shale (Ljungner, characteristics as the one described above at Laisvall.
1950; Willdén, 1980; Nielsen and Schovsbo, 2011).
The autochthonous sequence at Vassbo (Figs. 2, 4A) cor- Interpretation of Airborne Magnetic Data
responds to the Lower Cambrian Vassbo Formation (28–
30 m thick) deposited on a peneplained crystalline basement Magnetic data and methodology
composed of Mesoproterozoic sandstone in the east and The use of magnetic data is a geophysical exploration tech-
acid volcanic or subvolcanic rock (quartz porphyry) dated to nique based on mapping the subsurface distribution of mag-
1.7 Ga in the west (Christofferson et al., 1979; Wallin, 1982; netic minerals (oxides or sulfides). This technique can be a
Nielsen and Schovsbo, 2011). Two sets of dolerites dated at valid approach to mineral exploration either directly for min-
1.27 to 1.26 and 0.98 to 0.95 Ga (Central Scandinavian Dol- eral deposits containing magnetic minerals (e.g., magnetite,
erite Group and Blekinge-Dalarna dolerites; Söderlund et hematite, pyrrhotite) or indirectly for the ones spatially asso-
al., 2005), including steeply dipping dikes with NNE–SSW ciated with, for example, faults. Advances in spatial control
or NW–SE trend and flat-lying sills, are also present in the using global positioning systems (GPS) have not only reduced
crystalline basement. These dolerite intrusions were inter- survey costs but also increased data accuracy (Reeves et al.,
preted to reflect back-arc extensional activity (Söderlund et 1997).
al., 2005). The Lower Cambrian Vassbo Formation is capped Total magnetization of rock is the vector sum of two compo-
by the partly deformed Middle Cambrian Alum Shale Forma- nents: (1) induced magnetization (proportional in magnitude
tion (Christofferson et al., 1979; Wallin, 1982). Mineralization and generally parallel to the Earth’s ambient field), and (2)
is hosted in a quartz sandstone horizon in the upper part of remnant magnetization (which has a direction and intensity

A B C
metasandstone (Särv)
Ho Ho
rn rn
av av
anf anf
au au
lt lt
Laisvall Laisvall
micaschist, paragneiss
FIGURE 3E
t
sio n a l fron
FIGURE 3D
e ro
0 2 4 0 2 4 0 2 4
kilometres kilometres kilometres
Legend (Fig. 3A) -364 -186-124 -79 -43 -11 18 375776 94 113 143 172 201 233 274 323 391 486 627 853 1414 -364 -186-124 -79 -43 -11 18 375776 94 113 143 172 201 233 274 323 391 486 627 853 1414
Caledonian thrust nappes (allochthon) TMI TMI
(nT)
(nT)
Schist, amphibolite (Seve Nappe Complex)
Feldspathic metasandstone (Middle Allochthon)
Mylonitic granite (Middle Allochthon)
Quartzite, shale (Lower Allochthon)
D E
Thrust
Autochthon
Laisvall
Ediacaran-Cambrian sandstone, shale and siltstone Fault A Fault A
Granite (1.8 Ga)
Granite, pegmatite (1.8 Ga)
Fault B
Granite, quartz monzonite (1.9 Ga) Fault B

Gabbro, diorite (1.9 Ga) Kr
am Ai
av
Acid metavolcanic rock (1.9 Ga)
sja
ike
n
ur
e
Basic or intermediate metavolcanic rock (1.9 Ga)

Laisa
n Riv
Metasedimentary rock (1.9 Ga)

er
Legend (Fig. 3D)

Caledonian thrust nappes (allochthon) FIGURE 3E
Thrust
Cambrian Alum Shale Formation (partly in allochthon)
Ediacaran-Cambrian sandstone, shale and siltstone (autochthon)
Granite (1.8 Ga, autochthon)
Data for 3D model
Fault (Lilljequist, 1973)
Mineralisation in autochthonous Ediacaran-Cambrian
sandstone at Laisvall (projected to surface) 0 2 4 0 1 2
Top surface of 3D model (projected to surface) kilometres kilometres
Interpretation of airborne magnetic data -364 -186-124 -79 -43 -11 18 375776 94 113 143 172 201 233 274 323 391 486 627 853 1414
Magnetic maximum Magnetic minimum TMI
(nT)
Magnetic edge
Fig. 3. A. Geologic map of the Caledonian allochthons, the autochthonous sedimentary cover rocks, and the Paleoprotero-
zoic basement in the Laisvall area (modified after acquisition of data from the Geological Survey of Sweden´s bedrock map
database of Sweden at the scale 1:1,000,000). The trace of the fault at the ground surface along Lake Hornavan is also shown.
B. Total magnetic intensity (TMI) airborne magnetic map of the Laisvall area. The erosional front where Paleoproterozoic
crystalline basement is covered by Ediacaran-Cambrian autochthonous sedimentary rocks beneath allochthonous Caledonian
thrust sheets (gray line), the projection of the Laisvall ore deposit, and the trace of the fault at the ground surface along Lake
Hornavan are also shown. C. Linear magnetic anomalies (magnetic minima and maxima) interpreted using the TMI map.
D. Geologic map of the Laisvall area at the ground surface (modified after Lilljequist, 1973). The outline of the Laisvall ore
deposit, which is hosted by autochthonous Ediacaran-Cambrian sandstone, and the top surface of the volume selected for
modeling work in this study are projected to this surface. E. Detailed view of the spatial relationships between lineaments
defined by magnetic minima using the maxima-minima approach and edges from the edge detection approach, the known
faults A and B shown in (D), and the ore deposit in the Laisvall area.
dependent on the origin and geologic history of the rock). The Rocks have widely varying magnetic properties (Carmi-
intensity of induced magnetization is related to the intensity chael, 1982; Clark, 1997a, b). At the regional scale, magnetic
of the ambient field through the magnetic susceptibility of the highs are commonly associated with major igneous provinces
rock considered (Hildenbrand et al., 2001). This magnetic in crystalline basement. By contrast, magnetic lows often
susceptibility constant is directly proportional to the modal occur in areas dominated by thick sedimentary basins (e.g.,
mineral composition and chemistry of the rock (Hildenbrand Hildenbrand et al., 2001) or where, for example, igneous rocks
et al., 2001). are altered and magnetite was replaced by hematite when

96
A B C
erosional front
FIGURE 4D
y
Vassbo FIGURE 4D
Norwa
Vassbo

0 8 16 0 8 16 0 8 16
kilometres kilometres kilometres
-299 -3 132 208 267 319 358 391 429 467 515 573 682 -299 -3 132 208 267 319 358 391 429 467 515 573 682
TMI TMI
(nT) (nT)
D

Caledonian thrust nappes (allochthon) Data for 3D model
Feldspathic metasandstone (Middle Allochthon) Fault (Tegengren, 1962)
Augen-bearing orthogneiss (Middle Allochthon) Exploration boreholes delineating the Vassbo mineralization
Arkose, feldspathic sandstone (Lower Allochthon)
SAINTILAN ET AL.
Top surface of 3D model (projected to surface)

Thrust
Autochthon Interpretation of airborne magnetic data
erosional front
Cambrian sandstone, shale and siltstone Magnetic maximum Magnetic minimum
0 2 4
kilometres Dolerite dyke (1.27-1.26 Ga and 0.98-0.95 Ga) Magnetic edge
Basalt (1.5-1.4 Ga)
-299 -3 132 208 267 319 358 391 429 467 515 573 682
TMI Mesoproterozoic sandstone
(nT)
Quartz porphyry (1.7 Ga)
Fig. 4. A. Geologic map of the Vassbo area at the ground surface (modified after Tegengren, 1962, and after the acquisition of data from the Geological Survey of
Sweden´s bedrock map database). The purple lines represent inferred dolerite dikes, interpreted solely from geophysical data (Geological Survey of Sweden’s bedrock
map database). Exploration boreholes delineate the shape of the Vassbo orebody hosted by autochthonous Cambrian sandstone. The top surface of the volume selected
for modeling work in this study is also projected to the ground surface. B. TMI airborne magnetic map of the Vassbo area. The erosional front where Proterozoic crystal-
line basement is covered by Cambrian autochthonous sedimentary rocks beneath allochthonous Caledonian thrust sheets (black line) and the projection of the Vassbo
ore deposit are also shown. The strong linear feature with northwest trend that extends as a series of beads strung along a line is an artifact due to survey design (see text
for explanation). C. Linear magnetic anomalies (magnetic minima and maxima) interpreted using the TMI map. D. Detailed view of the spatial relationships between
lineaments defined by magnetic maxima using the maxima-minima approach and edges from the edge detection approach, and the ore deposit in the Vassbo area.
hydrothermal fluids have migrated along faults. Grant et al. In summary, this study has adopted both the “maxima-min-
(1985a, b) emphasized that the magnetic response observed ima approach” and the “edge detection approach” in order to
in magnetic anomaly maps is influenced by the geometry and test whether lineaments defined by magnetic anomalies arise
depth of the magnetic bodies, their azimuth with regard to from the crystalline basement lying beneath the autochtho-
magnetic north, and the inclination of the magnetic field at nous sedimentary cover rocks and allochthonous Caledonian
the latitude of the survey. In the neighborhood of mineral thrust nappes at Laisvall and Vassbo, and to evaluate to what
deposits, the mineralogical variety and thermal history related extent these features delineate faults in the basement.
to mineral deposits can subsequently affect magnetic prop- In order to assist with this exercise, magnetic susceptibility
erties. The degree of oxidation, alteration, weathering, and values for different geologic units in the crystalline basement,
metamorphism also affects the magnetic properties of the in the sedimentary cover rocks, and in the Caledonian thrust
rock (Hildenbrand et al., 2001). All these combined factors nappes in the Laisvall (Fig. 3A) and Vassbo (Fig. 4A) areas
concur to generate complex pictures of magnetic properties were extracted from the petrophysical database at the Geologi-
in airborne magnetic maps. cal Survey of Sweden (Tables 2 and 3, respectively). It is worth
Airborne magnetic data, acquired by the Geological Survey noting that the airborne magnetic surveys close to Laisvall and
of Sweden during 2005 and 2009 in the Vassbo and Laisvall Vassbo were carried over mined-out sphalerite-galena ± pyrite
areas, respectively, have been extracted, processed, and inter- orebodies, i.e., deposits containing nonmagnetic minerals.
preted in this study. The geophysical surveys were all carried
out in a west-east direction at an altitude of 60 m and the data Laisvall area
were acquired at the same resolution of 0.1 nT. However, line The TMI map over the Laisvall area, including the erosional
and point spacings were different in the Laisvall (200 and 7 front where Paleoproterozoic crystalline basement is covered
m, respectively) and Vassbo (800 and 16 m, respectively) areas by Ediacaran-Cambrian autochthonous sedimentary rocks
(Table 1). As a basis for detailed lineament interpretation, the beneath allochthonous Caledonian thrust sheets (Fig. 3A), is
data were processed by Boliden geophysicists as Geosoft XYZ presented in Figure 3B. The thickness of the allochthonous
files and bidirectional gridding was used with a grid cell size and autochthonous units amounts to 200 to 300 m (Lilljequist,
equal to the point spacing in each area. 1973; Willdén, 1980).
Lineaments defined by magnetic anomalies were systemati- Figure 3C shows the linear magnetic anomalies that were
cally identified by drawing lines corresponding to maxima and interpreted in the Laisvall area and classified as “magnetic
minima (“maxima-minima approach”) in a subjective manner maxima” or “magnetic minima” using the maxima-minima
by eye using total magnetic intensity (TMI) and first verti- approach. The magnetic lineaments fall into two main sets:
cal derivative (FVD) maps. Lineaments defined by magnetic (1) N-S to NE-SW and (2) WNW-ESE to NW-SE. Areas
minima that are discordant to main geologic trends defined where the trend of the lineaments changes abruptly are also
by magnetic anomalies (alternating maxima and minima con- observed. The outline of the Laisvall orebodies is spatially
sidering the maxima-minima approach) have been exposed by associated with one of these areas, the lineament trend chang-
dredging or drilled at several places in Sweden and have been ing from NE-SW to NW-SE; the orebodies appear to follow a
shown to represent faults (Henkel and Guzmán, 1977; SKB, mainly NE-SW trend (Fig. 3C). There appears to be no break
2008, p. 124–128). Lineaments defined by narrow magnetic in magnetic anomaly trends or patterns across the erosional
maxima can assist in the identification of, for example, doler- front (Fig. 3B). The trends in magnetic anomalies mapped
ite dikes that have a high magnetic susceptibility with respect using the maxima-minima approach are the same on both
to surrounding rocks. An alternative approach involves the sides of the front and they match the regional NNE-SSW and
use of analytical signal (AS) and tilt derivative (TD) maps to NW-SE geologic trends in the crystalline basement of the
detect edges along magnetic gradients, which can also help to Fennoscandian Shield in the Laisvall area (Fig. 3A, B).
detect faults (Nabighian et al., 2010, and references therein). Both the autochthonous sedimentary cover rocks and
Linear features were once again drawn subjectively by eye the Caledonian allochthonous units comprising metamor-
along major gradients in the magnetic data in AS maps, and phosed sedimentary rocks and even mylonitic granite have
these features were checked and proofed in TD maps, and distinctly lower magnetic susceptibility values than the rocks
finally referred back into TMI maps. in the Paleoproterozoic crystalline basement in the Laisvall
area (Table 2). In addition, the variable composition of the
rocks in the basement is accompanied by variable magnetic
Table 1. Technical and Survey Characteristics of susceptibility values (Table 2), which is important for detect-
the Airborne Magnetic Data1 ing internal structures in the basement. These observations
suggest that the rocks in the autochthonous cover and in the
Line spacing/ allochthonous thrust nappes are not sufficiently magnetic to
Map ID Location Survey ID Survey year point spacing (m)
produce anomalies that mask the signal from the underlying
16CDv Vassbo FTBC 2005 800/16 crystalline basement. By consequence, it is inferred that the
26Hno Laisvall FXBB 2009 200/7 magnetic data and inferred lineaments are providing informa-
26Hnv Laisvall FXBB 2009 200/7 tion on the geology in the autochthonous crystalline basement.
26Hsv Laisvall FXBB 2009 200/7
In particular, it is possible to use magnetic anomaly patterns in
1 Data acquired by the Geological Survey of Sweden and were processed
order to map basement structures beneath the autochthonous
as a basis for a detailed lineament interpretation in the Laisvall and Vassbo sedimentary rocks and Caledonian allochthonous units to the
areas west of their erosional front.

98 SAINTILAN ET AL.
Table 2. Magnetic Susceptibility Data of the Different Rock Types in the Crystalline Basement, the Autochthonous Sedimentary Cover Rocks,
and the Caledonian Allochthons in the Laisvall Area1
Lithology in the Caledonian allochthons

and autochthonous sedimentary rocks Count (n = x) Magnetic susceptibility (× 10–6 SI units), median
Schist, amphibolite (Seve Nappe Complex) 7 266.90

Feldspathic metasandstone (Middle Allochthon) 1 364.00
Mylonitic granite (Middle Allochton) 5 231.00
Quartzite, shale (Lower Allochthon) 2 131.20
Ediacaran-Cambrian sandstone, shale, and siltstone 7 37.71
Lithology in the crystalline basement Count (n = x) Magnetic susceptibility (× 10–6 SI units), median
Dolerite dike 4 26090.00

Granite 109 3177.00
Granite, pegmatite 52 3935.50
Granite, quartz monzonite 11 2033.00
Gabbro, diorite 1 11640.00
Acid metavolcanic rock 19 10360.00
Sediment enclave in granite 8 19890.00
Metasedimentary rock 2 59213.00
1 Data extracted from the petrophysical database at the Geological Survey of Sweden
Table 3. Magnetic Susceptibility Data of the Different Rock Types in the Crystalline Basement, the Autochthonous Sedimentary Cover Rocks,
and the Caledonian Allochthons in the Vassbo Area1
Lithology in the Caledonian allochthons

and autochthonous sedimentary rocks Count (n = x) Magnetic susceptibility (× 10–6 SI units), median
Feldspathic metasandstone (Middle Allochthon) 11 90.00

Mylonitic granite (Middle Allochton) 7 720.00
Quartzite, shale (Lower Allochthon) 2 45.00
Cambrian sandstone, shale, and siltstone 1 360.00
Lithology in the crystalline basement Count (n = x) Magnetic susceptibility (× 10–6 SI units), median
Dolerite dike 10 21335.00

Basalt 2 11485.00
Mesoproterozoic sandstone 17 60.00
Quartz porphyry 7 210.00
Acid volcanic rock 4 145.00
1 Data extracted from the petrophysical database at the Geological Survey of Sweden
The trace of the fault at the ground surface along Lake Hor- and NW-SE (Lilljequist, 1973). Some faults cut through both
navan is shown in Figure 3A and B. This regionally significant the autochthonous Ediacaran-Cambrian cover rocks and the
fault in the Paleoproterozoic crystalline basement defines the allochthonous thrust nappes (e.g., fault A, Fig. 3D) and were
contact between 1.8-Ga granite to the south and other crys- characterized as being related to orogenic collapse (Lilljeq-
talline rocks to the north (Fig. 3A). It is identified as a series uist, 1973). As a result of the degree of erosion to the current
of magnetic minima with NW-SE trend that are concordant land surface, some faults are only shown to affect the autoch-
with magnetic maxima (Fig. 3B, C). The 1.8-Ga granite crops thonous rocks (e.g., fault B, Fig. 3D). Faults A and B show a
out to the south of the Laisvall mine area along the Laisan spatial correlation with magnetic minima that trend NE-SW
River (Fig. 3D). It is characterized by steeply dipping to verti- and NNE-SSW, respectively (Fig. 3E). In addition, the edge
cal NNW- and NNE-striking fractures and veinlets (up to 1 detection approach shows that the traces of both faults A and
cm in width), locally filled with quartz and minor pyrite. The fault B are parallel to one or several straight edges. Since the
granite shows hematite alteration after magnetite on the walls current work shows that at least some concordant minima
of these fractures. correspond to a fault in the Paleoproterozoic crystalline base-
Figure 3E is a detailed view of the TMI map in the Laisvall ment, it is inferred that the faults identified by Lilljequist
area as delineated in Figure 3D. Earlier work identified faults (1973) not only affect both the allochthonous thrust nappes
in the Laisvall area using aerial photographs and field studies and the autochthonous sedimentary cover rocks but are also
(Fig. 3D). These faults have two main orientations, NNE-SSW rooted downward in the Paleoproterozoic basement.

Vassbo area dikes with NNE-SSW or NW-SE trend, which intruded into
The TMI map over the Vassbo area, including the erosional the older Proterozoic basement (cf. Fig. 4). Thus, as in the
front where Paleoproterozoic and Mesoproterozoic crystal- Laisvall area, it is inferred to be possible to use magnetic
line basement rocks are covered by Cambrian autochtho- anomaly patterns in order to map basement structures even
nous sedimentary rocks beneath allochthonous Caledonian beneath the autochthonous sedimentary rocks and Caledo-
thrust sheets (Fig. 4A), is presented in Figure 4B. There are nian allochthonous units to the north of their erosional front.
some problems in interpreting this map because of the survey The dolerites can be followed using the magnetic data
beneath the overlying allochthonous thrust sheets in the
design (Table 1). Data derived from airborne measurements
Caledonian orogen (Fig. 4C). Changes in trend along the
at 60 m above the ground with line spacing of 800 m are prob-
magnetic maxima (Fig. 4C) and edges (Fig. 4D) are inferred
lematic for the identification of linear magnetic sources that
to be related to folding that shows a Z-shaped asymmetry.
are shallow. According to Reid (1980), to properly evaluate
The folding probably took place during the later stage of the
the magnetic fields produced by two-dimensional magnetic
Sveconorwegian orogeny and inside the immediate foreland
sources (such as dikes and faults), the optimum ratio of line
to this orogenic system (Fig. 1A). In the vicinity of the Vassbo
spacing to height above the sources should be 2/1 along lines mine, borehole data were available to fine tune the location of
flown approximately perpendicular to strike. For the present a dolerite dike beneath the mine and constrain the folding and
Vassbo survey design, it means that sources need to be at least hydrothermal alteration of this dike (see “Modeling of Litho-
340 m below the ground for their anomalies to be properly logic Units and Ore Grades in Three-Dimensional Space at
presented in the magnetic field map. The consequences for the Vassbo Strata-Bound Pb-Zn Deposit”).
shallower anomalies is well presented by the strong linear fea- Tegengren (1962) suggested that a regionally significant
ture with a northwest trend (Fig. 4B) that extends as a series fault separates the Mesoproterozoic sandstone from the 1.7-
of beads strung along a line toward the southeast corner of the Ga quartz porphyry in the crystalline basement (Fig. 4A). On
image. The width of each bead is a function of line spacing. the other hand, no faults have been mapped at the ground
The bidirectional gridding approach, which was used in this surface as being related to the location of dolerite dikes in
study, helps to combat the problem, but also tends to elongate the basement. Experimental work by Abdelmalak et al. (2012)
everything in the N-S direction perpendicular to the flight- showed that dikes establish zones with a high frequency of
line direction and thus isolate the beads. In addition, E-W fractures in connection with their emplacement and preferen-
linear trends might be difficult to capture with such a survey tially intrude along preexisting faults in the basement. Thus,
design. These problems have been kept in mind while exam- a distinctive bedrock fracture network close to the dolerite
ining the regional orientations of linear sources. dikes is inferred to be present and edges associated with these
Magnetic lineaments were identified using the maxima- dikes may not simply represent the boundaries to the dolerite
minima approach (Fig. 4C) and, additionally, in the vicinity of dikes but also faults in the basement.
the mine area, using the edge detection approach (Fig. 4D).
They have been classified as belonging to two main sets: (1) Modeling of Faults, Lithostratigraphic Units,
NNE-SSW to NNW-SSE and (2) NW-SE to W-E. In some and Ore Grades in Three-Dimensional Space at
areas, lineaments change in trend from NNE-SSW to WNW- the Laisvall Strata-Bound Pb-Zn Deposit
ESE or W-E and, as at Laisvall, the outline of the Vassbo
orebody is spatially associated with one such area, which is Data and general methodology
most clearly expressed by the change in trend of the magnetic The Laisvall deposit was extensively drilled by Boliden
edges (Fig. 4D). There appears to be no break in magnetic AB for brown-field and subsequent near-mine exploration
anomaly trends or patterns across the erosional front. The from the 1930s to the 2000s. Approximately 1,200 boreholes
trends in magnetic anomalies mapped using the maxima-min- were drilled. Geologic and both Pb and Zn grade data in the
ima approach are the same on both sides of the front and they autochthonous sedimentary rocks were available for 1,120
match the regional N-S and NNE-SSW geologic trends in the boreholes, 90% of which are vertical (Fig. 5). Information on
crystalline basement in the Vassbo area (Fig. 4). the location and character of faults in the mine and in the
Table 3 shows that the autochthonous sedimentary cover field was obtained by relogging selected boreholes at the
rocks and the allochthonous metamorphic rocks derived from Geological Survey of Sweden core storage facilities in Malå
sedimentary rocks have similar magnetic susceptibilities as and reinterpreting, where necessary, the existing information
the sandstone and felsic igneous rocks in the Proterozoic from Boliden AB archives and from the literature (Lilljequist
basement in the Vassbo area. Only the mylonitic granite in the in Boliden AB unpub. internal reports, 1965, 1968; Carlson in
Middle allochthon, with restricted surficial extent, has higher Boliden AB unpub. internal reports, 1970; Lilljequist, 1973;
magnetic susceptibilities than these basement lithologies. By Rickard et al., 1979; Lucks, 2004). Key geologic cross sections
contrast, the numerous dolerite dikes and basalt in the crystal- have been drawn and allowed to identify breaks in the stra-
line basement have significantly higher magnetic susceptibili- tigraphy and, in combination with the character of the rocks,
ties (Table 3) than all the other rock types in the study area. in the drill core (e.g., occurrence of core loss, crushed core,
These observations suggest that the signal in the TMI maps probable fault gouge, fracture intensity), provided a further
is markedly influenced by dolerite dikes and basalt, and that basis for the location of the more important faults.
the magnetic data are depicting basement geologic features Modeling of faults, lithostratigraphic units, and ore grades
across the whole study area. In particular, the magnetic max- in three-dimensional space at the Laisvall deposit has been
ima and sharp edges in the Vassbo area are coupled to dolerite carried out inside the area shown in Figure 3D between

100 SAINTILAN ET AL.
+650- and +250-m elevation, underneath the Middle Cam-

brian Alum Shale Formation where the main decollement
beneath the Lower allochthon in the Caledonian orogen is
located (Fig. 5). The model volume extends downward into
the upper part of the 1.8-Ga granitic crystalline basement
Shale & siltstone, Grammajukku Formation

(Fig. 2). The contact to the Alum Shale Formation defines
Fig. 5. Leapfrog three-dimensional model view (to north-northeast), showing the borehole database with geologic information at the Laisvall ore deposit inside the
bounding box designed for modeling. Fault surfaces were constructed in the autochthonous sedimentary rocks underneath the main decollement in the Alum shale for-
Borehole autochthonous stratigraphy
Feldspathic sandstone & conglomerate

an upper bounding surface in the model volume. The choice
Paleoproterozoic crystalline basement

of this upper surface was justified by the poor core recovery
above the decollement, as well as the fact that numerous parts
of drill cores located above this decollement were not system-
atically preserved and stored. The lower bounding surface
Alum Shale Formation
was defined by the intersections of boreholes with the base-

E
7340267N
00
Middle Sandstone
Upper Sandstone
Lower Sandstone
18
ment. The corners of the model volume were set around the
6
15
most densely drilled area where information on faults in the
Pebble shale mine and grade data were available. Delineation of lithostrati-
graphic units and ore grades in three-dimensional space was
carried out using Leapfrog Mining three-dimensional soft-
ware after having modeled fault surfaces in the autochtho-
«Central malm»
nous sedimentary sequence (Fig. 5).

area
Fault model
g
Bounding box for modelin
Fault surfaces were defined by first constructing a polyline

corresponding to the intersection between the upper bound-
underneath the main decollement
ing surface and a given fault, as recognized in the previous

Fault surfaces modeled in the
work at the mine. Subsequently, the dip, sense of movement,

autochthonous rocks
mation using legacy mine data, published literature, and the information along geologic cross sections.
and amount of throw were determined in the key geologic

cross sections and during the core logging exercise. Based on
the construction of the polyline and the dip information at dif-
Borehole traces with geological
ferent levels in the autochthonous sedimentary rocks, the fault

surfaces were calculated in three-dimensional space. A plan
view at the elevation of the upper bounding surface showing
information
the fault surface intersections with this surface and the inter-
vening structural blocks is presented in Figure 6A. Two of
these faults (Kautsky and Nadok faults) were recognized dur-
ing earlier work in the mine (Lilljequist, 1973; Rickard et al.,
1979; Lucks, 2004) and two others (Kramaviken and Niepsurt
faults; Fig. 6A) have been identified in this study. Fault seg-
ments trend NNE-SSW, NE-SW, NNW-SSE or WNW-ESE
to NW-SE. It is suggested that fault A and fault B, which both
Fault surfaces modeled in the autochthonous rocks
affected the allochthonous and autochthonous units (Lilljeq-

uist, 1973; Fig. 3D, E) and were previously shown to be asso-
ciated with basement magnetic edges, correspond to parts of
underneath the main decollement
the Nadok and Kramaviken faults, respectively, in sandstone

in the mine.
1000 m
The Kautsky fault (Fig. 6) is described as comprising three

segments: (1) a NNE-SSW-striking northern segment, (2) a
zone of en échelon segments striking N 170° to N 189°, and
750
(3) a NNW-striking southern segment (Lucks, 2004). The

0m
25 fault dips steeply to the west and shows both normal and later
+
reverse senses of displacement and a 30-m throw; it is subse-
500
Z=
m quently cut by low-angle thrusts (Rickard et al., 1979; Lucks,
50
+6 2004). The location of the Kautsky fault was confirmed in this
7335310N
250
Z=
study on the basis of the occurrence of considerable core loss
E and fracture networks in drill cores.
63
81 Rickard et al. (1979) and Lucks (2004) described the Nadok
0
5
15
fault (Fig. 6) as a subvertical, normal fault comprising four
segments striking N 019°, N 052°, N 139°, and N 175°. Cur-
rent work shows that it dips steeply to the west. Furthermore,
the northern segment shows a downthrown side to the west
with a vertical displacement of 16 to 20 m while the southern

Kautsky fault Nadok fault

(northern segment) (northern segment)
steep dip to W steep dip to W
throw 30 m to E
7340000
vertical displacement
downthrown 16-20 m to W A
Fig. 7C
7339500
«Central malm»
area
7339000 Niepsurt fault

steep dip to W
throw 5 m to W
7338500
Fig
.
7338000
7B
7337500
Nadok fault
(northern segment)
7337000 steep dip to W
vertical displacement Kramaviken fault
throw 5 m to E moderate dip to E
throw 20 cm to W
7336500
Kautsky fault
(southern segment)
steep dip to W
7336000
throw 30 m to E
. 7A
Fig
1558500
1559000
1559500
1560000
1560500
1561000
1561500
7335500
Looking down
0 500 1000 1500 2000 m
Kramaviken fault, Kautsky fault Kramaviken fault,

Niepsurt fault normal fault (northern segment), reverse fault
Kautsky fault
reverse fault
(northern segment),
normal fault
Nadok fault
(northern and
southern
intersecting
segments)
B Lower Cambrian
sedimentation
Late Silurian-Early Devonian time
(all faults cut by low-angle thrusts) view to NNE
Fig. 6. A. Map view of the upper surface in the bounding modeling box (Fig. 5), showing the tectonic framework of the
main faults in the autochthonous sedimentary rocks at the Laisvall ore deposit. Colors indicate the different blocks that were
delineated and bounded by the faults. Lithostratigraphic units and ore grades were modeled independently within each
fault-bounded block. No modeling work was completed in the brown-colored domains to the west of the two segments of
the Kautsky fault due to the paucity of data. The locations of the geological cross sections presented in Figure 7 are shown.
B. Interpretative conceptual cartoon of the timing, variable sense of displacement, and formation of the faults at Laisvall.
segment shows a vertical displacement of 5 m to east. This of the Laisvall mine (the so-called “Central Malm;” Fig. 5).
suggests that the block between the northern segment of the This fault contains slickenlines indicating reverse movement
Kautsky fault and the two intersecting segments of the Nadok with a throw of at least 20 cm. In addition, Lilljequist (1973)
fault was tilted at some stage. Rickard et al. (1979, p. 1263) identified in the field a fault striking NNE, which affected
suggested that the “Nadok fault penetrates the autochthonous the autochthonous cover rocks on the Kramaviken peninsula
sequence from within the basement.” The Nadok fault is tran- along the western shore of the Laisan River (fault B, Fig.
sected by and predates the Kautsky fault (Rickard et al., 1979; 3D). He inferred that the fault in the mine was most prob-
Lucks, 2004). ably the continuation of the fault at Kramaviken. The pau-
Lilljequist (1973) suggested that a NNE-striking fault zone city of drill holes between the Central Malm and Kramaviken
with a moderate dip to the east affected the northeastern part (Fig. 5) does not enable us to link with confidence these two

structures. However, the fault in the mine was clearly recog- In the southwestern part of the mine (Fig. 6A), the Edia-
nized in the core logging and in the constructed geologic cross caran pebble shale horizon is up to 30 to 40 m thick in the
sections completed in the current work, as Lilljequist (1973) southwestern hanging wall of the Kautsky fault. Against this
had suggested. We chose to name this fault the Kramaviken fault and up to ca. 100 m southwest of it, the pebble shale
fault (Fig. 6A). is locally replaced by a succession comprising a few meters
Less than 500 m to the west of the Kramaviken fault, a of pebble shale overlain by 17 to 19 m of white sandstone
NNW-oriented zone was identified in the present study by sig- resembling the Lower Sandstone, again capped by pebble
nificant breaks in stratigraphy and by the concentration of core shale for a few meters (Fig. 7A). Willdén (1980) interpreted
loss in the autochthonous cover rocks in drill cores in no less this sandstone member to represent a beach in an overall bay
than 15 boreholes. In addition, Lucks (2004) had showed, on environment during the distal glacial conditions proposed for
the basis of unpublished structural maps, that several NNW- the pebble shale horizon. However, Willdén reported thick-
striking “minor extensional faults” were concentrated in this nesses of only ca. 3 to 4 m for this sandstone horizon. Higher
part of the mine. This concomitant evidence served as a basis up in the stratigraphic sequence, in the same area, thickness
to construct the Niepsurt fault (Fig. 6A). This fault could not variations exist in the Middle Sandstone. This unit is 6 to 7 m
be traced in the few boreholes located to the southeast of the thick ca. 200 m southwest of the Kautsky fault, and thickens
Kramaviken fault. It is inferred that the Niepsurt fault pre- to 9 to 10 m against the fault (Fig. 7A). Breccia, inferred to
dates and is cut by the Kramaviken fault with its reverse sense be fault related in two of the boreholes (LAI 1013 and 1019),
of movement. A possible minor fault was recognized northeast is ubiquitous at the bottom of the Middle Sandstone in the
of the Niepsurt fault through core logging and breaks in stra- northeastern footwall. Immediately northeast of the Kautsky
tigraphy. This fault is subparallel to the Niepsurt fault and also fault, the Middle Sandstone is only 1 to 3 m thick, while 250 m
terminates against the Kramaviken fault (Fig. 6). northeast of the fault, it thickens to 12 to 15 m. Significant
In summary, the Laisvall deposit is bounded by reverse facies changes are also present across the northern segment
faults on its western and eastern sides with steep dips to the of the Kautsky fault in the Lower Sandstone unit, where sand-
west and east, respectively, and at least one of these faults (the stone passes eastward into shale and siltstone in the hanging
Kautsky fault) moved in a normal sense prior to being active wall to the west of the fault. This shale and siltstone unit is
in a reverse mode (Rickard et al., 1979; Lucks, 2004). Faults completely absent in the Lower Sandstone unit in the footwall
with a normal sense of movement are sandwiched between to the east. In addition, thickness variations in the Middle and
the bounding reverse structures. All these steeply dipping Upper Sandstone units are conspicuous on either side of the
structures are cut by low-angle thrusts. This overall architec- northern segment of the Kautsky fault (Fig. 7B).
ture could tentatively be interpreted as a minor horst bounded In summary, these observations indicate variations in facies
by two major normal faults (e.g., the NNE-SSW-striking and and thickness at the meter scale of lithostratigraphic units
W-dipping northern segment of the Kaustky fault, and the across the Kautsky fault as well as the development of fault-
NNE-SSW-striking E-dipping Kramaviken fault) that were related breccia during the Lower Cambrian in the vicinity of
subsequently inverted into reverse faults prior to being cut by this structure. Facies changes and thickness variations at the
low-angle thrusts (Fig. 6B). meter scale in the Lower, Middle, and Upper Sandstone units
are also conspicuous on either side of the Niepsurt fault (Fig.
Model for lithostratigraphic units and the 7C).
interplay with faults
Several structural blocks emerged when consideration was Relationships between basement faults and the
taken of the three-dimensional spatial distribution of the faults at mine scale
bounding faults described above (Fig. 6A). Each lithostati- The inset map in Figure 8A serves as the basis to establish
graphic unit in the Laisberg Formation was then modeled some evidence for the relationships between the basement
independently in each block. The hanging-wall side of the faults identified by the interpretation of airborne magnetic
northern and southern segments of the Kautsky fault was data and the faults found in the mine from mapping and core
omitted from the workflow to model lithostratigraphic units examination.
(and ore grades) due to the paucity of continuous geologic The Niepsurt and Kramaviken faults are spatially associ-
and grade data in boreholes in this part of the model volume. ated with and show similar orientations as magnetic edges
The Leapfrog Mining three-dimensional software allowed the with NNW-SSE and NNW-SSE or NNE-SSW trends, respec-
extraction of the hanging-wall and footwall contact points of tively. Similarly, the northern segment of the Nadok fault and
each unit in all the boreholes considered in the model vol- the area where this segment meets the southern segment of
ume (Fig. 5). Within each fault-bounded block, the hanging- the same fault are spatially associated with edges that show
wall and footwall surfaces were then computed for each unit NE-SW and NW-SE trends, respectively. The southern seg-
from the corresponding contact points and a volume for each ment of the Kautsky fault shows the same trend as and is sub-
lithostratigraphic unit was defined. Building on earlier find- parallel to an edge with NW-SE trend. The convergence of
ings concerning the stratigraphic sequence and sedimentol- three edges occurs in the area of intense core loss and fracture
ogy at Laisvall (Rickard et al., 1979; Willdén, 1980; Lucks, density (beige-shaded rectangle in Fig. 8A), where faulting in
2004) and the current three-dimensional modeling work, it sandstone is inferred.
has been possible to evaluate the relationships between faults These observations suggest a close relationship between
and sedimentation and to study the influence of faults on sedi- basement faults inferred from the magnetic data and the
mentary facies distribution and thickness variations. mapped faults in the mine where the basement features

appear to affect the trends of overlying faults in sandstone grades in the Lower Sandstone Pb-Zn orebody show two
or interact with them. However, the correspondence is not a additional prominent features (Fig. 8B). First, there is a con-
simple one-to-one relationship. centration of the highest Pb grades on either side of and close
to the southern segment of the Nadok fault where there are
Ore grade model also clear signs of postmineralization faulting (Rickard et al.,
Grade data for Pb and Zn were modeled independently in 1979). Pb grades are between 2 and 5% (and locally >5%)
each fault-bounded block (Fig. 6A) using assayed drill core. within a 200- to 250-m radius from the fault and they progres-
Data were filtered for Pb and Zn values exceeding 0.1%. The sively diminish to 1% away from the fault (Fig. 8B). The same
Laisvall mine has two distinct orebodies in the Laisberg For- area in relationship to the southern segment of the Nadok
mation; the Lower Sandstone Pb-Zn and the Upper Sand- fault is characterized by three points with Zn grades above
stone Zn-Pb orebodies (Rickard et al., 1979). Mineralization 1% (Fig. 8B). Second, Pb grades between the Nadok and
is dominated by Pb in the Lower Sandstone Pb-Zn orebody Niepsurt faults display a change in mineralization trend from
(Fig. 8B), with Zn grades generally below 0.5%; there are only NE-SW to NNW-SSE and then back to NE-SW (Fig. 8B).
four areas where Zn grades are above 1% (marked by purple Higher Zn grades in the Lower Sandstone Pb-Zn orebody are
stars, Fig. 8B). By contrast, both Pb and Zn values are available closely linked to this change in mineralization trend. Between
for the Upper Sandstone Zn-Pb orebody (Fig. 8C). Threshold the Niepsurt and Kramaviken faults, in the northeastern
and bin values for Pb and Zn grades (Fig. 8B, C) are based on part of the mine (Central Malm, Fig. 6), a similar NE-SW to
variograms of grade distribution in Leapfrog Mining three- NW-SE change in mineralization trend is present with again
dimensional software with localized outliers above 5% Pb higher Pb grades close to the faults (Fig. 8B). There are also
and Zn and numerous mineralized zones between 0.1 and signs of faulting that displaces mineralization in this part of
0.5% Pb or Zn. For clarity, five classes between 1 and 5% and the mine (Lilljequist, 1973).
above 5%, with a step size of 1%, are displayed for Pb grades. The pattern of Pb and Zn grade shells in the Upper Sand-
Five classes between 0.1 and 5% are shown for Zn grades. stone Zn-Pb orebody is shown in Figure 8C. Pb grades display
The main elongation of the Pb-Zn orebodies is NE-SW, the same geometry with respect to the southern segment of
along a trend parallel to the southern segment of the Nadok the Nadok fault as observed in the Lower Sandstone Pb-Zn
fault, and locally changing to NW-SE (Fig. 8B, C). The Pb orebody (Fig. 8C). However, it is important to note that the
LAI 1013
SW LAI 1019 LAI 1007
NE
LAI 1280
LAI 1021
LAI 1027
LAI 1031
LAI 1037
+500 m
+400 m
+300 m
Southern segment of
0 50 100 150 200 m
Kautsky fault
Soil Borehole Mineralization (Pb+Zn> 1 %)

Base of Alum Shale Formation (close to basal decollement beneath Lower Allochthon)
Shale and siltstone (Grammajukku Formation)
Upper Sandstone Pebble shale White sandstone in pebble shale
Middle Sandstone Feldspathic sandstone and conglomerate
Lower Sandstone Paleoproterozoic crystalline basement
Location where veins filled by calcite and fluorite±pyrite occur
in the Paleoproterozoic basement underneath the Laisvall deposit A
Fig. 7. A. Geologic cross section through the southern segment of the Kautsky fault in the southwestern part of the
Laisvall orebody. B. Geologic cross section through the northern segment of the Kautsky fault in the western part of the
Laisvall orebody. C. Geologic cross section through the Niepsurt fault in the northeastern part of the Laisvall orebody.

NW SE
LAI 1616 LAI 1611 LAI 1613 LAI 1302 LAI 1293 LAI 1117 LAI 1116 LAI 1118 LAI 1087
+500 m
+400 m
Northern segment of
Kautsky fault
0 25 50 75 100 m

Base of Alum Shale Formation (close to basal decollement beneath Lower Allochthon)
Upper Sandstone
Middle Sandstone
Lower Sandstone Shale and siltstone
Pebble shale
Feldspathic sandstone and conglomerate
Paleoproterozoic crystalline basement B
W E
LAI 270
LAI 1245 LAI 32
+450 m
LAI 264
LAI 1548 LAI 1537 LAI 1220
Laisan River
400 +400
m m
+300 m
Niepsurt fault Other fault
0 25 50 75 100 m
Upper Sandstone Pebble shale
Middle Sandstone Feldspathic sandstone and conglomerate
Lower Sandstone Paleoproterozoic crystalline basement C
Fig. 7. (Cont.)

Lower Sandstone ore body Upper Sandstone ore body

Nadok fault (northern segment)
Niepsurt fault
Kautsky
fault
Kramaviken fault
FIGURES 8B & 8C
Nadok
fault
(southern
segment)
FIGURES 9A-B
LAI 1088
0 1
kilometres
2
A LAI 1031
B C
-364 -186-124 -79 -43 -11 18 37577694 113 143 172 201 233 274 323 391 486 627 853 1414
TMI
(nT)
0 500 1000 1500 2000 m Looking down 0 500 1000 1500 2000 m Looking down
Magnetic lineament Pb grade in Upper Sandstone Zn grade in Upper Sandstone Area in the Lower Sandstone ore body where
Magnetic edge and Lower Sandstone ore bodies ore body Zn grades are above 1 %
Area of intense core Pb grade ≥ 5% Zn grade [4 to 5%] Location where veins filled by calcite and
loss and high fracture Pb grade [4 to 5%] Zn grade [3 to 4%] fluorite±pyrite occur in the Paleoproterozoic
density in sandstone Pb grade [3 to 4%] Zn grade [2 to 3%] basement underneath the Laisvall deposit
(inferred fault) Pb grade [2 to 3%] Zn grade [1 to 2%]
Pb grade [1 to 2%] Zn grade [0.1 to 1%]
Fig. 8. A. Same map view as in Figure 3E showing the spatial relationship between lineaments defined by edges along
magnetic gradients (purple lines) and the faults (white lines) at the Laisvall ore deposit as presented in Figure 6. B. Map view
of the same surface as that shown in Figure 6 showing the relationship between faults, lineaments defined by edges along
magnetic gradients, and Pb-Zn grades modeled at the Lower Sandstone orebody. C. Same map view as in Figure 8B showing
the relationship between faults, lineaments defined by edges along magnetic gradients, and Pb-Zn grades modeled in the
Upper Sandstone orebody.
grade shells between 2 and 5% (and locally >5%) are wider Figure 9A. The Pb grades define a fault-rooted, funnel-shape
than the respective grade shells in the Lower Sandstone Pb-Zn geometry in both orebodies where Pb grades splay out from
orebody (Fig. 8B, C). In addition, the same general NE-SW the base of the sandstone paleoaquifers, from the fault toward
trend and change in mineralization trend is seen for the Pb the hanging wall of the two sandstone horizons at the contact
grade shells between the Nadok and Niepsurt faults, even if it with the individual aquitards (i.e., the Middle Sandstone and
is less well delineated and only concerns Pb values between 1 Grammajukku Formation, respectively). The same funnel-
and 3% (Fig. 8C). The volume where the mineralization trend shape geometry, with the highest Zn grades clearly occurring
for Pb grades changes abruptly from NE-SW to NNW-SSE in at the hanging wall, is observed in the Upper Sandstone at the
the Lower and Upper Sandstone orebodies is spatially linked contact with the Grammajukku Formation (Fig. 9B)
to the zone of higher fracture intensity and higher frequency Zn grade shells in the Upper Sandstone orebody display a
of core loss (inferred fault, Fig. 8A). In the northeastern part conspicuous pattern that is best observed in relationship to
of the mine, Pb grades display the same conspicuous spatial the southern segment of the Nadok fault (Figs. 8C, 9A, B).
relationship to faults as in the Lower Sandstone Pb-Zn ore- Zn grades are highest in the structural block bounded by the
body (Fig. 8C). By corollary with the conclusion drawn in Kautsky and Nadok faults (Fig. 6A). Lucks (2004) suggested
the previous section, there is not only a spatial relationship that Zn mineralization was located west of the Pb mineraliza-
between some basement faults inferred from the magnetic tion in this part of the mine. Our work shows that Zn miner-
data and the mapped faults in the mine, but the inferred base- alization occurs to the northwest of the Pb mineralization and
ment faults are spatially related to the ore grade variations in that the volume with higher Zn grades (2−4% grade shells)
sandstone, i.e., to the change in mineralization trend associ- in the Upper Sandstone orebody is shifted about 120 m to
ated with the area of high fracture density and high frequency the northwest of the volume with higher Pb grades on the
of core loss (Fig. 8A). northern hanging wall side of the Nadok fault. Only Zn grades
The geometry of the Pb grade shells in the Lower and Upper between 0.1 and 1% occur close to the fault on its hanging-
Sandstone orebodies and the Upper Sandstone orebody adja- wall side. By contrast, the highest Zn grades on the footwall
cent to the southern segment of the Nadok fault is shown in side of the Nadok fault are spatially consistent with the highest

+400 m
NW Nadok fault (southern segment) SE
A Grammajukku Formation
(shale aquitard)
+300 m
1.8 Ga granitic basement
+400 m
NW Nadok fault (southern segment) SE
B Grammajukku Formation
(shale aquitard)
+300 m
0 25 50 75 100 m 1.8 Ga granitic basement
Upper Sandstone Pb grade in Upper Sandstone Zn grade in Upper Sandstone

and Lower Sandstone ore bodies ore body
Middle Sandstone Pb grade ≥ 5%
Zn grade [3 to 4%]
Pb grade [4 to 5%]
Lower Sandstone Zn grade [2 to 3%]
Pb grade [3 to 4%]
Zn grade [1 to 2%]
Pb grade [2 to 3%]
Zn grade [0.1 to 1%]
Pb grade [1 to 2%]
Fig. 9. Ore grades along a NW-SE cross section through the Nadok fault at Laisvall. A. Distribution of Pb grades in the
Upper Sandstone and Lower Sandstone ore horizons. B. Distribution of Zn grades in the Upper Sandstone ore horizon.
Pb grades. While Pb grades are proximal to the Niepsurt fault content data in single borehole sections are consequently only
(and its secondary minor fault) in the Upper Sandstone ore- available for 4,184 sections in the Lower Sandstone orebody
body in the northeastern part of the Laisvall mine (Fig. 8C), and 2,179 sections in the Upper Sandstone orebody out of the
Zn grades are more distal away from this fault in an easterly total of 6,919 sections for which Pb data were available.
direction. Box plot diagrams for the Zn/Pb data are presented for the
In summary, Pb and Zn grades appear to show funnel-shape the Upper and Lower Sandstone orebodies (Figs. 10D and
geometry both in the Upper and Lower Sandstone orebodies 11D, respectively). The median and Q3 values correspond to
as recognized in a NW-SE section across the Nadok fault (Fig. the 50th and 75th percentile, respectively, and were chosen
9A, B). In particular (1) Pb grades are the highest closer to for showing the gradual increase in Zn/Pb ratio by progres-
the fault and diminish away from it; (2) in contrast to the Pb sively displaying all values below these percentile values (Figs.
grades, the highest Zn grades are more distal away from the 10B, C, 11B, C). The study of Zn/Pb ratios in Zn-Pb sedi-
fault; (3) within a given sandstone paleoaquifer, the highest Pb ment-hosted deposits proved an effective method in defining
and/or Zn grades occur at the hanging wall at the contact with feeder areas associated with low Zn/Pb ratios (e.g., Silver-
the overlying aquitard; (4) as suggested by Lucks (2004), the mines, Mount Isa, McArthur River, Sullivan, and Tara; Large,
Upper and Lower Sandstone orebodies thin gradually toward 1980; Taylor, 1984; Davidheiser-Kroll et al., 2013). Consid-
the west and northwest. ering the Pb-dominated Lower Sandstone orebody and the
Zn-dominated Upper Sandstone orebody, this method should
Zn/Pb ratios in the Lower and Upper Sandstone orebodies in theory reveal isolated high Pb areas (where Zn/Pb is less
The Zn/Pb patterns in the the Upper and Lower Sand- than 1) and outward zoning into Zn-rich areas (where Zn/Pb
stone orebodies are shown in Figures 10 and 11, respectively. is higher than 1) in the Laisvall mine.
Where sphalerite was not visible or not recognized in bore- The Lower Sandstone orebody is characterized by three
hole, Zn content was not systematically analyzed. Zn and Pb main areas with variable Zn/Pb patterns (Fig. 10A-C): (1) A

Bounding box
for 3D modeling A Bounding box
for 3D modeling B
7’340’000 2 7’340’000
2
3
3
Northing
Northing
7’338’000 7’338’000
1 1
7’336’000 7’336’000
Zn/Pb (LSOB, all data) Zn/Pb < 0.10 (LSOB)
1’558’000 1’560’000 1’562’000 1’558’000 1’560’000 1’562’000

Easting Easting
Bounding box
for 3D modeling C Zn/Pb ratio classes
50 percentile (Zn/Pb < 0.10) 1: Feeder area 1
7’340’000
2 75 percentile (Zn/Pb < 0.40) 2: Feeder area 2
93 percentile (Zn/Pb < 2.33)
3 100 percentile (Zn/Pb < 63.5)
Northing
7’338’000
Median
1
Mean
Q3
0.001 Min (whisker)
Max (whisker)
0.10
0.4
0.75
7’336’000
0.023(Q1)
Zn/Pb < 0.40 (LSOB) D
0.96
n= 4184
1’558’000 1’560’000 1’562’000
Easting
Fig.10. A. Zn/Pb ratios for mineralized sections (n = 4,184) in the Lower Sandstone orebody at Laisvall. The traces of the
faults identified in the three-dimensional model (see Fig. 6) are shown as black lines. B. Panel showing Zn/Pb ratios below the
50th percentile (Zn/Pb <0.10). Three main high lead areas are identified (dashed green ellipsoids). C. Panel showing Zn/Pb
ratios below the 75th percentile (Zn/Pb <0.40), displaying progressive growth of Zn richer areas from the locations of mineral-
ized fluid input identified in (B). D. Tukey box plot of mineralized sections (n = 4,184) in the Lower Sandstone orebody. The
top and bottom of the box, and the median, mean, lower and upper whisker values are shown.
main mineralized Area 1 between the northern and southern documented previously (Fig. 8A). Area 1 is characterized by a
Nadok, Niepsurt, Kramaviken, and southern Kaustky faults progressive increase in Zn/Pb ratio (75th percentile) on both
with Zn/Pb ratios below the 50th and 75th percentile. Area 1 sides of the mineralized segment (Fig. 10C); (2) The Cen-
corresponds to a NNE-SSW trend where we identified a high tral Malm area (Area 2) located between the Niepsurt and
density of core loss in drill cores despite no fault having been Kramaviken faults, characterized by Zn/Pb ratios below the

A B
Bounding box Bounding box
for 3D modeling for 3D modeling
7’340’000 7’340’000
2 2
Northing
Northing
7’338’000
3
7’338’000
1 1
7’336’000 7’336’000
Zn/Pb (USOB, all data) Zn/Pb < 0.275 (USOB)

1’558’000 1’560’000 1’562’000 1’558’000 1’560’000 1’562’000
Easting Easting
Bounding box Zn/Pb ratio classes

for 3D modeling C 50 percentile (Zn/Pb < 0.275) 1: Feeder area 1
7’340’000 75 percentile (Zn/Pb < 2.65) 2: Feeder area 2
2
Northing
7’338’000
3
Median
Mean
Q3
1
Max (whisker)
Min (whisker)
0.275
2.65
3.69
0.037(Q1)
7’336’000
D
6.56
0.002
Zn/Pb < 2.65 (USOB) n= 2179
1’558’000 1’560’000 1’562’000

Easting
Fig. 11. A. Zn/Pb ratios for mineralized sections (n = 2,179) in the Upper Sandstone orebody at Laisvall. The traces of the
faults identified in the three-dimensional model (see Fig. 6) are shown as black lines. B. Panel showing Zn/Pb ratios below the
50th percentile (Zn/Pb <0.275). Three main high lead areas are identified (dashed green ellipsoids). C. Panel showing Zn/Pb
ratios below the 75th percentile (Zn/Pb <2.65), displaying progressive growth of Zn richer areas from the locations of mineral-
ized fluid input identified in (B). D. Tukey box plot of mineralized sections (n = 2,179) in the Upper Sandstone orebody. The
top and bottom of the box, and the median, mean, lower and upper whisker values are shown.
50th percentile. The Central Malm area does not show any increase in Zn/Pb ratio, up to the highest Zn/Pb ratios (Fig.
increase in Zn/Pb ratio above 0.10; (3) Zn/Pb ratios mostly 10A).
above the 75th percentile in Area 3 between the northern This suggests the following three feeder areas: (1) Area 1
Kautsky, the northern and southern Nadok faults. Area 3 is characterized by low but increasing Zn/Pb ratios (below 0.4)
somehow related to the hanging-wall sides of the segments in a highly fractured area, (2) the Central Malm area (Area 2)
of the Nadok fault. This area is characterized by a systematic characterized by low Zn/Pb ratio (below 0.10) between the

Niepsurt and Kramaviken faults, and (3) Area 3 character- fluorite enclosing brecciated calcite fragments. Pyrite and
ized by low to high Zn/Pb ratios on the hanging wall of the chalcopyrite are present within both carbonate and fluorite.
northern and southern segments of the Nadok fault. Area 1 The vein in borehole LAI 1088 is situated below a center of
might actually be the main feeder area in the Lower Sand- higher Zn grades in the Upper Sandstone orebody (Fig. 8C).
stone orebody. Together with the interpretation of basement structures and
The Upper Sandstone orebody is also characterized by metal grade distribution in sandstone, these veins have signifi-
three main areas with variable Zn/Pb patterns (Fig. 11A-C): cant implications for the understanding of the pathways that
(1) the same Area 1 as identified in the Lower Sandstone conveyed the hydrothermal mineralizing fluids to favorable
orebody though being almost only characterized here by Zn/ sandstone horizons (see discussion below).
Pb ratios below the 50th percentile and less mineralized than
in the Lower Sandstone orebody, (2) the Central Malm area Modeling of Lithologic Units and Ore Grades
only characterized by Zn/Pb ratios below the 50th percentile in Three-Dimensional Space at the
(Area 2), and (3) a main mineralized area (Area 3) where Zn/ Vassbo Strata-Bound Pb-Zn Deposit
Pb ratios below the 50th percentile spread out on the footwall
side of the southern and northern Nadok faults. In addition, Data and methodology
Zn/Pb ratios below the 75th percentile are more systematically The Vassbo deposit was explored and mined by Boliden AB
located on the hanging-wall side of these faults. This hanging- and 846 boreholes were drilled. All boreholes are vertical.
wall side locates almost exclusively all Zn richer areas charac- More than 90% of these boreholes have geologic and grade
terized by Zn/Pb ratios above the 75th percentile. data for both Pb and Zn. Mineralization is hosted by the
The three feeder areas identified in the Lower Sandstone quartz sandstone horizon in the Vassbo Formation located
orebody are also recognized in the Upper Sandstone orebody: underneath and in direct contact with the Middle Cambrian
(1) Area 1 characterized by low Zn/Pb ratios (below 0.275), Alum Shale Formation (Fig. 2C). Some Pb mineralization
(2) the Central Malm area (Area 2) characterized by low Zn/ also occurs in the first few centimeters of the underlying cal-
Pb ratio (below 0.275) between the Niepsurt and Kramaviken careous sandstone (Christofferson et al., 1979; this study).
faults; and (3) Area 3 characterized by low Zn/Pb ratios (below Our investigations and core logging revealed that many bore-
0.275) on the footwall side of the segments of the Nadok fault holes were not analyzed for Zn, where pale yellow sphalerite
and, increasing Zn/Pb ratios on the hanging-wall side of these was previously mistaken for carbonate cement or sections
faults. In contrast to the Lower Sandstone orebody where with brown mottles of sphalerite were simply overlooked
the main feeder area was Area 1 and to a lesser extent the (e.g., boreholes VAI 112 and VAI 117). For this reason, the
Central Malm area, the two segments of the Nadok fault are Zn grade distribution might not be totally representative. As
suggested to represent the main feeder for the Zn-dominated at Laisvall, the main decollement marking the base of the
mineralization in the Upper Sandstone orebody. Lower Allochthon is located within the Alum Shale Forma-
tion, and the lowermost few centimeters (5–10 cm) of the
Mineralized steeply dipping fractures in the sandstone Alum Shale Formation still belong to the stratigraphy in the
horizons and the basement beneath the Laisvall deposit autochthonous cover sequence. The modeling of lithologic
In the sandstone horizons at the Laisvall deposit, steeply units and ore grades in three-dimensional space has been
dipping fractures striking NW to WNW and NNE to NE are carried out beneath the base of the Alum Shale Forma-
filled with calcite and fluorite (Rickard et al., 1979), less com- tion inside the area shown in Figure 4A between +620- and
monly with pyrite and chalcopyrite (Lilljequist in Boliden +500-m elevation (Fig. 12).
AB unpub. internal reports, 1965). North-northeast-striking The boreholes at Vassbo are rather short (50–100 m) and
galena-filled tension fractures have also been observed (Rick- usually only penetrated the quartz sandstone ore horizon and
ard et al., 1979). During the core logging exercise carried out the underlying calcareous sandstone. Only 55 boreholes were
in the present study, steeply dipping galena-calcite ± sphaler- drilled through the stratigraphically lower units in the Vassbo
ite veins were commonly observed in the Lower Sandstone Formation into the Proterozoic basement. A block model in
orebody. Such veins are scarce in the Upper Sandstone ore- three-dimensional space (Fig. 12) has been constructed for
body where, instead, galena-coated fractures are common. the quartz sandstone ore horizon and the underlying calcare-
In boreholes LAI 1031 and 1088, we encountered subver- ous sandstone unit, using the same methodology as described
tical veins filled with calcite-fluorite ± pyrite ± chalcopyrite earlier for the lithostratigraphic units in the Laisberg Forma-
in the Paleoproterozoic basement beneath the Laisvall mine. tion at Laisvall. Based on the 55 boreholes that reached the
These veins are braided and approximately 0.5 to 1.0 cm basement, the geologic and structural maps from the archives
thick. Borehole LAI 1031 is located in the hanging wall and at Boliden AB and digital information of the bedrock geology
200 m southwest of the southern segment of the Kautsky fault at the ground surface supplied by the Geological Survey of
while borehole LAI 1088 is situated in the hanging wall and Sweden, modeling of the spatial distribution of lithologic units
250 m northwest of the southern segment of the Nadok fault in the basement beneath the Vassbo mine was also completed
(Figs. 7A, 8C). These calcite-fluorite-sulfide veins in the base- (Fig. 13A, B). In contrast to Laisvall, where information on
ment are characterized by sharp vein walls. The outer part of faults and structural data exist, virtually no data on such geo-
the veins consists of coarse-grained, green fluorite intergrown logic features are available at Vassbo. As a consequence, it
with coarse-grained calcite. Granitic country-rock xenoliths has not been possible to construct faults and fault-bounded
are present. Toward the central part of the vein, large crys- blocks prior to the modeling of lithologic units and ore grades
tals of coarse-grained calcite rest in a groundmass of purple in three-dimensional space.

110
Z= + 620 m
Bounding box for mo
deling
Z= + 500 m
6875600N
Interpreted dolerite in the basement

composed of Mesoproterozoic sandstone
1328060
0E
Borehole traces with geology

0E
SAINTILAN ET AL.
132552
6873820N Borehole autochthonous stratigraphy
Quartz sandstone ore horizon
Calcareous sandstone
Feldspathic sandstone and conglomerate
0 125 250 500 m Basement
Fig. 12. Leapfrog three-dimensional model view (to north) showing the borehole database with geologic information at the Vassbo orebody. The spatial distribution
of the lithologic units in the basement beneath the Vassbo deposit is shown on the surface at +500-m elevation in the model. Note how the distribution of the boreholes,
which delineate the extent of the orebody within the bounding box used for modeling, follows the form of the dolerite dike (see also Christofferson et al., 1979). The
boreholes that were used to interpret the outline of the dolerite dike that intruded into the Mesoproterozoic sandstone in the basement are projected as black ellipses
on the basement lithologies.

Caledonian thrust nappes (allochthon)

A Augen-bearing orthogneiss (Middle Allochthon)
Thrust NE SW
183 78 181 39 111 149 175 127 173 110 170 129 671 +600 m
FIGURES 13B & 14A Autochthon

Cambrian sandstone, shale and siltstone
Dolerite dyke (0.98-0.95 Ga)
Mesoproterozoic sandstone
Quartz porphyry (1.7 Ga)
Fault (Tegengren, 1962) Erosion channel in Erosion channel in
Magnetic maximum dolerite dyke in the basement Mesoproterozoic sandstone in the basement
Magnetic edge
0 50 100 m
Exploration boreholes that reached either the C
Mesoproterozoic sandstone or the dolerite dyke
in the basement at Vassbo +500 m
0 1000m
metres Top surface of 3D model (projected to surface)
+600 m
NE 775 29 194 SW
268 28 704 266 193 703 745 33 744
Borehole in which the contact between

dolerite and Mesoproterozoic sandstone
was identified

+550 m
?
ITE
Erosion channel in
LER
dolerite dyke in the basement
0 25 50 m
DO
Base of Alum Shale Formation (close to basal decollement beneath Lower Allochthon) D
FIGURE 13D
Quartz sandstone ore horizon Soil Borehole
FIGURE 13C Calcareous sandstone Mineralization (Pb+Zn> 1 %)
Dolerite dyke (0.98-0.95 Ga)

0 375 750
metres B
SANDSTONE-HOSTED Pb-Zn DEPOSITS, CALEDONIAN FRONT, SWEDEN
Fig. 13. A. Same map view in the neighborhood of the Vassbo orebody (outlined by exploration boreholes) as in Figure 4A, showing the spatial relationship between
dolerite dikes in the Proterozoic basement and lineaments defined by magnetic maxima (black line) and edges along magnetic gradients (orange line). B. Interpreted
geologic map of the bottom surface in the bounding box (Fig. 12), showing the spatial relationship between lineaments defined by magnetic maxima (black line) and
edges along magnetic gradients (orange line) and the dolerite dike in the basement underneath the Vassbo orebody. The locations of the 55 boreholes that were drilled
into the basement are also shown. The shape of the dolerite dike in the basement is based on geologic evidence using limited basement intersections in boreholes and is
not overinterpreted. C. Geologic cross section through the western part of the Vassbo orebody. D. Geologic cross section through the eastern part of the Vassbo orebody.
111
Relationships between magnetic edge, dolerite dike, not present in the mineralized area. This unit was either not
and fault in the basement deposited there or was eroded during deposition of the sedi-
The basement beneath the Vassbo mineralization is comments of the calcareous sandstone in the mine area. Approxi-
posed of a dolerite dike that intruded into Mesoproterozoic mately 3 km to the northwest of the Vassbo mine, this shale
sandstone (Figs. 12, 13). It is part of the 0.98- to 0.95-Ga unit is consistently 5 m thick or more (Christofferson et al.,
swarm of dolerites with high magnetic susceptibility referred 1979).
to as the Blekinge-Dalarna dolerites (Söderlund et al., 2005). The calcareous sandstone is consistently thicker above the
The modeled dolerite dike is deformed along a Z-shaped channels eroded in the dolerite dike and the Mesoproterozoic
fold structure which probably formed during the Sveconor- sandstone (Fig. 13C, D). The geometry of the hanging wall
wegian orogeny (Fig. 13A, B). The western side of this folded of the calcareous sandstone unit shows that the area was lev-
dolerite dike is spatially associated with a N-S-trending mag- eled prior to deposition of the overlying quartz sandstone that
netic maximum that lies close to the interpreted contact hosts Pb-Zn mineralization, since the calcareous sandstone
between the dike and the Mesoproterozoic sandstone. On was also deposited above higher grounds of Mesoprotero-
the other hand, two NNE-SSW-trending magnetic maxima zoic sandstone on the sides of the eroded dike (Fig. 13C, D).
are almost parallel to the eastern edge of the dike and the Christofferson et al. (1979) reported that the contact between
contact with the sandstone. Given the relative paucity of the quartz sandstone and the underlying calcareous sandstone
boreholes that were drilled into the basement, there is some is sharp and shows erosional features.
degree of uncertainty in the position of the dolerite dike (Fig. The ore-bearing quartz sandstone shows thickness varia-
13B). Given the high magnetic susceptibility value for dolerite tions from 6 to 13 m (Fig. 13C, D). Christofferson et al.
(Table 3), it is arguable that the eastern limb of the doler- (1979) suggested that the quartz sandstone is thicker due to
ite could be extended farther east where the two NNE-SSW basement depressions coincident with the location of doler-
maxima trend. The same argument is valid for the western ite dikes. We question this interpretation, since the lithologic
limb where the contact between the dike and the Mesopro- model constructed here shows that the quartz sandstone is
terozoic sandstone could be moved a few meters to the east, not directly thicker above former basement depressions filled
and for the northern contact of the dike. In its current state, with calcareous sandstone, irrespective of whether these
the shape of the dolerite dike in the basement is based on geo- basement depressions are located in the dolerite dike or the
logic evidence using limited basement intersections in bore- Mesoproterozoic sandstone (Fig. 13C, D). Indeed, thinning
holes and is not overinterpreted. of the quartz sandstone can even be observed above some of
This dike also correlates with a curved magnetic edge with the channels filled with calcareous sandstone, and the quartz
a change in trend from NNE-SSW to the west of the Vassbo sandstone is laterally thicker away from these channels. In
deposit to E-W and NE-SW farther to the east. The segments addition, we have observed that the relative thickening of the
of the magnetic edge with NNE-SSW and E-W trends lie par- quartz sandstone tends to spatially correspond to the areas of
allel to the contact between the dolerite dike and the Meso- change in trend of lineaments along the Z-shaped fold struc-
proterozoic sandstone while the segment with NE-SW trend ture in the basement.
lies within the modeled dolerite dike (Fig. 13B). It remains Ore grade model
unclear whether or not this segment of the magnetic edge
is a fault. Furthermore, apart from the data from the few Modeling of ore grades was carried out in the same man-
boreholes where the contact between the dolerite dike and ner as at Laisvall (cf. subsections “Data and general method-
Mesoproterozoic sandstone was identified (Fig. 13B), little ology” and “Relationships between basement faults and the
information is available on the orientation of this steeply dip- faults at mine scale” in the section above). The Vassbo miner-
ping dike to better constrain the fold geometry. The dolerite alization in the quartz sandstone ore horizon comprises three
dike in the basement in the Vassbo area was, at least partly, segments; two NE-SW-striking segments on the western and
more deeply eroded than the surrounding Mesoproterozoic eastern parts of the deposit, and a central segment oriented
sandstone prior to Cambrian sedimentation (Christofferson et WNW-ESE (Fig. 14A). Christofferson et al. (1979) referred
al., 1979; this study). to this as a Z-shaped orebody. Our observations show that the
geometry of the orebody follows the shape of the fold with
Z asymmetry defined by the dolerite dike in the underlying
Model for lithologic units basement (Figs. 13B, 14A).
The basal conglomerate in the overlying Vassbo Formation The current work shows that the highest Pb grades splay out
(Fig. 2) is polymict and is absent above the dolerite dike in from the base of the quartz sandstone ore horizon and toward
the basement. In particular, in the mineralized area, the basal its hanging wall at the contact with the overlying Alum Shale
conglomerate unit is commonly absent and the dike is in ero- Formation, building several funnel-shape orebodies (Fig. 14B-
sive contact with the calcareous sandstone. The conglomer- D) similar to those recognized at Laisvall. The richest orebod-
ate is replaced by a facies composed of weathered fragments ies are located close to or in the hinges of the probably late
of dolerite, locally cemented by calcite (Christofferson et al., Sveconorwegian fold structure defined by the dolerite dikes
1979; this study). The basal conglomerate passes laterally to in the basement (Fig. 14A, B). In addition, the mineralization
the northwest of the Vassbo mine into thicker feldspathic follows the shape of the magnetic edge and is located on its
sandstone (Nielsen and Schovsbo, 2011). The 1- to 6-m-thick southern side. If this edge represents a fault in the folded dol-
shale unit with accessory silt and sandstone layers that overlies erite dike in the basement, this could illustrate the pathway
the basal conglomerate in the Vassbo Formation (Fig. 2) is along which mineralizing fluids were conveyed (Fig. 14).


Quartz sandstone ore body B

+600 m
NE SW
Alum Shale Formation (aquitard)

Proterozoic basement
0 50 100 m
+500 m
FIGURES 14C & 14D C

+600 m
FIGURE 14B
NE SW
0 25 50 m
Looking down
0 375 750
metres
A
Pb grade in quartz sandstone Zn grade in quartz sandstone
ore body ore body Alum Shale Formation (aquitard)
Zn grade [4 to 5%]

Pb grade ≥ 5%
Pb grade [4 to 5%] Zn grade [3 to 4%] +550 m
Pb grade [3 to 4%] Zn grade [2 to 3%]
Pb grade [2 to 3%] Zn grade [1 to 2%] Proterozoic basement
Pb grade [1 to 2%]
Quartz sandstone ore horizon D
+600 m
Calcareous sandstone
NE SW
Dolerite dyke (0.98-0.95 Ga) 0 25 50 m
Magnetic maximum
Magnetic edge
Alum Shale Formation(aquitard)
+550 m
Proterozoic basement
SANDSTONE-HOSTED Pb-Zn DEPOSITS, CALEDONIAN FRONT, SWEDEN
Fig. 14. A. Map view of the bottom surface in the bounding modeling box (Fig. 12), showing the relationship between magnetic maxima (black line), magnetic edges
(orange line), the folded dolerite dike, and the Pb-Zn grades modeled in the quartz sandstone orebody at Vassbo. B. Distribution of Pb grades in the quartz sandstone
orebody in the same geological cross section as that presented in Figure 13C. C. Distribution of Pb grades in the quartz sandstone orebody in the same geologic cross
section as that presented in Figure 13D. D. Distribution of Zn grades in the quartz sandstone orebody in the same geologic cross section as that presented in Figure 13D.
113
By contrast, as Christofferson et al. (1979) observed, higher lower contact with the Upper Sandstone. In addition, there
Zn grades are mainly located on the southern edge of the are several phosphorite-pebble conglomerate horizons within
WNW-ESE Pb-mineralized segment of the orebody (Fig. the Grammajukku Formation (Nielsen and Schovsbo, 2011;
14A). We also identified higher Zn grade centers which lie in this study). Furthermore, the Grammajukku Formation is
the northeastern part of each NE-SW segment of the orebody disturbed by second-order low-angle thrust tectonics above
(Fig. 14A). As for Pb grades, Zn grades (Fig. 14D) splay out in the decollement. The tectonic complexity together with the
the quartz sandstone from its base to its hanging wall in a fun- existence of several phosphorite-pebble conglomerate hori-
nel shape. In contrast to the Pb grades, the highest Zn grades zons suggests that the choice of the Assjatj Member as marker
are only situated at the hanging wall of the quartz sandstone. horizon for the restoration of strata to their pretectonic posi-
tion is questionable.
Mineralized fractures in the sandstone and the The geometry of the sedimentary units revealed by the
basement beneath the Vassbo deposit three-dimensional modeling carried out in the present work
During the core logging exercise carried out in the current (e.g., Fig. 7), including the presence of feldspathic sandstone
study, steeply dipping fractures with varying mineralogy were and conglomerate on top of granite crystalline basement at
encountered in the quartz sandstone ore horizon at Vassbo. the suggested location of Willdén’s “hills” (Fig. 7C), is not
Fractures are commonly filled with galena and pyrite, locally compatible with a model influenced by the basement paleo-
also with barite; sphalerite is scarce. Cores from these verti- topography. Our findings are consistent instead with a crys-
cal boreholes were not oriented. As a consequence, it was not talline basement peneplained during the Neoproterozoic and
possible to determine the orientation of these steeply dipping completely flat at the dawn of the Cambrian following birth of
fractures. the continent Baltica, as proposed by Nielsen and Schovsbo
Tegengren (1962) described fracture sets striking N 35° E, (2011). The facies distribution and thickness variations in com-
N 75° W, and N 15° W (minor) that intersect the autochtho- bination with the occurrence of fault-related breccia suggest
nous Cambrian sandstone in the Vassbo mine. Christofferson sedimentation controlled by synsedimentary block faulting on
et al. (1979) confirmed a major vertical fracture system strik- this peneplained basement. Such faulting had already been
ing WNW-ESE to be ubiquitous in the mine and a second suggested by Ljungner (1943), Carlson (Boliden AB, unpub.
set striking NE-SW at a high angle to this system. The shape internal reports, 1970), and Lilljequist (1973) in the Laisvall
of the Vassbo deposit closely follows the orientation of these area. However, the main stream of workers disregarded this
two fracture systems. The same array of fractures exists in the hypothesis. This synsedimentary tectonic activity is suggested
Proterozoic basement at Vassbo (Tegengren, 1962). to have taken place prior to postsedimentation and postminer-
alization faulting along, for example, the Nadok and Kautsky
Discussion faults (Rickard et al., 1979; Lucks, 2004; this study).
A correlation between certain magnetic edges and faults
Origin and timing of faulting in sandstone at Laisvall in the Ediacaran-Cambrian sedimentary cover rocks was
Ljungner (1943) and Willdén (1980) suggested that a pale- presented in Figure 8A. It is apparent that there is a clear
otopography existed in the basement with an overall NNW- spatial association between basement faults inferred from the
SSE trend comprising a group of “residual hills” with abrupt magnetic data and major faults observed in the mine. Since
flanks (“Laisan” and “Peak Islands”), the trend being dissected magnetic lineaments depict structures that are located within
by NE-SW lineaments in the Ljungner Gap (Ljungner, 1943; the Paleoproterozoic basement, we propose that synsedimen-
Willdén, 1980). According to Willdén (1980), other highs with tary, postsedimentation, and postmineralization faulting that
N-S to NNW-SSE trend existed to the northeast and south- affected the Ediacaran-Cambrian sedimentary cover rocks
west, (e.g., “Jutas” and”Niobe Islands,” respectively). The find their origin in the basement through reactivation of pre-
facies changes from sandstone- to shale-dominated areas dur- existing structures and the triggering of block faulting in the
ing deposition of the Lower Sandstone was explained by Will- basement.
dén (1980) as the result of hydrodynamic variations governed
by basement paleotopography. Link between basement structure, mineralized fractures,
As first proposed by Willdén (1980), building on earlier and metal grades at the Laisvall and Vassbo strata-bound
findings by Ljungner (1943, 1950), Nielsen and Schovsbo Pb-Zn deposits
(2011, p. 258) summarized that the basement paleotopo- Laisvall: Lilljequist (Boliden AB, unpub. internal reports,
graphic architecture at Laisvall was more “complicated than 1965, 1973) conducted a systematic survey of mesoscopic
elsewhere due to the presence of local basement highs some faults and fractures in the autochthonous sedimentary rocks
50 m or more above the surrounding sub-Cambrian pene- and in the Paleoproterozoic basement at and surrounding the
plain.” Willdén (1980) utilized the Assjatj Member (Fig. 2) Laisvall ore deposit. This work showed that the orientations of
as reference for restoring the strata to their pretectonic posi- the regionally important faults in the area are similar to the dif-
tion. However, the Assjatj Member is not always present in ferent sets of mesoscopic faults and fractures in the mine area.
the Laisvall mine area and, on the basis of the core logging The current work has described how, in the Laisvall mine,
work completed in this study, it is apparent that this phos- the highest Pb and Zn grades delineate orebodies and orebody
phorite-pebble conglomerate does not occur systematically trends controlled by faults (Fig. 8B, C). The change in trend
above the Upper Sandstone at the base of the Grammajukku of the Pb grade mineralization in the Lower Sandstone ore-
Formation. It often lies within the lowest part of the Gram- body and Upper Sandstone orebody, from NE-SW to NNW-
majukku Formation, even as much as 50 to 100 cm above the SSE, remarkably matches the area of intense core loss and the

change in strike of the Nadok fault from NE-SW along the morphologies which exhibit two evolutional stages. During
southern segment of the fault to NNW-SSW along its north- the first stage, a vertical dike is formed and its propagation is
ern segment (Fig. 8). The main feeder fault zone in the Upper controlled by both shear deformation and opening of tensile
Sandstone orebody is suggested to be along the segments of cracks. During the second stage, the dike can either rotate
the Nadok fault. Mineralization in the Lower Sandstone ore- and form an inclined sheet dipping between 45° and 65°, or
body is suggested to be rooted, on the one hand, in the area the dike tip interacts with tensile cracks formed at the earlier
characterized by high density of core loss and, on the other, stage. This fracture pattern controls the subsequent propaga-
in the area between the Niepsurt and Kramaviken faults. Flu- tion of the dike toward the surface. Given the lack of field
ids with variable Zn/Pb ratios might have been present in the evidence due to thick Quaternary glacial till overburden, the
Upper and Lower Sandstone orebodies. conclusions of the experimental work by Abdelmalak et al.
The spatial relationship between magnetic edges, min- (2012) are proposed to illustrate the kind of fracture pattern
eralization trends, faults and fracture sets in the Laisvall and morphology linked to the dolerite dike in the basement
mine suggests that mineralized fracture trends coincide with beneath the Vassbo deposit.
regional fault orientations in the Paleoproterozoic basement. Given the similarity in shapes of the Vassbo mineralized
On this basis, it is suggested that the basement-steered, syn- body and the fold structure in the basement as well as the
sedimentary structures also acted subsequently as conduits close relationship between the hinges of the fold structure
that conveyed the metal-bearing fluids to favorable locations and the location of the highest Pb grade centers, we propose
where the autochthonous sandstones were mineralized at an that the mineralization at Vassbo is also closely linked to the
economically significant level. The mineralizing fluids fol- structures in the Proterozoic crystalline basement. The min-
lowed NNE-SSW to NE-SW and NNW-SSE steeply dipping eralization at Vassbo also follows the shape of the magnetic
faults and fractures that are observed in the basement and edge and is located on its southern side. If, as discussed above,
in the autochthonous sedimentary rocks in the Laisvall area. this edge represents a fault in the folded dolerite dike, this
The veins in the basement beneath the Laisvall mine filled could represent the pathway along which the mineralizing flu-
with calcite-fluorite ± pyrite ± chalcopyrite, described in the ids were conveyed (Fig. 14).
current work, as well as the steeply dipping mineralized frac- Since the fracture patterns described above (cf. “Mineral-
tures in the sandstone described previously (e.g., Lilljequist ized fractures in the sandstone and the basement beneath the
in Boliden AB unpub. internal reports, 1965, Rickard et al., Vassbo deposit” in the section above”) in the basement and
1979) and summarized above, provide some illustration of sedimentary cover rocks bear close similarities in orientation
these pathways. and mineralogy (e.g., Tegengren, 1962; Christofferson et al.,
These findings are similar to those made at the southeast- 1979), it is proposed that there is a connection between these
ern Missouri sandstone-hosted Pb-Zn deposits (Clendenin et fracture systems, if not even reactivation of fractures in the
al., 1989, 1994, and references therein), and particularly at basement during and/or after deposition of the Ediacaran-
the Navan Irish-type Zn-Pb deposit (Anderson et al., 1998; Cambrian rocks. By analogy with Laisvall, including the fun-
Blakeman et al., 2002; Davidheiser-Kroll et al., 2013) where nel geometry of the orebodies (Fig. 14B-D), it is inferred that
faults of the Dublin basin, which triggered synsedimentary these fractures acted as conduits that conveyed the metal-
block movement and conditioned sedimentation, also acted bearing fluids to favorable locations for mineralization.
as conduits for the mineralizing fluids at a later time. Exis-
tence of multiple feeder zones along several major faults at Funnel-shape morphology
Navan (Anderson et al., 1998) was highlighted by Zn, Pb, and Modeling work in three-dimensional space shows promi-
Zn/Pb distribution (Blakeman et al., 2002; Davidheiser-Kroll nent fault-rooted funnel-shape orebodies at Laisvall. At
et al., 2013). Vassbo, similar funnel-shape mineralization is situated close
The inferred orebody morphology, in particular the fault- to the hinges of the folded dolerite dike in the crystalline
rooted funnel shape (e.g., the southern segment of the Nadok basement. The orebodies of both deposits also share a simi-
fault, Fig. 9A, B), first confirms that migration of ore-bearing lar metal distribution pattern with Pb-rich cores proximal to
fluids was controlled by faults and, second, provides some indi- the faults or fold hinges and a Zn-rich shell more distal from
cations of the precipitation process discussed briefly below. these structures. The funnel-shape ore geometry may reflect
Vassbo: In the Vassbo area, the geometry of the orebody fol- the fault-rooted migration path and the metal precipitation
lows the shape of a fold with Z asymmetry defined by a dolerite mechanism.
dike in the underlying basement (Figs. 13B, 14A). No faults In both deposits, the highest Pb and Zn grades occur at the
have been mapped at the ground surface as being related to top of sandstone paleoaquifers in a similar manner as the vari-
the location of dolerite dikes in the basement. Although there ation in grades and paleoaquifer settings recognized in sev-
is some uncertainty concerning whether or not the magnetic eral carbonate-hosted MVT Zn-Pb deposits (e.g., San Vicente
edge in the vicinity of the deposit (Figs. 13B, 14A) is a fault, deposit in Peru; Fontboté and Gorzawski, 1990; Topla-Mežica
the dikes presumably provided areas with a high frequency deposits in Slovenia; Spangenberg and Herlec, 2006). This
of fractures in connection with their emplacement and pos- geometry is suggestive of a sour gas trap that accumulated at
sibly even preferentially intruded along preexisting faults in the top of paleoaquifers due to density. This gas provided H2S
the basement. by thermogenic sulfate reduction to the metal-bearing fluids
Abdelmalak et al. (2012) discussed the effect of dike propa- and triggered subsequent precipitation of Pb-Zn sulfides (e.g.,
gation mode on surface deformation through two-dimension Anderson and references therein, 2008). Thermogenic sulfate
laboratory models. They identified two types of intrusion reduction is compatible with the few so far available sulfur

stable isotope data on Pb and Zn sulfides at Laisvall (Rickard three-dimensional modeling of the orebodies, including their
et al., 1979, 1981). metal distribution, suggests that the basement faults reacti-
vated during the Ediacaran-Cambrian sedimentation, acted
Conclusions as feeders for the metal-bearing fluids to favorable locations
This multidisciplinary study has recognized the primary role for mineralization, and localized deformation during postsedi-
of structures in the basement beneath two major sandstone- mentary and postmineralization tectonics. These findings pro-
hosted Pb-Zn deposits along the Caledonian front, Laisvall, vide support to Romer’s hypothesis (1992), mainly based on
and Vassbo, in localizing and constraining not only the sedi- lead isotope geochemistry, of a large-scale ore-bearing fluid
mentary facies distribution of the host sandstone but also the migration through the basement enabled by reactivation of
feeders of Pb-Zn mineralization at these deposits. Proterozoic basement structures.
Linear anomalies have been identified in high-resolution The present contribution defines and constrains the struc-
airborne magnetic data and these anomalies correspond to tural framework for the Laisvall and Vassbo deposits. It dem-
geologic features in the Proterozoic basement. Furthermore, onstrates that sandstone-hosted Pb-Zn Laisvall-type deposits
the Laisvall and Vassbo strata-bound Pb-Zn deposits are both can be added to the list of sediment-hosted Zn-Pb deposit
spatially associated with areas of change in the trend of the types that were shown to be structurally controlled (e.g., Leach
magnetic lineaments. Magnetic lineaments, trending either et al., 2005, and references therein). This framework can now
N-S to NE-SW and WNW-ESE to NW-SE in the Laisvall be used for the interpretation work in current ongoing geo-
area, and NNE-SSW to NNW-SSE and NW-SE to W-E in chronological and geochemical studies that should help to
the Vassbo area, were identified. define a broader genetic model for the Laisvall-type deposits.
In the Laisvall area, individual magnetic edges can be cor-
related with faults in the Ediacaran-Cambrian sedimentary Acknowledgments
cover rocks that are interpreted to extent downward into This research is financially supported by Boliden AB (Swe-
faults in the underlying Proterozoic basement. The reactiva- den) and the Swiss National Foundation (SNF, Switzerland,
tion of these basement structures is expressed higher up in FN 146 353). The Geological Survey of Sweden (SGU) has
the Ediacaran-Cambrian sedimentary cover rocks as newly also provided financial and logistic support for much of the
formed structures with Phanerozoic displacement. In indi- fieldwork in Sweden. The staff at SGU in Malå, especially
vidual faults of the sets (NE-SW to N-S and WNW-ESE to Jerry Hedström, is thanked for their help at the national core
NW-SE) synsedimentary block movement has been recog- archive and for the supply of past reports. The authors are
nized. The highest Pb and Zn grades in Laisvall delineate ore- grateful to Boliden AB via Hans Årebäck (former Exploration
bodies and orebody trends that follow these faults. An input manager) for financial and logistic support for the work carried
of mineralizing fluids with probably variable Zn/Pb ratios has out in Boliden and to the staff working at the core archive in
been suggested at several feeder fault locations in the deposit Boliden for their help in supplying drill cores. We would also
area. Areas where the faults change strike contain some of the like to acknowledge the contribution of Mikko Mali and Bertil
largest and richest orebodies. Sandström (Geophysicist and Chief Geophysicist, respectively,
In the Vassbo area, the geometry of the ore deposit follows at Boliden AB) for the production of the diverse geophysical
the shape of a fold defined by a dolerite dike in the base- maps and for the constructive discussions on the interpreta-
ment. No faults have been mapped at the ground surface as tion of airborne magnetic data, and also the assistance of Ildiko
being related to the location of dolerite dikes in the basement. Antal (SGU) who helped with the extraction of the provided
However, it is inferred that the emplacement of these dikes petrophysical data from the database at SGU. The authors
produced a fracture network or was driven by preexisting also appreciate the contribution and motivating comments by
basement structures. David Leach during a poster presentation at the SEG Confer-
The main orebodies in both deposits display a funnel geom- ence in Lima (Peru) in September 2012. The review on the use
etry, fault rooted in Laisvall and located close to the hinges of and interpretation of airborne magnetic data by V.J.S. Grauch
folded dolerite dike in the basement in Vassbo. Metal distri- (US Geological Survey) and the constructive suggestions and
bution patterns are also similar in both deposits and are char- criticisms by John Ashton (Boliden Tara Mines Ltd.) helped
acterized by Pb-rich cores proximal to the basement-steered significantly to improve the quality of the manuscript. Motivat-
structures, while Zn-rich shells are more distal relative to ing remarks and comments by the editor Larry Meinert and
these structures. The funnel-shaped ore geometry is inter- the associate editor John Slack are also acknowledged.
preted to reflect a fault-rooted migration path and the metal
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Economic Geology, v. 110, pp. 91–117

Control of Reactivated Proterozoic Basement Structures on

Introduction either rests unconformably on top of Proterozoic crystalline

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Sedimentary cover rocks & Oslo

Middle and Upper Allochthons Lower Allochthon and Autochthon

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Phosphorite conglomerate (0.1m)

Proterozoic Lower Cambrian

Calcareous sandstone (5-15 m)

Feldspathic sandstone and

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Granite, quartz monzonite (1.9 Ga) Fault B

Basic or intermediate metavolcanic rock (1.9 Ga)

Metasedimentary rock (1.9 Ga)

Legend (Fig. 3D)

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by Society of Economic Geologists, Cesar Ricardo Vargas

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Top surface of 3D model (projected to surface)

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Lithology in the Caledonian allochthons

Schist, amphibolite (Seve Nappe Complex) 7 266.90

Dolerite dike 4 26090.00

Lithology in the Caledonian allochthons

Feldspathic metasandstone (Middle Allochthon) 11 90.00

Dolerite dike 10 21335.00

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+650- and +250-m elevation, underneath the Middle Cam-

Shale & siltstone, Grammajukku Formation

Feldspathic sandstone & conglomerate

Paleoproterozoic crystalline basement

was defined by the intersections of boreholes with the base-

nous sedimentary sequence (Fig. 5).

Fault surfaces were defined by first constructing a polyline

ing surface and a given fault, as recognized in the previous

work at the mine. Subsequently, the dip, sense of movement,

and amount of throw were determined in the key geologic

ferent levels in the autochthonous sedimentary rocks, the fault

affected the allochthonous and autochthonous units (Lilljeq-

the Nadok and Kramaviken faults, respectively, in sandstone

The Kautsky fault (Fig. 6) is described as comprising three

(3) a NNW-striking southern segment (Lucks, 2004). The

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Kautsky fault Nadok fault

7339000 Niepsurt fault

Kramaviken fault, Kautsky fault Kramaviken fault,

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Soil Borehole Mineralization (Pb+Zn> 1 %)

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Soil Borehole Mineralization (Pb+Zn> 1 %)

Niepsurt fault Other fault

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Lower Sandstone ore body Upper Sandstone ore body

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